... The interpretations in (9a), (12a) involve epistemic conversational backgrounds, while those in (9b) or (12b) involve deontic (or root) conversational backgrounds. In this kind of theory, deontic ... things with words, 1962). In the locutionary act we are “saying something”, while in the illocutionary act we are “doing something” – answering a question, announcing a verdict, giving ... and not containing an element of will” is closely paralleled in Lyons’ reference to “the speaker’s opinion or attitude towards the proposition described”. Lyons, in conjunction with other...