Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 2 - Oceania - D potx

... theWesternDanire-gion,andtheJale,orEasternDani,gottheirstonesfromevenfurthereast.Othertoolsweremadelocally.Theymadenopotteryorbarkcloth.Gourdswereusedforwatercontainersandalsoforpeniscovers.Stringrolledfromtheinnerbark of localbusheswasusedextensivelytomakecarryingnets,wom-en'sskirts,andornaments.RattantorsoarmorforprotectionagainstarrowswasmadebyWesternDanibuttheGrandVal-leyDanineithermadeitnortradedforit.Spearsandbowsandarrowsweretheweapons of war.Thearrowswereun-fletched,withnotched,barbed,anddirtied(butnotpoi-soned)tips.Bythe1980s,cloth,metalaxes,knives,andshovels,aswellasthedetritus of modemlife-cast-offtincansandplasticbottles-hadpartiallyreplacedtraditionalDanicrafts.Trade.Evenbeforecontact,variousseashelltypeshadbeentradedupfromthecoasts of theislandintotheentireDaniarea.Axstonesandflatslateceremonialstones,bird of paradisefeathers,cassowary-featherwhisks,andspearwoodsweretradedintotheGrandValleyinexchangeforpigsandsaltproducedfromlocalbrinepools.Division of Labor.Genderandagearethemajorbasesfordivision of labor.Therearenofull-timespecialists;butthereissomespare-timespecialization.Afewpeopleareknownasexpertarrowmakersorcurers.Generally,mendotheheavyworkliketillinggardensorbuildinghouses,whilewomendothetediousworklikeplanting,weeding,harvest-ing,andcarryingthatchgrass.Menweavethetightshellbandsusedinceremonies,womenmakecarryingnets,andbothmakestring.Because of theveryrelaxedatmospherebetweenmenandwomen,thereislittleactivitytotallyhid-denfromeithersex.LandTenure.Quiteinformalusagerightsaretherule.Al-thoughthereislittleornopopulationpressureintheGrandValley,theextensivelyditchedsweetpotatogardensonthebroadvalleyfloordorepresentquiteaconsiderablelaborin-vestment,butevenso,rightsarecasuallyandinformallytransferred.Largegardenareasareusuallyfarmedbymen of asinglesiborasingleneighborhood.Fieldsarecontrolledbymen,notwomen.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheGrandValleyDanihaveexogamouspatrilinealmoietiesandexogamouspatrilinealsibs.SomesibnamescanbefoundalsoingroupsoutsidetheGrandValleyandtherearehints,perhapsremnants, of amoietysysteminWesternDani.IntheGrandValley,peoplearebornintothesib of theirfather,butatbirthallGrandValleyDaniareconsideredtobe of thewidamoiety.Beforemarriage,thosewhosefathersare of thewaryamoiety'be-comewaiya,"theboysthroughaninitiationceremony,thegirlswithoutceremony.Thechieffunction of themoietiesistoregulatemarriage.Sibsareassociatedwithoneortheothermoiety,neverboth.Therearesib-specificbirdtotemsandfoodtaboos.Localsegments of sibskeeptheirsacredobjectsincommon,storetheminthemen'shouse of themostim-portantman,andholdrenewalceremoniesfortheseobjects.GrandValleyDaniarenotmuchconcernedwithtracingge-nealogy.Commonsibmembershipisassumedtomeancom-monancestry,butpeoplerarelyknowtheirancestorsmorethanacouple of generationsback.KinshipTerminology.TheDanihaveOmaha-typekin-shipterminology.MarrageandFamilyMarriage.Weddingstakeplaceonlyatthetime of thegreatpigfeast,whichisheldinanallianceareaeveryfourtosixyears.Moietyexogamyisinvariablyobserved.Marriagestendtotakeplacebetweenneighbors,ifnotwithinaneigh-borhoodatleastwithinaconfederation.Somemarriagesarearrangedbythefamilies,whileothersarelovematchesar-rangedbytheindividuals.Marriagebeginsaseries of rela-tivelyequalexchangesbetweenthetwofamilies,whichcon-tinuesforageneration,throughtheinitiationandmarriage of theresultingchildren.Theseexchangesconsist of pigs,cow-rieshellbands,andsacredslatestones.Immediatepostmar-italresidenceispatrilocal,althoughwithinafewyearsthecoupleislikelytobelivingneolocallywithintheneighbor-hoodorconfederationwherebothsets of parentslive.Di-vorceisfairlyeasy,butlong-termseparationismorecommon.Atearlystages of tension,thewife,orthejuniorwife,movesouttoanotherrelative'scompoundforatime.Nearlyhalfthemenareinvolvedinpolygynousmarriages.TheGrandValleyDanihaveremarkablylittleinterestinsexuality.Apostpar-tumsexualabstinenceperiod of aroundfiveyearsisgenerallyobservedbybothparents of achild.Theminority of menwhoareinvolvedinpolygynousmarriagesmayhavesexualaccesstoanotherwife,butformostmenandallwomentherearenoalternativeoutletsnoranyapparentincreasedlevel of stressforthosesubjecttotheabstinence.Ritualhomosexualityisabsent.Thisextraordinarilylongpostpartumsexualabsti-nencehasnotbeenreportedamongtheWesternDani.DomesticUnitItiseasytoidentifybothnuclearfamiliesandextendedfamilies,buttheseunitsareusuallylessimpor-tantthanthecompoundgroupasawhole.Inheritance.Thereislittlerealpropertytoinherit.Asboysgrowuptheyjoinwiththeirfathersinmaintainingthesacredobjectsheldbythelocalpatrilinealsibsegment.Inamoregeneralsense,sons-andtosomeextentdaughters -of thewealthierandmorepowerfulmenbenefitfromtheirfather'sposition.Socialization.Childrearingisverypermissive.Toilettrainingiscasual.Childrenarerarely,ifeverphysicallydisci-plinedandevenverbaladmonishmentisrare.Thereisalmostnoovertinstruction.Childrenlearnbyparticipatingbutnotbyaskingquestions.Sincethelate1960s,government-sponsoredschools,usuallyrunbymissionaries,havebeenteachingmoreandmoreDanichildrentoreadandwriteinIndonesian.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.IntheGrandValleythelargestterrntorialsociopoliticalunitisthealliance,withseveralthousandpeople.WarfareandthegreatpigfeastareorganizedattheDani45alliancelevel.Eachallianceiscomposed of severalconfedera-tions,whicharealsoterritorialunitscontainingfromseveralhundreduptoathousandpeople.Confederationsareusuallynamedforthetwosibswiththestrongestrepresentation.Manyceremonies,andtheindividualbattlesthatconstitutewarfare,areorganizedonaconfederationlevel,initiatedbytheconfederation-levelleaders.Withintheconfederationterritorythereareusuallyrecognizableneighborhoods,butthesearenottrue,functioningsocialunits.Contiguousclus-ters of compounds,alsomakingupphysicalunits,arenotso-cialunits.Eachindividualcompound,althoughlackingfor-malorganization,isthevenue of themostintensesocialinteraction.Moietiesandsibsarenonterritorial,unilinearde-scentgroupswhichcrosscuttheterritorialunits.Thetwomoieties,beingexogamous,arerepresentedineverycom-pound.Acouple of dozensibsmayberepresentedinacon-federation,eventhoughitisdominatedbymembers of onlyafewsibs.InDaniareasoutsidetheGrandValley,theconfed-erationisthelargestunitandalliancesareabsent.PoliticalOrganization.Danileadershipisrelativelyinfor-mal,vestedinnonhereditary"big-men"(thattermisusedinDani).Theleaders of theconfederationandthealliancearewellknown,buttheyarenotmarkedbyspecialattireorotherartifacts.Theyaremen of influence,notpower,andtheyemergeasleadersthroughconsensus.Leaderstakeresponsi-bilityformajorceremoniesandforinitiatingparticularbat-tles.Theleader of theallianceannouncesthegreatpigfeastanddirectsthefinalalliance-widememorialritual.Leadersarebelievedtohaveunusuallystrongsupernaturalpowers.SocialControLGrandValleyDanihavenoformaljudicialinstitutions,butleaders,usingtheirinfluence,canresolvedisputesuptotheconfederationlevel,assessingcompensa-tionforpigtheftandthelike.Butbeyondtheconfederation,evenwithinasinglealliance,disputesoftengounresolvedbe-causerarelydoesanyone'sinfluenceextendacrossconfedera-donboundaries.Normswerenotexpressedinexplicitformalstatements.NowtheIndonesianpoliceandarmyhavetakenoverdisputesettlement.Conflict.Untiltheearly1960s,interalliancewarfarewasendemicintheGrandValley.Eachalliancewasatwarwithoneormore of itsneighbors.Warsbrokeoutwhentheaccu-mutation of unresolveddisputesbecametoogreat.Awarcouldlastforadecade.Then,astheoriginalgrievancesbegantobeforgotten,fightingwouldslackoff.Atthatpointanalli-ancethathadbuiltupunresolvedinterconfederationgriev-ancescouldsplitapart,resultinginre-formation of alliancesandties,whether of waror of peace,betweenalliances.Theconfederationitselfremainedrelativelystable,butalliancegroupingsshifted.Itwastheritualphase of warthatlastedforyears.Oncebegun,itwasfueledbythebeliefthatghosts of thekilleddemandedrevenge.SincebothsideswereDani,withvirtuallythesameculture,andthesameghostbeliefs,thekillingwenton,backandforth.Intheritualphase of war,formalbattlesalternatedwithsurpriseraidsandambushesattherate of aboutoneincident ... wouldbeginwithabrief,secularoutburstthathadnoconnectionwithunplacatedghosts.Somecon-federationsinanalliancewouldturnagainsttheirsupposedalliesandmakeasurpriseattackonvillages,killingmen,women,andchildrenindiscriminately.Thealliancewouldbebrokenapart,andbothsideswouldwithdrawfromakilo-meter-widearea,whichwouldbecomeafallowno-man's-landonwhichtheperiodicbattles of theritualphase of warwouldbefought.Bythemid-1960s,theDutchandthentheIndo-nesianswereabletoabolishformalbattles of theritualphase of war,butsporadicraidsandskirmishescontinueinisolatedparts of theGrandValley.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheGrandValleyDaniexplainmost of theirritualasplacatingtherestlessghosts of theirownrecentdead.Theseghostsarepotentiallydangerousandcausemis-fortune,illness,anddeath.Thus,attemptsaremadetokeepthemfaroffintheforest.Danialsobelieveinlocallandandwaterspirits.Inthe1950s,theWesternDaniregionexperi-encednativisticcargocult-likemovementsthatsweptahead of theChristianmissionaryadvance.ButthesemovementshadnoeffectonthemoreconservativeGrandValleyDani.Now,inthe1990s,manyDani-GrandValleyaswellasothers-arepracticingChristians.Islam,themajorityreli-gion of thelargernation,wasnotabletocopewithDanipigsandhashadlittlesuccessthere.ReligiousPractitioners.Variouspeople,mainlymen,areknownfortheirmagicalcuringpowers.Ritualaswellassecu-larpoweriscombinedintheleadersatvariouslevels.Leaders of alliancesseemoftentohaveexceptionallystrongandevenuniquepowers.Ceremonies.Duringthetime of war,ceremonieswerefre-quent.Battlesthemselvescouldbeseenasceremoniesdi-rectedatplacatingtheghosts.Therewerealsoceremoniescelebratingthedeath of anenemyorfuneralsforpeoplekilledbytheenemy.Atthecremationceremonyforsomeonekilledinbattle,oneortwofingers of severalgirlswouldbechoppedoffassacrificestotheghost of thedeadperson.Menmightoccasionallychopofftheirownfingersorcutoffthetips of theirears,buttheseactionsweresigns of personalsacrificeandmourning.Funeralceremoniesaswellasweddingcere-moniescontinuedatintervalsafterthemainevent.Bothwereconcludedinthegreatpigfeastheldeveryfourtosixyears,inwhichthe ... therighttoshareinclanlandsandwealth.Thegarden of adeceasedpersongoestothesurvivingspouseorgardeningpartner,rightsinbearingtreesareinheritedpatrilineally.Socialization.Achildisnotpunishedforitsactsbeforeitisfelttoberational,thatis,beforeit"hasasoul"andcanspeak.Malechildrenaresocializedbypeersandbyparticipa-tioninmaleactivities,femalechildrenthroughtheirinvolve-mentinwomen'sgardeningandchild-rearingwork.48DaribiSociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Collectiveactivities,meetingsandarbitration,workgroups,andwarfareandvengeanceunder-takingshaveinthepastservedasactivefociforlineal,fac-tional,andcoresidentialgroupings.Often,butnotnecessar-ily,suchtaskgroupingscoincidewiththeclanorevenacoresidentialclustering of clans.Beforetheinstitution of centralizedadministrativecontrol,cooperativeparties of menorganizedthemselvesinthiswaytoclearlargetracts of landforgardeningorformilitaryaction.Influentialmen,oftentheeldest of agroup of brothers,taketheinitiativeinplanningandsupervisingcollectivetasks,morethroughtheexhorting of othersthanactualdirection.Kinrelationshipisoftenthestrongestormostconsistentsinglefactorinthegalvanizing of theseactivities,thoughitisbynomeanstheonlyone.PoliticalOrganization.Acoresidentialgrouping of thedimensions of aclanorvillagepredictablydivides,atanygiventime,intotwoopposedfactions,roughlyalongthelines of kinaffiliationoraffinity.Themen of afactionarethehana,followersandsupporters of abig-manorsignificantleader(genuaibidi).Suchleaderswouldoftenbidforthepa-tronage of youngermenbytransferringbetrothalstothemorbyfeedingthemwiththesurplusmealsreceivedeachdayfromtheirpluralities of wives.SocialControl.Body-substancesorcery(animani)andse-cretmurderthroughsorceryassassination(keberebidi)wereoftenresortedtoforvengeance;perhapsthethreat of theseactionshelpedtoensuresocialcompliance.Certainlythemosteffectiveinstrument of socialcontrolis"talk,"thatis,publicapprovalanddisapproval,anorgan of consensualen-forcementthathasbeenamplifiedbythevillage-courtsystem.Conflict.Bouts of hystericalpublicanger,oftenescalat-ingintofactionalconfrontations,markthestressesandstrains of ordinaryvillagelife.Ifaggravatedoveralongper-iodtheymayleadtoresidentialsplittingalongfactionallines."Thirdparties,"eitherleadersoradjacentgroups,willoftentrytomediatethesefights.Traditionalwarfaretooktheform of ambushes,skirmishesalongboundaries,sieges,andoccasionalmassacresbyorganizedgroupings of clansactinginconcert.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Whetherornottheybelieveinthem,andincidentaltoanyprofession of areligiousfaith,Daribifearthedispleasure,attack,orpossession of ghosts(izibidi)and,perhapslessfrequently, of "placespirits"-localbeingsdwellingbeneaththeground,inravines,orintrees.Ghosts,mostlikelythose of friendsorrelatives,arethoughttotakeactionagainstthosewhobetraythem,andplacespiritsagainstthosewhoviolatetheirhabitations.ReligiousPractitioners.TraditionalDaribireligiousprac-titionersincludespiritmediums,definedas"ill"becausetheyhaveaninsecurerelationtopossessingghosts,andshamans(sogoyezibidi),whohave"died"andattainedacompleterap-portwiththeirspirits.Sincemostforms of mentalandphysi-calillnesstraditionallywereconsideredtobeeffects of spiritpossession,shamansfunctionedaseffectivecurersandchargedfortheirserviceseveninprecontacttimes.Thelargemajority of bothkinds of practitionersarewomen.Ceremonies.Themajortraditionalriteisthehabu,per-formedto"bringbacktothehouse"theghost of someonewhohasdiedunmournedinthebush.Inthehabu,youngmenare"possessed"bythealienatedghostandspendweeksintheforesthuntinganimalsandsmokingthemeat.Whentheyreturntothehousetheybringtheghost"ontheirskins,"anditmustbedislodgedbywrestlingwiththe"housepeo-ple,"afterwhichthemeatisblamedfortheghost'shostilityandconsumedasamortuaryfeast.Otherritesincludethose of marriage,initiation,andthepigfeast,introducedfromthehighlands.Arts.Depictiveincisiononarrowshaftsandotherimple-mentsispracticed.Daribiexpressthemselvesmusicallywiththeflute,theJew'sharp,andmourninglaments.Storytelling(namupusabo)isthebest-developedartisticmedium,alongwithlyricpoetry.Medicine.Inadditiontoshamaniccurers,traditionalmedicineincludedherbalremediesandasurgicalpractitioner(bidiegabobidi)whoremovedarrowsthroughaskilledknowl-edge of bodymovements.DeathandAfterlife.TraditionalDaribiadmittedhumanmortalitybutdenieddeaththroughnaturalcauses.Thedeadarebelievedtosurviveasghostswhocommunicatewiththelivingthroughspiritmediumsandshamansandwhotravel,usuallyatnight,alongwatercourses.Theylivetogetheratanill-definedplacetothewest,possiblyinalake.SeealsoChimbuBibliographyHide,RobinL,editor(1984).SouthSimbu:StudiesinDe-mography,Nutrition,andSubsistence.Boroko,PapuaNewGuinea:Institute of AppliedSocialandEconomicResearch.Hughes,IanM.(1970).'Pigs,Sago,andLimestone."Man-kind7 :27 2 -2 7 8.Wagner,Roy(1967).TheCurse of Souw.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Wagner,Roy(19 72) .Habu.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Wagner,Roy(1978).LethalSpeech.Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress.Weiner,JamesF.,editor(1988).MountainPapuans.AnnArborUniversity of MichiganPress.ROYWAGNERDobu51MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Marriageisforbiddenbetweentheowningsusu of avillageandbetweencrosscousins;thusvillagesareexogamous,thoughlocalitiestendtobeendogamous.Pre-maritalsexispermittedandadolescentpromiscuityisthenorm,thoughtheanthropologistReoFortunecharacterizedDobuansasprudishinspeechandpublicbehavior.Abe-trothedcoupleworkhardforayearfortheirrespectivein-laws.Marriageismarkedbyaseries of exchanges of cookedanduncookedfood,pork,fish,andgamebetweenthecon-tractingvillagesandbyagift of armshellsfromthegroom'stothebride'sgroup.Intervillageexchangesalsooccurannuallyinthename of eachmarriedcouple.Ideally,marriageex-changesbalanceinthelongrun.Monogamywasthenormandpolygynywaspracticedbyonlyafewwealthymen(esa'esa).Dobuisrenownedforthepractice of biocalresi-denceinwhichacouplelivealternately,forayearatatime,inthevillage of eachspouseinturn.Affinesshowgreatrespecttovillageowners,butfrictionbetweentheowningsusuandincomingspousesgivesrisetoquarreling,village'incest,"andattemptedsuicide.Fortuneregardedthepractice of bilocalresidenceasacompromisebetweenthedemands of thesusuandthose of theconjugalunit,thoughhejudgeditmorede-structive of thelatter.DivorceisveryfrequentinDobu.Bromilowlistedtwenty-tworeasonsfordivorce(including"filthylanguage"),butFortuneaccountedthecommonestcausetobe"cut-and-runadultery"withavillage"sister"or'brother."Affinesarefearedasikelywitchesandsorcerers.Intherevisededition of hisbookFortuneofferedanotherin-terpretation of bilocalresidence,statingthatitisassociatedwithanannualexchange of yamsforarmshellsbetweenresi-dentsusuwivesandtheirnonresidenthusbands'sisters.DomesticUnit.Thehouseholdnormallycomprisesamar-riedcoupleandtheiryoungchildren.Adolescentgirlsremainwiththeirparentsuntilmarriage,butatpubertyboysgotosleepelsewhere,usuallywiththegirls of neighboringvillages.Afteraman'sdeathhischildrenareprohibitedfromenteringhisvillage.Inheritance.Villageland,fruittrees,andmostgardenlandsareinheritedmatrilineally.Thecorpseandskull of apersonbelongtothesusu,asdopersonalnames.Canoes,fishingnets,stoneblades,ornamentalvaluables,andotherpersonalpropertyalsodescendwithinthesusu.Magic,how-ever,canpassfromafathertoone of hissons(aswellas...

... apersonleadstoemo-tionaldistressamongothersandisspontaneouslyandcere-moniallylamented,sometimesformonths.Thecorpsetradi-tionallywasplacedinatreeandprotectedagainstrainfallwithbarkandleaves.Aftermummificationthebodywasputundertheroof of agardenhouse.Later,inathirdceremony,theboneswereplacedunderrockshelters.Thecompletecycle of ceremonieswasnotperformedinallcases,andtodaythroughmissioninfluencethedeadareburied.Thesouls of thedeceasedarethoughttoleavethebody,astheydoduringfaintingspellsorsevereillness,anditishopedthattheywillquicklyproceedtothemythicalancestralvillage of theirre-spectiveclanshighupinthemountains.Thespirits of thedeadarethoughttobebasicallyangryandjealous of thejoysonearth,andpeoplethinktheycancomebacktoharmor,lessfrequently,tohelptheliving.BibliographyEibl-Eibesfeldt,I.,W.Schiefenh5vel,andV.Heeschen(1989).KommunikationbeidenEipo:EinehumanethologischeBestandsaufnahmeimzentralenBerglandvonIrianJaya(West-Neuguinea),Indonesien.Mensch,Kultur,undUmweltimzentralenBerglandvonWest-Neuguinea,no.19.Berlin: D. Reimer.Heeschen,V.,andW.Schiefenh6vel(1983).Wo-rterbuchderEipo-Sprache:Eipo-Deutsch-English.Mensch,Kultur,undUmweltimzentralenBerglandvonWest-Neuguinea,no.6.Berlin: D. Reimer.Koch,G.(1984).Malingdam:EthnographischeNotizeniibereinenSiedlungsbereichimoberenEipomek-Tal,zentralenBerglandvonIrianJaya(West-Neuguinea),Indonesien.Mensch,Kultur,undUmweltimzentralenBerglandvonWestNeuguinea,no.15.Berlin: D. Reimer.EasterIsland53EasterIslandETHNONYMS:IsladePascua,Pito-O-TeHenua,RapaNuiOrientationIdentification.EasterIsland,theeasternmostislandinPolynesia,wassonamedbyJacobRoggeveenwhocameuponitonEasterSundayin1 722 .EasterIslandersevidentlyneverhadaname of theirownfortheisland.'RapaNui"(alsoRapa-nui,Rapanui)cameintouseinthe1800sandeventu-allybecamethepreferrednameforEasterIslandthroughoutPolynesia.Theorigin of RapaNuiisunclearbutthenamewasevidentlygivenbypeoplefromanotherisland,perhapsRapa.In18 62 and1863EasterIslandexperiencedaseveredepopulationthatledtothedestruction of much of itstradi-tionalculture.SubsequentcontactwithChile,whichtookpossession of EasterIslandin1888,hasproducedaculturecontainingmanyelementsborrowedfromSouthAmerica.EasterIslandiscurrentlyadependency of Chile.Location.EasterIslandislocatedat 27 °8'Sand190 25 'W,about4 ,20 0kilometersoffthecoast of Chileand1,760kilometerseast of PitcairnIsland,thenearestinhabitedis-land.Itisatriangular-shapevolcanichighislandwithatotalarea of 180squarekilometers.Themostprominentphysicalfeaturesarethethreevolcanicpeaks,eachlocatedatonecor-ner of theisland.Thelandiseitherbarrenrockorcoveredbygrassorshrubs,althoughpartswereheavilyforestedinthepast.Onlyflocks of seabirdsandthePolynesianratwerein-digenoustotheisland,withchickens,dogs,pigs,sheep,andcattleintroducedbypeoplefromotherislandsorEuropeans.Theclimateistropical.Waterwasobtainedfromspringsandbycollectingrainwater.Demography.PopulationestimatesbyEuropeanexplor-ersintheeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturiesrangedfrom600to3,000,althoughnonecanbeconsideredreliable.Thereareindicationsthattheprecontactpopulationcouldhavebeenasmuchas10,000people.From18 62 to1871se-veredepopulationresultedfromthekidnapping of about1,000menbyPeruvianslavers,asmallpoxepidemic,andre-locationtoMangarevaandTahiti.In18 72 reliablemission-aryreportsindicatedonly175peopleonEasterIsland.Thepopulationcontinuedtodeclineuntilthelate1880sandthenslowlyincreasedto456in1934.In1981,therewereabout1,900EasterIslandersonEasterIslandandothersliv-inginChile,Tahiti,andtheUnitedStates.EasterIslandersmakeupabouttwo-thirds of theislandpopulation,withtheothersbeingmainlyChileanmilitarypersonnelorgovern-mentemployees.LinguisticAffiliation.EasterIslandersspeakRapaNui(Pascuense),aPolynesianlanguagethathasbeendescribedascloselyrelatedtothelanguagesspokenonTahiti,Mangar-eva,andbytheMaoriinNewZealand.Sincecontact,wordsfromFrench,English,andSpanishhavebeenaddedtothelexicon.Because of theChileanpresence,manyEasterIs-landersalsospeakSpanish.Thereisdebateoverwhethersymbolsfoundcarvedinwoodboardscalledrongorongoareaprecontactwrittenlanguage,pictographs,symbolicornamen-tation,orcopies of Spanishdocumentsleftbyearlyexplorers.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThesettlement of EasterIslandhasbeenatopic of consider-ableconjectureanddebate.ThorHeyerdahl'sKon-Tikiexpe-ditionshowedthattheislandcouldhavebeensettledfromSouthAmerica,althoughlinguisticandarchaeologicalevi-dencesuggestssettlementfromotherPolynesianislandsper-hapsasearlyasA .D. 400.WhereverthefirstEasterIslandersmigratedfrom,itislikelythat,giventheremotelocation of theisland,theywererelativelyisolatedfromotherPolynesi-ans.FirstcontactwithEuropeanswaswiththeDutchex-plorerJacobRoggeveenin1 722 .Thereissomeevidencethatbecause of deforestationandwarsbetweensubtribes,thepopulationwasalreadydecliningandtheculturedisintegrat-ingatthistime.Theislandwassubsequentlyvisited,usuallyinfrequentlyandbriefly,byasuccession of Spanish,English,French,American,andRussianexplorers,traders,andwhal-ers.Thefirstmajorandthemostsignificantcontactoccurredin18 62 whenPeruvianslaversraidedtheislandandkid-nappedabout1,000mentotheguanoislandsoffthePeru-viancoast.TheretheEasterIslanderswereforcedtomineguanoforoneyearduringwhichtime900died.Facinganin-ternationalscandal,thePeruviangovernmentsentthere-maining100menhome,althoughonly15survivedthetrip.Infectedwithsmallpox,theyspreadthediseasetothoseontheisland,furtherreducingthepopulationtoperhaps 25 per-cent of whatithadbeenin18 62. Thedepopulation,disease,fear of outsiders,anddeath of manyleadersledtoculturaldisintegrationandaloss of much of thetraditionalculturewithinadecade.Catholicmissionariesarrivedin1863,be-ginningasmallthoughcontinuousEuropeanpresencetothisday.Withintenyears,allsurvivingEasterIslanderswerecon-vertedtoRomanCatholicism,withmany of theeconomicandsocialpracticestaughtbythepriestsreplacingtraditionalculturepractices.In1888Chileannexedtheislandandsub-sequentlyleased160squarekilometerstotheWilliamsonandBalfourCompany,whichestablishedsheepranchingforwool.Theremaining 20 squarekilometersweresetasideforusebytheEasterIslanders.In1954governance of theislandandthesheep-ranchingbusinesswasturnedovertotheChil-eannavy,andin1965,inresponsetoislandercomplaints,theislandwasputunderciviliancontrol.EasterIslandiscur-rentlyadependency of ChileandEasterIslandersareChil-eancitizens.SettlementsSince18 62 theEasterIslandershavelivedinoraroundthevillage of Hangoroainthesouthwestcomer of theisland.European-stylestoneandwoodhouseshavecompletelyre-placedthetraditionalforms.Before18 62, villageswerelo-catedalongthecoast,leavingtheinteriormostlyuninhab-ited.Dwellingsincludedthatchedhuts,semisubterraneanhouses,andcaves.WealthierEasterIslandersevidentlylivedinlargerhouses,oftenwithstonefoundations.Inadditiontodwellings,villagesoftencontainedcookingshelters,under-groundovens,stonechickencoops,turtlewatchtowers,andstone-walledgardens.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Priorto18 62, EasterIslanderssubsistedmainlyoncultivatedcrops,withEipo57hadtobeimportedincludedblack-palmwoodforbows,feathers of birds of paradiseandcassowaries,andvarioushighlyvaluedshells.Division of Labor.Traditionally,theonlyspecialistswereproducers of stoneadzeblades;allotherworkactivitieswerecarriedout,sometimesinsex-specificways,byeveryone.Theclearing of virginforest(rarelydonetraditionally),thefelling of largertrees,andthebuilding of housesorlogandcanebridgesareallmaletasks.Thephysicallydemandingwork of clearingsecondaryvegetationfornewgardensisdonejointlybymenandwomen,asarevariousactivitiesinthegardens,suchaspreparingtheground,planting,weeding,andharvest-ing.Withregardtothelatter,thewomenhaveaheavierwork-loadthandomenandareknowntocarrytheirownbodyweight(about40kilograms)forseveralkilometersatatime.Huntingandsnaring,aswellaskillingdomesticatedpigs,isdonebythemen.Womenmakemost of thehandicrafts,es-peciallystringbags of varioussizes.LandTenure.Allland,withthepossibleexception of thatintheveryhighmountains,belongstoindividuals(mostlymen)orclans.Inthelattercasethecorrespondingrightsareusuallyexercisedbytheclans'mostinfluentialmalemem-bers.Someclans,namelythosewhoaresaidtohave"always"livedinacertainarea,mayownmuchmorelandthanothers;inafewcases"latecomers"maynothaveanylandpropertyatall.Still,enoughgardenlandismadeavailabletoeveryoneinaprocess of formaldistribution.AmongtheEipoitispossibletogainuserightstolandthatonehasmadeintoagardenifithasbeenunusedorunclaimedforacertainperiod of time.In-dividuallyownedorclan-ownedgardenlandismarkedbyspeciallyplantedCordylineshrubs,theconnectinglines of whichdesignatethesacrosanctborders.Despitethis,dis-putesoverlandarequitecommonandcanleadtoarmedfights.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Descentisreckonedpatriline-ally.Clanoriginsaredatedbacktomythicaltimes.Animals,thesun,andthemoonareconsideredtherespectiveforefa-thers of clansandareworshippedastotems.Patriciansandpatrlineagesareexogamous,arulethatisquitestrictlyad-heredto,evenwhenchoosingpremaritalorextramaritallov-ers.Evenchildrenknowsurprisinglywellthedetails of thein-tricatekinshipnetwork.KinshipTerminology.Kinshiptermsfollowtheconven-tions of theOmahatype of system.Additionalclassificationprinciplesincludethespecificationthatmother'sbrother,mother'sfather'sbrother'sson,andmother'sbrother'ssonareallcalledbythesameterm.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.TheEipotermkasignifiesamarriageableclan,lineage,orpartner;Jaibmeanstosecureamarriageablepart-nerandisthetermforarrangingamarriage.Thisformisseenasideal,butinrealityitdoesnotoccurtoooftenbecauseboththebrideandgroomhavetherighttorejectthearrange-mentandbecauseloveaffairsarequitecommon.Thelattermayleadeitherdirectlytomarriageortotheman'sabductingtheconsentingwomanfromherhusband,towhomsheisoftenmarriedasasecondwife.Ratherthanapayment of bride-pricethereisasystem of mutualexchange of gifts:thegroom'ssideandthat of thebridehandoversubstantialvalu-ables,shellandfeatherdecorations,tools,etc.Withafewex-ceptions,particularlyinyoungcouples,virilocalityistherule.Inthe1970s 12 percent of themenlivedinpolygynousmar-riages,allwithtwowives,exceptforonemanwhohadthree.Because of thefacultativepolygynyandtheimbalancedsexratio(133forallagegroups,aresult of preferentialfemalein-fanticide,whichisone of themechanismscontrollingpopu-lationsize),approximately5percent of allmenmustliveper-manentlywithoutaspouse,whereasvirtuallyallsexuallyactiveand/orphysicallyhealthywomenaremarried.Inonecase,awomanwas'officially"livingwithtwobrothers.Whethersuchpolyandroussettingsareinstitutionalizedmar-riagesorad-hocsolutionsisunknown.Premaritalsexualin-tercourseisallowed.Fidelityisexpected of married ... apersonleadstoemo-tionaldistressamongothersandisspontaneouslyandcere-moniallylamented,sometimesformonths.Thecorpsetradi-tionallywasplacedinatreeandprotectedagainstrainfallwithbarkandleaves.Aftermummificationthebodywasputundertheroof of agardenhouse.Later,inathirdceremony,theboneswereplacedunderrockshelters.Thecompletecycle of ceremonieswasnotperformedinallcases,andtodaythroughmissioninfluencethedeadareburied.Thesouls of thedeceasedarethoughttoleavethebody,astheydoduringfaintingspellsorsevereillness,anditishopedthattheywillquicklyproceedtothemythicalancestralvillage of theirre-spectiveclanshighupinthemountains.Thespirits of thedeadarethoughttobebasicallyangryandjealous of thejoysonearth,andpeoplethinktheycancomebacktoharmor,lessfrequently,tohelptheliving.BibliographyEibl-Eibesfeldt,I.,W.Schiefenh5vel,andV.Heeschen(1989).KommunikationbeidenEipo:EinehumanethologischeBestandsaufnahmeimzentralenBerglandvonIrianJaya(West-Neuguinea),Indonesien.Mensch,Kultur,undUmweltimzentralenBerglandvonWest-Neuguinea,no.19.Berlin: D. Reimer.Heeschen,V.,andW.Schiefenh6vel(1983).Wo-rterbuchderEipo-Sprache:Eipo-Deutsch-English.Mensch,Kultur,undUmweltimzentralenBerglandvonWest-Neuguinea,no.6.Berlin: D. Reimer.Koch,G.(1984).Malingdam:EthnographischeNotizeniibereinenSiedlungsbereichimoberenEipomek-Tal,zentralenBerglandvonIrianJaya(West-Neuguinea),Indonesien.Mensch,Kultur,undUmweltimzentralenBerglandvonWestNeuguinea,no.15.Berlin: D. Reimer.EasterIsland53EasterIslandETHNONYMS:IsladePascua,Pito-O-TeHenua,RapaNuiOrientationIdentification.EasterIsland,theeasternmostislandinPolynesia,wassonamedbyJacobRoggeveenwhocameuponitonEasterSundayin1 722 .EasterIslandersevidentlyneverhadaname of theirownfortheisland.'RapaNui"(alsoRapa-nui,Rapanui)cameintouseinthe1800sandeventu-allybecamethepreferrednameforEasterIslandthroughoutPolynesia.Theorigin of RapaNuiisunclearbutthenamewasevidentlygivenbypeoplefromanotherisland,perhapsRapa.In18 62 and1863EasterIslandexperiencedaseveredepopulationthatledtothedestruction of much of itstradi-tionalculture.SubsequentcontactwithChile,whichtookpossession of EasterIslandin1888,hasproducedaculturecontainingmanyelementsborrowedfromSouthAmerica.EasterIslandiscurrentlyadependency of Chile.Location.EasterIslandislocatedat 27 °8'Sand190 25 'W,about4 ,20 0kilometersoffthecoast of Chileand1,760kilometerseast of PitcairnIsland,thenearestinhabitedis-land.Itisatriangular-shapevolcanichighislandwithatotalarea of 180squarekilometers.Themostprominentphysicalfeaturesarethethreevolcanicpeaks,eachlocatedatonecor-ner of theisland.Thelandiseitherbarrenrockorcoveredbygrassorshrubs,althoughpartswereheavilyforestedinthepast.Onlyflocks of seabirdsandthePolynesianratwerein-digenoustotheisland,withchickens,dogs,pigs,sheep,andcattleintroducedbypeoplefromotherislandsorEuropeans.Theclimateistropical.Waterwasobtainedfromspringsandbycollectingrainwater.Demography.PopulationestimatesbyEuropeanexplor-ersintheeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturiesrangedfrom600to3,000,althoughnonecanbeconsideredreliable.Thereareindicationsthattheprecontactpopulationcouldhavebeenasmuchas10,000people.From18 62 to1871se-veredepopulationresultedfromthekidnapping of about1,000menbyPeruvianslavers,asmallpoxepidemic,andre-locationtoMangarevaandTahiti.In18 72 reliablemission-aryreportsindicatedonly175peopleonEasterIsland.Thepopulationcontinuedtodeclineuntilthelate1880sandthenslowlyincreasedto456in1934.In1981,therewereabout1,900EasterIslandersonEasterIslandandothersliv-inginChile,Tahiti,andtheUnitedStates.EasterIslandersmakeupabouttwo-thirds of theislandpopulation,withtheothersbeingmainlyChileanmilitarypersonnelorgovern-mentemployees.LinguisticAffiliation.EasterIslandersspeakRapaNui(Pascuense),aPolynesianlanguagethathasbeendescribedascloselyrelatedtothelanguagesspokenonTahiti,Mangar-eva,andbytheMaoriinNewZealand.Sincecontact,wordsfromFrench,English,andSpanishhavebeenaddedtothelexicon.Because of theChileanpresence,manyEasterIs-landersalsospeakSpanish.Thereisdebateoverwhethersymbolsfoundcarvedinwoodboardscalledrongorongoareaprecontactwrittenlanguage,pictographs,symbolicornamen-tation,orcopies of Spanishdocumentsleftbyearlyexplorers.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThesettlement of EasterIslandhasbeenatopic of consider-ableconjectureanddebate.ThorHeyerdahl'sKon-Tikiexpe-ditionshowedthattheislandcouldhavebeensettledfromSouthAmerica,althoughlinguisticandarchaeologicalevi-dencesuggestssettlementfromotherPolynesianislandsper-hapsasearlyasA .D. 400.WhereverthefirstEasterIslandersmigratedfrom,itislikelythat,giventheremotelocation of theisland,theywererelativelyisolatedfromotherPolynesi-ans.FirstcontactwithEuropeanswaswiththeDutchex-plorerJacobRoggeveenin1 722 .Thereissomeevidencethatbecause of deforestationandwarsbetweensubtribes,thepopulationwasalreadydecliningandtheculturedisintegrat-ingatthistime.Theislandwassubsequentlyvisited,usuallyinfrequentlyandbriefly,byasuccession of Spanish,English,French,American,andRussianexplorers,traders,andwhal-ers.Thefirstmajorandthemostsignificantcontactoccurredin18 62 whenPeruvianslaversraidedtheislandandkid-nappedabout1,000mentotheguanoislandsoffthePeru-viancoast.TheretheEasterIslanderswereforcedtomineguanoforoneyearduringwhichtime900died.Facinganin-ternationalscandal,thePeruviangovernmentsentthere-maining100menhome,althoughonly15survivedthetrip.Infectedwithsmallpox,theyspreadthediseasetothoseontheisland,furtherreducingthepopulationtoperhaps 25 per-cent of whatithadbeenin18 62. Thedepopulation,disease,fear of outsiders,anddeath of manyleadersledtoculturaldisintegrationandaloss of much of thetraditionalculturewithinadecade.Catholicmissionariesarrivedin1863,be-ginningasmallthoughcontinuousEuropeanpresencetothisday.Withintenyears,allsurvivingEasterIslanderswerecon-vertedtoRomanCatholicism,withmany of theeconomicandsocialpracticestaughtbythepriestsreplacingtraditionalculturepractices.In1888Chileannexedtheislandandsub-sequentlyleased160squarekilometerstotheWilliamsonandBalfourCompany,whichestablishedsheepranchingforwool.Theremaining 20 squarekilometersweresetasideforusebytheEasterIslanders.In1954governance of theislandandthesheep-ranchingbusinesswasturnedovertotheChil-eannavy,andin1965,inresponsetoislandercomplaints,theislandwasputunderciviliancontrol.EasterIslandiscur-rentlyadependency of ChileandEasterIslandersareChil-eancitizens.SettlementsSince18 62 theEasterIslandershavelivedinoraroundthevillage of Hangoroainthesouthwestcomer of theisland.European-stylestoneandwoodhouseshavecompletelyre-placedthetraditionalforms.Before18 62, villageswerelo-catedalongthecoast,leavingtheinteriormostlyuninhab-ited.Dwellingsincludedthatchedhuts,semisubterraneanhouses,andcaves.WealthierEasterIslandersevidentlylivedinlargerhouses,oftenwithstonefoundations.Inadditiontodwellings,villagesoftencontainedcookingshelters,under-groundovens,stonechickencoops,turtlewatchtowers,andstone-walledgardens.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Priorto18 62, EasterIslanderssubsistedmainlyoncultivatedcrops,withEipo57hadtobeimportedincludedblack-palmwoodforbows,feathers of birds of paradiseandcassowaries,andvarioushighlyvaluedshells.Division of Labor.Traditionally,theonlyspecialistswereproducers of stoneadzeblades;allotherworkactivitieswerecarriedout,sometimesinsex-specificways,byeveryone.Theclearing of virginforest(rarelydonetraditionally),thefelling of largertrees,andthebuilding of housesorlogandcanebridgesareallmaletasks.Thephysicallydemandingwork of clearingsecondaryvegetationfornewgardensisdonejointlybymenandwomen,asarevariousactivitiesinthegardens,suchaspreparingtheground,planting,weeding,andharvest-ing.Withregardtothelatter,thewomenhaveaheavierwork-loadthandomenandareknowntocarrytheirownbodyweight(about40kilograms)forseveralkilometersatatime.Huntingandsnaring,aswellaskillingdomesticatedpigs,isdonebythemen.Womenmakemost of thehandicrafts,es-peciallystringbags of varioussizes.LandTenure.Allland,withthepossibleexception of thatintheveryhighmountains,belongstoindividuals(mostlymen)orclans.Inthelattercasethecorrespondingrightsareusuallyexercisedbytheclans'mostinfluentialmalemem-bers.Someclans,namelythosewhoaresaidtohave"always"livedinacertainarea,mayownmuchmorelandthanothers;inafewcases"latecomers"maynothaveanylandpropertyatall.Still,enoughgardenlandismadeavailabletoeveryoneinaprocess of formaldistribution.AmongtheEipoitispossibletogainuserightstolandthatonehasmadeintoagardenifithasbeenunusedorunclaimedforacertainperiod of time.In-dividuallyownedorclan-ownedgardenlandismarkedbyspeciallyplantedCordylineshrubs,theconnectinglines of whichdesignatethesacrosanctborders.Despitethis,dis-putesoverlandarequitecommonandcanleadtoarmedfights.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Descentisreckonedpatriline-ally.Clanoriginsaredatedbacktomythicaltimes.Animals,thesun,andthemoonareconsideredtherespectiveforefa-thers of clansandareworshippedastotems.Patriciansandpatrlineagesareexogamous,arulethatisquitestrictlyad-heredto,evenwhenchoosingpremaritalorextramaritallov-ers.Evenchildrenknowsurprisinglywellthedetails of thein-tricatekinshipnetwork.KinshipTerminology.Kinshiptermsfollowtheconven-tions of theOmahatype of system.Additionalclassificationprinciplesincludethespecificationthatmother'sbrother,mother'sfather'sbrother'sson,andmother'sbrother'ssonareallcalledbythesameterm.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.TheEipotermkasignifiesamarriageableclan,lineage,orpartner;Jaibmeanstosecureamarriageablepart-nerandisthetermforarrangingamarriage.Thisformisseenasideal,butinrealityitdoesnotoccurtoooftenbecauseboththebrideandgroomhavetherighttorejectthearrange-mentandbecauseloveaffairsarequitecommon.Thelattermayleadeitherdirectlytomarriageortotheman'sabductingtheconsentingwomanfromherhusband,towhomsheisoftenmarriedasasecondwife.Ratherthanapayment of bride-pricethereisasystem of mutualexchange of gifts:thegroom'ssideandthat of thebridehandoversubstantialvalu-ables,shellandfeatherdecorations,tools,etc.Withafewex-ceptions,particularlyinyoungcouples,virilocalityistherule.Inthe1970s 12 percent of themenlivedinpolygynousmar-riages,allwithtwowives,exceptforonemanwhohadthree.Because of thefacultativepolygynyandtheimbalancedsexratio(133forallagegroups,aresult of preferentialfemalein-fanticide,whichisone of themechanismscontrollingpopu-lationsize),approximately5percent of allmenmustliveper-manentlywithoutaspouse,whereasvirtuallyallsexuallyactiveand/orphysicallyhealthywomenaremarried.Inonecase,awomanwas'officially"livingwithtwobrothers.Whethersuchpolyandroussettingsareinstitutionalizedmar-riagesorad-hocsolutionsisunknown.Premaritalsexualin-tercourseisallowed.Fidelityisexpected of married ... apersonleadstoemo-tionaldistressamongothersandisspontaneouslyandcere-moniallylamented,sometimesformonths.Thecorpsetradi-tionallywasplacedinatreeandprotectedagainstrainfallwithbarkandleaves.Aftermummificationthebodywasputundertheroof of agardenhouse.Later,inathirdceremony,theboneswereplacedunderrockshelters.Thecompletecycle of ceremonieswasnotperformedinallcases,andtodaythroughmissioninfluencethedeadareburied.Thesouls of thedeceasedarethoughttoleavethebody,astheydoduringfaintingspellsorsevereillness,anditishopedthattheywillquicklyproceedtothemythicalancestralvillage of theirre-spectiveclanshighupinthemountains.Thespirits of thedeadarethoughttobebasicallyangryandjealous of thejoysonearth,andpeoplethinktheycancomebacktoharmor,lessfrequently,tohelptheliving.BibliographyEibl-Eibesfeldt,I.,W.Schiefenh5vel,andV.Heeschen(1989).KommunikationbeidenEipo:EinehumanethologischeBestandsaufnahmeimzentralenBerglandvonIrianJaya(West-Neuguinea),Indonesien.Mensch,Kultur,undUmweltimzentralenBerglandvonWest-Neuguinea,no.19.Berlin: D. Reimer.Heeschen,V.,andW.Schiefenh6vel(1983).Wo-rterbuchderEipo-Sprache:Eipo-Deutsch-English.Mensch,Kultur,undUmweltimzentralenBerglandvonWest-Neuguinea,no.6.Berlin: D. Reimer.Koch,G.(1984).Malingdam:EthnographischeNotizeniibereinenSiedlungsbereichimoberenEipomek-Tal,zentralenBerglandvonIrianJaya(West-Neuguinea),Indonesien.Mensch,Kultur,undUmweltimzentralenBerglandvonWestNeuguinea,no.15.Berlin: D. Reimer.EasterIsland53EasterIslandETHNONYMS:IsladePascua,Pito-O-TeHenua,RapaNuiOrientationIdentification.EasterIsland,theeasternmostislandinPolynesia,wassonamedbyJacobRoggeveenwhocameuponitonEasterSundayin1 722 .EasterIslandersevidentlyneverhadaname of theirownfortheisland.'RapaNui"(alsoRapa-nui,Rapanui)cameintouseinthe1800sandeventu-allybecamethepreferrednameforEasterIslandthroughoutPolynesia.Theorigin of RapaNuiisunclearbutthenamewasevidentlygivenbypeoplefromanotherisland,perhapsRapa.In18 62 and1863EasterIslandexperiencedaseveredepopulationthatledtothedestruction of much of itstradi-tionalculture.SubsequentcontactwithChile,whichtookpossession of EasterIslandin1888,hasproducedaculturecontainingmanyelementsborrowedfromSouthAmerica.EasterIslandiscurrentlyadependency of Chile.Location.EasterIslandislocatedat 27 °8'Sand190 25 'W,about4 ,20 0kilometersoffthecoast of Chileand1,760kilometerseast of PitcairnIsland,thenearestinhabitedis-land.Itisatriangular-shapevolcanichighislandwithatotalarea of 180squarekilometers.Themostprominentphysicalfeaturesarethethreevolcanicpeaks,eachlocatedatonecor-ner of theisland.Thelandiseitherbarrenrockorcoveredbygrassorshrubs,althoughpartswereheavilyforestedinthepast.Onlyflocks of seabirdsandthePolynesianratwerein-digenoustotheisland,withchickens,dogs,pigs,sheep,andcattleintroducedbypeoplefromotherislandsorEuropeans.Theclimateistropical.Waterwasobtainedfromspringsandbycollectingrainwater.Demography.PopulationestimatesbyEuropeanexplor-ersintheeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturiesrangedfrom600to3,000,althoughnonecanbeconsideredreliable.Thereareindicationsthattheprecontactpopulationcouldhavebeenasmuchas10,000people.From18 62 to1871se-veredepopulationresultedfromthekidnapping of about1,000menbyPeruvianslavers,asmallpoxepidemic,andre-locationtoMangarevaandTahiti.In18 72 reliablemission-aryreportsindicatedonly175peopleonEasterIsland.Thepopulationcontinuedtodeclineuntilthelate1880sandthenslowlyincreasedto456in1934.In1981,therewereabout1,900EasterIslandersonEasterIslandandothersliv-inginChile,Tahiti,andtheUnitedStates.EasterIslandersmakeupabouttwo-thirds of theislandpopulation,withtheothersbeingmainlyChileanmilitarypersonnelorgovern-mentemployees.LinguisticAffiliation.EasterIslandersspeakRapaNui(Pascuense),aPolynesianlanguagethathasbeendescribedascloselyrelatedtothelanguagesspokenonTahiti,Mangar-eva,andbytheMaoriinNewZealand.Sincecontact,wordsfromFrench,English,andSpanishhavebeenaddedtothelexicon.Because of theChileanpresence,manyEasterIs-landersalsospeakSpanish.Thereisdebateoverwhethersymbolsfoundcarvedinwoodboardscalledrongorongoareaprecontactwrittenlanguage,pictographs,symbolicornamen-tation,orcopies of Spanishdocumentsleftbyearlyexplorers.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThesettlement of EasterIslandhasbeenatopic of consider-ableconjectureanddebate.ThorHeyerdahl'sKon-Tikiexpe-ditionshowedthattheislandcouldhavebeensettledfromSouthAmerica,althoughlinguisticandarchaeologicalevi-dencesuggestssettlementfromotherPolynesianislandsper-hapsasearlyasA .D. 400.WhereverthefirstEasterIslandersmigratedfrom,itislikelythat,giventheremotelocation of theisland,theywererelativelyisolatedfromotherPolynesi-ans.FirstcontactwithEuropeanswaswiththeDutchex-plorerJacobRoggeveenin1 722 .Thereissomeevidencethatbecause of deforestationandwarsbetweensubtribes,thepopulationwasalreadydecliningandtheculturedisintegrat-ingatthistime.Theislandwassubsequentlyvisited,usuallyinfrequentlyandbriefly,byasuccession of Spanish,English,French,American,andRussianexplorers,traders,andwhal-ers.Thefirstmajorandthemostsignificantcontactoccurredin18 62 whenPeruvianslaversraidedtheislandandkid-nappedabout1,000mentotheguanoislandsoffthePeru-viancoast.TheretheEasterIslanderswereforcedtomineguanoforoneyearduringwhichtime900died.Facinganin-ternationalscandal,thePeruviangovernmentsentthere-maining100menhome,althoughonly15survivedthetrip.Infectedwithsmallpox,theyspreadthediseasetothoseontheisland,furtherreducingthepopulationtoperhaps 25 per-cent of whatithadbeenin18 62. Thedepopulation,disease,fear of outsiders,anddeath of manyleadersledtoculturaldisintegrationandaloss of much of thetraditionalculturewithinadecade.Catholicmissionariesarrivedin1863,be-ginningasmallthoughcontinuousEuropeanpresencetothisday.Withintenyears,allsurvivingEasterIslanderswerecon-vertedtoRomanCatholicism,withmany of theeconomicandsocialpracticestaughtbythepriestsreplacingtraditionalculturepractices.In1888Chileannexedtheislandandsub-sequentlyleased160squarekilometerstotheWilliamsonandBalfourCompany,whichestablishedsheepranchingforwool.Theremaining 20 squarekilometersweresetasideforusebytheEasterIslanders.In1954governance of theislandandthesheep-ranchingbusinesswasturnedovertotheChil-eannavy,andin1965,inresponsetoislandercomplaints,theislandwasputunderciviliancontrol.EasterIslandiscur-rentlyadependency of ChileandEasterIslandersareChil-eancitizens.SettlementsSince18 62 theEasterIslandershavelivedinoraroundthevillage of Hangoroainthesouthwestcomer of theisland.European-stylestoneandwoodhouseshavecompletelyre-placedthetraditionalforms.Before18 62, villageswerelo-catedalongthecoast,leavingtheinteriormostlyuninhab-ited.Dwellingsincludedthatchedhuts,semisubterraneanhouses,andcaves.WealthierEasterIslandersevidentlylivedinlargerhouses,oftenwithstonefoundations.Inadditiontodwellings,villagesoftencontainedcookingshelters,under-groundovens,stonechickencoops,turtlewatchtowers,andstone-walledgardens.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Priorto18 62, EasterIslanderssubsistedmainlyoncultivatedcrops,withEipo57hadtobeimportedincludedblack-palmwoodforbows,feathers of birds of paradiseandcassowaries,andvarioushighlyvaluedshells.Division of Labor.Traditionally,theonlyspecialistswereproducers of stoneadzeblades;allotherworkactivitieswerecarriedout,sometimesinsex-specificways,byeveryone.Theclearing of virginforest(rarelydonetraditionally),thefelling of largertrees,andthebuilding of housesorlogandcanebridgesareallmaletasks.Thephysicallydemandingwork of clearingsecondaryvegetationfornewgardensisdonejointlybymenandwomen,asarevariousactivitiesinthegardens,suchaspreparingtheground,planting,weeding,andharvest-ing.Withregardtothelatter,thewomenhaveaheavierwork-loadthandomenandareknowntocarrytheirownbodyweight(about40kilograms)forseveralkilometersatatime.Huntingandsnaring,aswellaskillingdomesticatedpigs,isdonebythemen.Womenmakemost of thehandicrafts,es-peciallystringbags of varioussizes.LandTenure.Allland,withthepossibleexception of thatintheveryhighmountains,belongstoindividuals(mostlymen)orclans.Inthelattercasethecorrespondingrightsareusuallyexercisedbytheclans'mostinfluentialmalemem-bers.Someclans,namelythosewhoaresaidtohave"always"livedinacertainarea,mayownmuchmorelandthanothers;inafewcases"latecomers"maynothaveanylandpropertyatall.Still,enoughgardenlandismadeavailabletoeveryoneinaprocess of formaldistribution.AmongtheEipoitispossibletogainuserightstolandthatonehasmadeintoagardenifithasbeenunusedorunclaimedforacertainperiod of time.In-dividuallyownedorclan-ownedgardenlandismarkedbyspeciallyplantedCordylineshrubs,theconnectinglines of whichdesignatethesacrosanctborders.Despitethis,dis-putesoverlandarequitecommonandcanleadtoarmedfights.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Descentisreckonedpatriline-ally.Clanoriginsaredatedbacktomythicaltimes.Animals,thesun,andthemoonareconsideredtherespectiveforefa-thers of clansandareworshippedastotems.Patriciansandpatrlineagesareexogamous,arulethatisquitestrictlyad-heredto,evenwhenchoosingpremaritalorextramaritallov-ers.Evenchildrenknowsurprisinglywellthedetails of thein-tricatekinshipnetwork.KinshipTerminology.Kinshiptermsfollowtheconven-tions of theOmahatype of system.Additionalclassificationprinciplesincludethespecificationthatmother'sbrother,mother'sfather'sbrother'sson,andmother'sbrother'ssonareallcalledbythesameterm.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.TheEipotermkasignifiesamarriageableclan,lineage,orpartner;Jaibmeanstosecureamarriageablepart-nerandisthetermforarrangingamarriage.Thisformisseenasideal,butinrealityitdoesnotoccurtoooftenbecauseboththebrideandgroomhavetherighttorejectthearrange-mentandbecauseloveaffairsarequitecommon.Thelattermayleadeitherdirectlytomarriageortotheman'sabductingtheconsentingwomanfromherhusband,towhomsheisoftenmarriedasasecondwife.Ratherthanapayment of bride-pricethereisasystem of mutualexchange of gifts:thegroom'ssideandthat of thebridehandoversubstantialvalu-ables,shellandfeatherdecorations,tools,etc.Withafewex-ceptions,particularlyinyoungcouples,virilocalityistherule.Inthe1970s 12 percent of themenlivedinpolygynousmar-riages,allwithtwowives,exceptforonemanwhohadthree.Because of thefacultativepolygynyandtheimbalancedsexratio(133forallagegroups,aresult of preferentialfemalein-fanticide,whichisone of themechanismscontrollingpopu-lationsize),approximately5percent of allmenmustliveper-manentlywithoutaspouse,whereasvirtuallyallsexuallyactiveand/orphysicallyhealthywomenaremarried.Inonecase,awomanwas'officially"livingwithtwobrothers.Whethersuchpolyandroussettingsareinstitutionalizedmar-riagesorad-hocsolutionsisunknown.Premaritalsexualin-tercourseisallowed.Fidelityisexpected of married...

... thevillages.Most of thehousesaresetontheinlandside of theroad,withtheirhouseholdgardenplotsbehindthehouse.Theoval-shapedthatchedhousesaresur-roundedbylowconcretewallstokeepthepigsfromattackingthecropsandhaveopensides,exceptforcoconut-frondblindsthatcanbeletdowninbadweather.Mosthouseshaveveryrecentlybeenwiredforelectricityandhaveoutsidepipedwater.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Futunaisaveryfertileislandwithhighrainfall,soeverythinggrowswell.Themaindietaryitemsarestarchyvegetableswithalittleaccom-paniment,suchascoconut,fish,orafaikaipudding.Taroandyamsarethemainrootcropsgrownonarotationalsys-tem;breadfruit,bananas,andcoconutsarealsoimportant.All of thesecropsareliabletocyclonedamagesuchasthatin-flictedbyCycloneRajainDecember1986.Attheeasternend of theislandwherethecoastalbeltisnarrow,plantationsarecutintothehillside;atthewesternend,extensivefields of irrigatedtaroareplanted.Fishingislimitedbecause of thelack of aprotectingreefandhighseasformost of theyear.Menfishintheshelter of AlofiIsland,usingthefewboatsthatareownedjointly;olderwomenfishonthereefforsmallerfish.Pigspredominateinthevillages,roamingaroundtheirhouseholdsandonthereefwheretheyscavengeforfood;eachfamilyhasitsownpigsasthesearethemainrepre-sentation of wealth.Formerlycoprawassold;nowthepeoplerelyforcashonthefewadministrativeandpublic-worksjobs,thesale of handicrafts,pensionsforthoseoverage60,andoccasionalgiftsfromrelativesinNewCaledonia.IndustrialArts.Womenspendagoodpart of theirtimeweavingmatsandbeatingtapa;boththeseitemsareshippedtoNewCaledoniaasgiftsforrelativesandforsale.Some of thematsarealsousedlocallyasgiftsonlargecommunaloccasions.Trade.GoodsareimportedfromNewCaledoniaforsaleinFutuna,orsentasgiftsbyrelatives.Futuna'simportsfaroutweighitsexports,especiallysincecoprahasceasedtobeamarketablecrop.Division of Labor.Mencultivatetheland,includingbothhouseholdplotsandtheplantationsfartherafield.Thistaskrequiresthemtoclearanyvegetation,turnoverthesoil,plant,weed,andharvestthecrops;thelatterjobmaynecessi-tatecarryingloads of taroorkapekavaa)severalkilometers.Menalsogofishingtogether,thoughthisactivityisconsid-eredmorelikesportthanwork.Womenlookafterthehouse-hold,takecare of children,weavemats,andmaketapa.Olderwomenalsofishonthereef.Childrenfetchwaterandactasrunnersbetweenhouseholds,bearinggoodsandmessages.LandTenure.Thetwohalves of Futuna,SigaveandAlo,aredistinctentitieswithseparatelandholdings;itisrareforapersontoholdlandinbothkingdoms.Eachsau,orleader,iscustodian of alllandsinhisterritory,andinformertimeswagedwarinresponsetoanyviolation of hislands.Ineachvillagetheheadmanwasresponsibleforensuringthatlandswereproperlyused,butindividualfamiliescouldcultivatetheirhouseholdlandandalsousethevacantlandbehindthevillage.Somevillagelandwasmaintainedinproductionbyagroup of meninordertoprovideabountifulsupply of yamsandkapeforanylargecommunalfeast.Familiesdependedontheirhouseholdstripforday-to-daysupplies of taro,bread-fruit,bananas,kape,andcassava.Butinthesedays of largehouseholds,themenfinditnecessarytocultivatetheirownplantationland,andsometimesthat of theirwives,inordertogrowenoughtofeedthefamily.Landrightsarepassedontobothsonsanddaughters,butacouplepreferstoliveontheman'sland.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Kintieslinkingalargenumber of Futunansintooverlappingsocialentitiescenteronbroth-ersandsisters.Theoldestsisterhascertainprivilegeswithinthefamilygroup.Thereisastrongprotectiverelationshipbe-tweenbrothersandtheirsistersaswellasavoidanceregardingcertainissueswithsexualimplications.Theprivilegedrela-tionshiptoafather'ssister(vasu)thatallowstheyoungerpersontotakefoodfromherisrestrictedtoroyallineages.Kingroupsarethebasisforworkingparties,suchasforfish-ing,thatching,ormakingacanoe.Descentisreckonedthroughbothmothersandfathers,mainlyforinheritance of landrightsortotracearelationshiptoachieflyfamily.'Fam-ily"toaFutunanmeansabilaterallyextendedfamily,consist-ing of awide-ranginggroup of peoplelivingbothonFutunaandonWallis,aswellasinNewCaledonia.Relativesarerec-ognizedeventhoughcontactmaynothavebeensustainedforseveralyears.Futuna65ReligiousPractitioners.TherearenospecificallyreligiousspecialistsamongtheForealthoughsomepeople,bothmenandwomen,areknownforhavingsuperiorknowledge of andaccesstothespirit world. Chiefamongthesepeoplearecurersandsorcererswhoareabletomanipulatespiritualpow-erstotheirownends.Ceremonies.ThemostimportantritualcomplexamongtheForerevolvesaroundtheinitiation of boysintomanhood.Youngboysareremovedforciblyfromthecare of theirmoth-ersandtakentolivewithmen.Duringtheinitiationstages,whichlastseveralyears,theyaretaughttherationaleandtechniques of nosebleeding,caneswallowing,andvomitingdesignedtopromotegrowth,strength,andfertilityandtoprotecttheirhealthfromthepollutingpowers of women.Theyalsoareinstructedintheproperbeliefs,behaviors,andresponsibilities of adultForemen.Atpuberty,youngwomenalsoaresecludedbriefly,undergonosebleeding,andarein-formedbyolderwomen of theirnewresponsibilities.TheForealsoholdperiodicpigfeastsonceortwiceeachdecade,ofteninconjunctionwithinitiations.Thesearethelargestso-cialgatheringsintheregionandarehighlycompetitivepoliti-calevents.Arts.Amajorfocus of Foreartisitems of bodyadorn-ment,includingfeatherheaddressesandshellheadbandsandnecklaces.Traditionally,menalsocarvedwoodenbowsandarrowsandwarshieldswhilewomenfashionedclothingandknittednetbagswithintricategeometricdesigns.Medicine.Foreattributemostseriousillness,includingkuru,tosorcery,butlesserailmentsmaybecausedbywitches,ghosts,andnaturespiritsormayresultfromabrogation of so-cialrulesandexpectations.Curersrelyonpreparationsfromthelocalpharmacopoeia of medicinalplants,incantation,bloodletting,anddivination.Localcurers,called'barkmen"or"barkwomen,"treatrelativelyminorillnesses,butsorcery-causedsicknessrequirestheattention of powerfulandwidelyknown'dreammen'whoalwaysliveinadistantparishandmaybenon-Fore.Thesemenperformacts of divinationandcuringusinginformationgainedindreamstatesinducedbyingestion of hallucinogenicplantmaterialsandheavyinhala-tion of tobaccosmoke.DeathandAfterlife.Deathismarkedbyextendedmourningrituals,publicdisplay of thecorpse,andthegiving of giftsbypaternalrelativestothematernalrelatives of thedeceased.Inthepast,thebodycommonlywaseaten,espe-ciallybywomen,children,andtheelderlyandtheremainswereburiedinanoldgardensite of thedeceased.Humanfleshwasthoughttopromotefertilityandregeneratebothpeopleandgardens.TheForenolongerpracticemortuarycannibalism,andeachlinemaintainsacommonburialgroundforitsdead.Thespirit of thedeceasedisthoughttoremainforatimenearthegravesiteandfinallytomovetoone of theknownspiritplacestocontinueitsafterlifeindefinitely.SeealsoSambia,TairoraBibliographyBerndt,RonaldM.(19 62) .ExcessandRestraint:SocialCon-trolamongaNewGuineaMountainPeople.Chicago:Univer-sity of ChicagoPress.Gaidusek, D. Carleton(1977).-UnconventionalVirusesandtheOriginandDisappearance of Kuru."Science197:94 3-9 60.Hornabrook,R.W.(ed.)(1976).EssaysonKuru.Faringdon,U.K.:E.W.Classey.Lindenbaum,Shirley(1979).KuruSorcery:Diseaseand ... theearly1950s,aLutheranmissionwasfoundedatTarabo,thecolonialgovernmentopenedapatrolpostatOkapa,andvariousnewgardencrops,domesticatedanimals,items of clothing,andothermanufacturedgoodswereintro-duced.Also,subsistenceactivitiesbegantobeaugmentedbyanascentcommercialeconomy.Thefirstcoffeeseedlingswereplantedin1955,andForemenbegantoventureout of theregionasmigrantwagelaborers.In1957,theKuruRe-searchCenterwasopenedatAwandetobeginintensivestudy of thisdisease.Cannibalisticpracticesceasedabout1960,andsincethentheannualnumber of kurudeathshasfallenfromabout 20 0peryeartolessthan10peryearatpresent.Bythemid-1960s,Okapahadbecometheregionaladministra-tivecenterandboastedahospital,school,andseveralsmallstores.Electionsalsohadbeenheldforthelocalgovernmentcouncil.Today,mostpeoplehaveaccesstosomeformaledu-cation,medicalcare,andothergovernmentservices,andmanyhaveconvertedtoChristianity.TheForehavecometoacceptacommongroupidentity,andthedegree of socialiso-lationandenmityhasdeclineddramatically.Theynowliveasactivecitizens of theNation-state of PapuaNewGuinea.SettlementsForesettlementsarerelativelydispersedoverthelandscapewithsmallgroups of peoplelivingtogetherattheedge of theforestincloseproximitytotheirfoodgardens.Themainresi-dentialunitisthehamletwhich,inearliertimes,typicallyconsisted of oneortwocommunalmen'shousesandarow of severalsmallerhousesoccupiedbywomenandchildren.Anopenspacewithcookingpitsseparatedthetwotypes of dwell-60FoicontactwasestablishedbetweentheFoiandEuropeansintheform of thepatrolpostatLakeKutubu.TheUnevangel-izedFieldsMissionbeganactivitiesatbothLakeKutubuandthemiddleMubiValleyin1951,andbythelate1960sthetraditionalreligiouslife of theFoihadbeenlargelysuper-sededbyChristianity.From1950theFoiwereadministeredfromvarioushighlandspatrolpostsuntiltheearly1970s,whenanewadministrativecenterwasbuiltandgovernmenthealthstationswerereestablishedintheMubiValley.Austra-lianadministratorsintroducedvariousEuropeanandotherforeignvegetablestothearea,includingSingaporetaro,pumpkins,chokos,Cavendishbananas,andpineapples.In1988,largeoilreserveswerediscoveredwest of LakeKutubuinFasuterritory.TheFoi of theupperMubiValleytradition-allytradedandoccasionallyfoughtwiththeirhighlandsneighborstothenorth.Theyexportedthereddishoil of thekara'otree(Campnospermabrevipetiolata)andinreturnre-ceivedpearlshells,pigs,andaxblades.TheFoi of LakeKu-tubuwererathermoreundertheinfluence,because of theirclosetieswiththeinterveningFasupeople,withtheBosavicomplextothewest,anditappearsasiftheboys'homosexualinitiationcult,thegisaro-kosaceremonialcomplex,andotherBosaviculturaltraitshadmovedeastwardintoFoiterritoryshortlybeforeChampion'scontact.Inthelasttwentyyears,themorepopulousandpoliticallyascendantpeoples of thehighlandshaveexertedsomeamount of culturalhegemonyovertheFoi.TheFoihavethereforeexperimentedwiththesouthernhighlandspork-and-pearl-shellexchangeinrecentyears.Relationswitheasternandsouthernneighborsappeartohavebeenmoretenuous.SettlementsFoicommunallifecentersaroundamen'slonghouse,whereinresidetherepresentatives of anywherebetweenthreeandthirteenpatrilineallycomposedexogamousdispersedclans.Villagesrangeinsizefromabout 20 peopletoalmost300.Inthevillage,womenresideinsmallerhousesflankingthelonghouse;thelonghousecanreachlengths of 55meters.Theseparatedomiciles of menandwomenstemfromFoimen'sbeliefthatcontactwithwomen'smenstrualsecretionsisdeleterioustotheirhealth.TheFoisubsistenceeconomy,however,revolvesaroundnuclearfamilybushhouses,scat-teredintheterritorysurroundingthelonghousevillage,whereaman,hiswives,andchildrenresideontheman'sproperty.MostFoimovebackandforthbetweenbushandlonghouseregularly,butthelonghouseistechnicallyonlyapublic,ceremonialvenue.MubiRivervillagesareclosetotheriveritselfandmuchtrafficisbydugoutcanoe.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialAczivities.TheFoidependuponthefollowingsubsistencemethodsroughlyinthisorder of importance:sagoprocessing,gardening,treecropcultiva-tion(includingmantapandanusandbreadfruit),foraging,fishing,andhunting.Inaddition,pigsaresemidomesticatedandareslaughteredbothcasuallyand,onceremonialocca-sions,inlargenumbers.Traditionally,theFoitendedtodi-videtheiryearintoseasons,dominatedbytheonset of therainyseasoninearlymid-year,atwhichtimetheyleftthevil-lageandmovedtothehuntingpreserveswheretheywouldtrap,fish,andforageuntilthedrierweatherreturnedaroundOctober.Theythenreturnedtothevillagetocutnewgardens(accordingtostandardswiddenmethods),makesago,andcareforpigs.Trade.Foimentraditionallycarriedonandstillmaintainavigoroustradewiththeirhighlandsneighborstothenorth.Theyexportkara'ooil,black-palmbows,andcassowariesandinreturnreceivepearlshellsandshoats.Inpremissiontimes,theyalsoreceivedcultobjectsandproceduresintrade.Division of Labor.Foisubsistencetasksaresexuallydi-morphic:womenprocesssago,tendgardens,forage,checktrapsandweirs,careforpigsandchildren,andweavebasketsandstringbags.Menbuildhousesandcanoes,fashionweap-ons,dotheinitialtasks of gardenlandpreparationandsagogrovemanagement,buildtrapsandweirs,huntwithaxanddog,andengageintradeandceremonialexchange.Inpre-missiontimes,themenalsoperformedfertilityandhealingceremonies.LandTenure.Landisownedbylocalclansegmentsascorporateunits,thoughitsindividualmembersassertmoreorlesspermanentusufructuaryrightsincertaintracts.Theserightsareusuallypassedonfromfathertoson.Womenmain-taintheirhusbands'productiveresourcesbutmaintainrightsintheirnatalclans'lands,shouldtheoccasionarise.Landcanbesold,andinprecontacttimesitwasoftengrantedtoimmigrantsasameans of extendingpatronagetorefugeesfromotherareas.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.ThelocaltotemicallynamedpatrilinealclanistheexogamousunitamongtheFoiandvar-iesconsiderablyinsize.Smallerunnamed'lineages"consist-ing of amanandhisadultsonsaretheunits of marriagene-gotiation,thoughthelocalclanistheunit of exogamyandbride-wealthdistribution.Descentispatrilineal.Orphanedchildrenaresometimesclaimedbytheirmother'sbrother,theclan of 'trueorigin'intheFoiview.KinshipTerminology.Totheextentthatthisisausefulcharacterization,theFoihaveanIroquois-typeterminology.Adultsoftenaddresseachotherbytheirteknonymsifnototherwiserelated.Inthepast,reciprocalfood-sharingnames(specialpersonalnamesusedbythosewhosharedfoodwith-outobligationtodoso)werecommonasmodes of address,andchildren of peoplewhosharedsuchanameoftencalledeachotherbytheirparents'food-sharingname.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Betrothalisarrangedbythefathers of boysandgirlsatanearlyage.Uponthepresentation of bride-wealth(consisting of pearlshells,cowrieshells,meat,andcurrency)bythegroom'sfatherandmother'sbrothertothesamerela-tives of thebride,agirltakesupresidenceinherhusband'shouse.Bride-wealthpaymentsareoftenmadeininstallmentsthatstretchoutforyearsaftermarriage.Whenapersondies,thespouse'sclanmakesfuneralpaymentstothefather's,mother's,andmother'smother'sclans of thedeceased.Thesepaymentseffectivelycancelanyresidualclaims of outstand-ingbride-wealth.Divorceisinfrequent.Polygynyispracticedbyasmallnumber of men.Foi59Schiefenhovel,W.(1988).GeburtswerhaltenundreprodukriveFoiStrategienderEipo:ErgebnissehumanethologischerundethnFmedizinischerUntersuchungenimzentralenBerglandwonIrianJaya(West-Neuguinea),Indonesien.Mensch,Kultur,undUmweltimzentralenBerglandvonWest-Neuguinea,no.16.ETHNONYMS:Fiwaga,Foe,Foi'i,Kutubuans,Mobi,MubiBerlin: D. Reimer.WULFSCHIEFENHOVELOrientationIdentification.TheFoiinhabittheMubiRiverValleyandtheshores of LakeKutubuonthefringe of thesouthernhigh-landsinPapuaNewGuinea.Theydividethemselvesintothreesubgroups:thegurubumena,or'Kutubupeople";theawamena,themiddle-MubiValleydwellers;andthefoimenaproper,theso-calledLowerFoiwhoresidenearthejunction of theMubiandKikoririvers.Theterm'Foi"formerlyap-pliedtothecommonlanguage of allthreesubgroups.Itwassubsequentlyemployedasanethnonymbythefirstmissionaries.Location.Mostmembers of theFoipopulationinhabitthebanks of themiddlereaches of theMubiRiver,betweenap-proximately143 025 'and143035'Eandbetween6 027 'and6°30'S.ThealluvialMubiRiverValleyisapproximately670metersinaltitudeandabutsthehigherranges of thecentralhighlandsintheSouthernHighlandsProvince of PapuaNewGuinea.Theregionisineverysenseintermediatebetweenthehighlandsvalleystothenorthandthecoastalregions of theGulfProvincetothesouth.Thesoutheasterlymonsoonbringsconsiderablerainfallduringthemiddlemonths of theyear,whilethemonthsbetweenOctoberandMarcharerela-tivelydrier.Demography.The1979PapuaNewGuineaNationalCensuscountedsome4,000Foiandaccountedforanother400Foilivingelsewhereinthecountry.Foiterritorycom-prises1,689squarekilometers,andthepopulationdensityis 2. 4personspersquarekilometer.However,theFoisettle-mentareaisrestrictedtothebanks of theMubiRiverandtheshores of LakeKutubu;over60percent of theirlandisre-servedforhuntingandisnotpermanentlyinhabited.TheFoiareconsequentlyseparatedfromtheirneighborsbybufferzones of uninhabitedbush.TothenortharetheAngal-speakinggroups of theNembiPlateau;tothesouthwestaretheFasuorNamuPopeople;totheeastareKewaspeakers of theEraveRiverValley.Directlysouth of theFoiaresmallgroups of Kasere,Ikobi,andNamumispeakers of theinteriorGulfProvince.linguisicAffiliation.FoiandFiwagaaretheonlylan-guageswithintheEastKutubuanFamily of theKutubuanLanguageStock.Itiscloselyrelatedonlytothelanguages of theWestKutubuanFamily,whichincludestheFasu,Kasere,andNamumilanguages,butitalsoexhibitssomesmallamount of cognationwithotherinteriorPapuanlanguagessuchasMikaruan(Daribi)andKaluli.HistoryandCulturalRelationsItislikelythattheFoifirstenteredtheMubiValleyfromthesouthwest,bringingdomesticatedsagowiththem.AlthoughtheFoiwerebrieflycontactedalongthesouthernreaches of theirterritoryatdifferenttimesbyexplorersmovinginlandfromthePapuanGulfcoast,itwasnotuntilIvanChampionfirstsightedLakeKutubuin1935andconsequentlyvisitedthelakeonfootduringhisBamu-PuraripatrolthatregularFore63ings.Behindthewomen'shousesattheedge of theclearingwouldbeoneortwosmallstructureswherewomenstayedduringmenstruationandchildbirth.Theentiresettlementwassurroundedbyadefensivestockade.Today,themen'shousesandstockadesaregoneandmostfamilieslivetogetherinonehouse,ofteninlargeraggregatedvillages.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Foresubsist-enceisbasedonasystem of swiddenhorticultureandpighus-bandrythatisaugmentedtoasmalldegreebyhuntingandforagingactivities.Newgardensareclearedinforestedareasusingslash-and-burmtechniques.Afterfencing,theplotsareplantedusingadigging-sticktechnology.Themostimportantcropisthesweetpotato,whichisthestaplefoodforbothpeopleandpigs.Pigsareamajorform of wealthamongtheForeandsuccessfulpigraisersaremuchadmired.Treatedlikevaluedpets,pigsliveinclosephysicalproximitytotheirkeep-ersandarefedgardenproducedaily.Gardensalsocontainsmalleramounts of othertubers(taro,yams,manioc),pitpit(SaccharumeduleandSetariapalmifolia),maize,wingedbeans,bananas,sugarcane,andavariety of leafyvegetablesandherbs.Inrecentdecades,manynewcropshavebeenin-corporatedintoForegardens,includinglimabeans,peanuts,cabbages,pumpkins,onions,andpapayas.CoffeegrowingisamajorcommercialventureinwhichnearlyallForeparticipate.IndustrialArts.Aswithmany of theirneighbors,theForehavelargelyabandonedlocalmanufacture of clothing,tools,andutensils,relyingonarticles of Westernmanufacturethatarepurchasedwiththeproceedsfromcashcrops.Housebuildingandfencing of gardensandinterhamletpathwaysaretheprincipalmaleindustrialarts;utilitariannetbags,made of hand-spunbarkstring,arestillmanufacturedbywomen.Priortothe1950s,Forealsoextractedsaltforlocaluseandfortradefromtheash of Coirgigantea,anindigenoustallgrass.Thislastindustryhasbeensupersededbytheintroduc-tion of commercialsalt.Trade.RegionaltradewasalwaysanimportantmeansbywhichForeacquiredgoodsnotavailablelocally.Tradeitemspassedthroughcomplexnetworks of hand-to-handtransac-tionsbetweenestablishedtradingpartnerswhorarelylivedmorethanoneday'swalkapart.Ingeneral,stoneaxbladescamefromneighborstothenorthandwestinexchangeforlocallymanufacturedsalt,furpelts,birdplumes,andbetelnuts;black-palmbowsandarrowheadsweretradedfromthesoutheastforsaltandpiglets;occasionally,afewshellswereobtainedfromPapuanpeoplestwodaystothesouthforto-baccoandnetbags.However,nowadaysmostForerelyonsmallstoresandtheperiodicmarketinOkapatoobtainnon-localgoods.Division of Labor.TheForedefineonlyafewtasksastheexclusiveresponsibility of menorwomen.Ingardening,menfellthetreeswhilewomencleartheunderbrushandpilethedebrisforburning.Womenthendomost of thesoilprepar-tionandplantingwhilemenbuildtheenclosingfences.Thecultivation,tending,harvesting,andtransporting of mostcropsfallstowomen,butmenarefreetoassistwiththesetasksiftheysochoose.Pandanusandtobaccoarecultivatedonlybymenasareafewrituallyimportant,redvarieties of su-garcane,bananas,yams,andtaro.Womenundertakethepri-maryburdens of pigtendingunderthedosesupervision of men.Childcareagainultimatelyfallstowomenalthoughmenandoldersiblingsregularlyassist.Mostfoodispreparedandcookedbywomenwithmentakingmajorresponsibilityforobtainingfirewoodandpreparingtheearth-ovenfires.Womentraditionallymadeallitems of clothingandnetbags,andmenfashionedweapons,stoneaxes,andsomeitems of personaladornment.LandTenure.Landrightsareheldcommunallybythemaleandfemalemembers of localclangroupswhocurrentlyoccupythelandandcontrolaccesstoit.Gardenplotsareal.locatedforthe ... astheBishop of WallisandFutuna,thetwosau of Fu-tuna,thelavelua of Wallis,andthehighcommissionerrepre-sentingFrancesharethepower of decisionmakingaffectingthelives of WallisiansandFutunans.SocialControlandConflict.Thechurchisaverystrongagent of socialcontrol,alongwiththefamiliesandthefaipule of eachvillage.Moralguidanceissoughtfromthepriestsandnuns,andthissource of authorityhasdominatedthelives of Futunansformorethan100years.Thestavescarriedbythedeaconsinchurch,usedtokeepthecongregationawakeandseatedattentivelyduringservices,arebutonesymbol of thiscontroLConflictbetweenindividualsandbetweenfamiliesisresolvedthroughmediationbyaseniorfamilymember,thefaipule,or,ifseriousenough,byamember of thesau'sfamily.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBel"ef.Traditionally,manaandtapuwerecon,ceptsthatwerewidelyobserved.ThemaingodsincludedTa-galoa,theskygod;Mafuike,whobroughtfiretotheislands;SinaandthedemigodMaui;andancestralgodsandspirits of animalssuchasFeke(octopus),Fonu(tortoise),andTafolaa(whale).TheCatholicfaithhasdominatedthelives of Futinansfor150years,andithasdiminishedthoughnotcompletelyreplacedfaithinthesupernaturalpowers of thesau.FutunanstodayattendMassandbelongtovariousgroupswithintheCatholicorganization,thoughafewhaveexpressedtheirdissatisfactionwiththedominancethatthechurchhasovertheirlives.Thereisachurchineachvillage,aswellasseveralshrines,all of whicharecarefullytendedwithflowerseachweek.Asignificantthoughunknownpro-portion of people'sincomeisdonatedtothechurchforgen-eralupkeepaswellasforideologicalcauses.ReligiousPracaitione.TheCatholicpriestsonFutunaarebothEuropeanandWallisian,asarethenuns.FutunanstrainatthePacificTheologicalCollegeinFijitoenterthepriesthood.Ceremonies.Thechurchcalendardominates,withFirstCommunionaswellasChristmasandEasterasmajorsocialfestivities.BastilleDay(14July)andArmisticeDay(11No-vember),aswellasadaycommemoratingFatherChanel'sbeatification,areallcelebrated.Arts.TapamakingandmatweavingincorporateuniquelyFutunandesigns.TheFutunans'fineblack-inketchingontapaisparticularlydistinctive.Mencarvewoodenstavesandotherobjectswithparticulardesigns,mainlyforsale.Medicine.AcentralhospitalislocatedinLeava,Sigave,withaclinicinOnovillageandanotherinPoi.ThemedicalserviceisstaffedwithaFrenchdoctorandlocalnursingstaff.ManyFutunanpeoplealsousetheirtraditionaldoctors,whomaybewomenormen.Theymassageandrubaffectedareasusinglocaloilsandleaves;theymayalsogivemedicinesmade of localingredients.PregnantwomeninparticularvisittheFutunandoctorinordertoensureasuccessfulbirth.Somelovepotionsarealsoadministeredwhenrequested.DeathandAfterlife.FutunansareburiedaccordingtoCatholicritualincemeteriesinthedeadperson'svillage.EveryfuneralisfollowedbyaspecialMasseacheveningforsixdaysfollowingthedeath.Alargefeastalsomarksthepass-ing of eachFutunan.Catholicbeliefsintheafterlife,suchasHeavenandHell,areverymuchpart of Futunanthinking,re-64Forepolygyny,butthelack of marriageablewomencausedbythehighdeathratefromkurumeansthatrelativelyfewmensuc-ceed.Althoughmostyoungerwidowsdoremarry,manymenspendlongperiodswithoutwives.Undertheseconditions,mostmarriagesterminatewithadeath,anddivorceaccountsforonly 5-1 0percent of dissolutions.DonmeticUnit.Inthepast,theForeobservedstrictresi-dentialsegregationstemmingfrombeliefsaboutthedangersposedtomenbyfemalemenstrualpollution.Allmenabove 8-1 0years of agelivedcommunallyinlargemen'shouses,andwomenandyoungerchildrenresidedinsmallerseparatehouses.Today,residentialsegregation of thehouseholdisrarelymaintained.Nuclearfamilies,oftenaugmentedbyeld-erlyrelativesorunmarriedsiblings of thehusbandorwife,oc-cupyindividualhousesandaretheprimaryproductionandconsumptionunitsinForesociety.Inheritance.TheForeinheritlandrightsandvaluablesthroughtheirrecognizedpatriline.Althoughwomen,aftermarriage,retainrightstoland of theirnatalgroup,theycan-notpasstheseontotheirchildren.Socialization.Frombirth,Foreinfantsenjoynearlycon-stantphysicalcontactwithparents,siblings,andothercare-takers.Astoddlers,theyarefreetoinvestigatethe world nearbyandoftenareencouragedinspontaneousacts of ag-gression.Fromanearlyage,girlsareexpectedtoassisttheirmothersingardeningtasks.Youngboysformsmallgroupsbasedonfriendshipandroamhamletlandsexploring,hunt-ing,andplayingtogether.Occasionally,suchgroupsbuildtheirownhousesandcook,eat,andsleeptogether.At 8-1 0years of age,boysbegintheirformalinitiationintothesecret world of menwherethevalues of cooperation,mutualsup-port,andloyaltyarereinforced.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Foresocietyischaracterizedasrela-tivelyegalitarian,meaningthatmostsignificantdistinctionsinsocialstatusarebasedonlyonageandsex.Thereisnosys-tem of rankedstatusesandnosocialclasses.Nonetheless,in-equalitiesdoexist.Mendominatethepublicarenaandcon-siderthemselvessuperiortowomen,whoarecalled'thehands of men."Also,mencompetewitheachotherforpoliti-calinfluenceandprestigewiththemoresuccessfulindividu-alsachievingregionalprominenceandincreasedaccesstowives,valuables,andresources.PoliticalOrganization.Thetraditionalpoliticalorganiza-tionisbasedontheparish,or"district,"whichiscomposed of oneormoreadjacenthamletswhosemembersrecognizeanddefendacommonterritory,shareonesacredspiritplace,andideallysettleinternaldisputespeaceably.Parishesaresubdi-videdinto"sections"which,inthepast,weretheeffectivemilitaryunits.Parishsectionsrespondedjointlytothreatsandattackandnegotiatedthesettlement of hostilities.Sec-tions,inturn,arecomposed of "lines,"whichareexogamousdescentgroupsaswellaspoliticalunits.Althoughparishesandsectionsarecoresidentialgroups,ratherthandescentgroupswhosecompositionchangesconstantly,thetenuousgroupunityoftenisreinforcedinthelanguage of consanguin-itywithmembersreferringtothemselvesas'oneblood."Allsectionsandparishesareledbyleaders,calledbig-men,whocommandtherespectandloyalty of theirfollowersbydemon-stratingsuperiorskillinactivitiesnecessaryforsurvival of thegroup.Theyinitiateandorganizemostgroupactivities(in-cludingwarfare),directeconomictransactionswithothergroups,andrecruitimmigrantstobolstergroupnumbers.Abig-manmustbeastrong,dominatingfigure,anaggressivewarrior,andaskilledoratorandnegotiator.Healsomustfaceconstantcompetitionfromotherwould-beleaderswhowillusurphisauthorityifhefalters.Today,thelocalpoliticalsys-temiscomplementedbythenationalsystem of elective of- ficesandForebig-menoftenstandforprovincialandna-tionalassemblyseats.SocialControl.Big-men,asfightleadersandpeacenego-tiators,playanimportantroleincontrollingthelevel of hos-tilitiesbetweenparishes.Thethreat of sorceryalsoisapower-fulmeans of socialcontrolformembers of differentparishes.Withinparishes,unitydependsonreciprocityandcoopera-tionamongmembers.Perceivedviolations of thesegroupnormsarepubliclydenouncedbyoffendedpartiesandoftenleadtodemandsforrestitution.Actionsespeciallyprohibitedwithinaparisharestealing,adultery,fightingwithlethalweapons,andsorcery.Theimposition of sanctions,however,restslargelyontheauthority of big-menandtheirabilitytocommandthecooperation of others.Withinhouseholds,thestructuredantagonismbetweenmenandtheirwivescanbeinfluencedbytheintervention of closerelativesandalsoismodulatedbyfearthatwivessecretlymaycontaminateabu-sivehusbandswithmenstrualsecretions.Conflict.Inthepast,interparishwarfarewasanormalas-pect of everydayForelife.Drivenbyanethicthatdemandedretaliationforactualorsuspectedwrongs,sporadicraidsandcounterraidsweremadeintoenemyterritorytokillthosethoughtculpableandtodestroytheirhouses,pigs,andgar-dens.Fightingtendedtooccurbetweenmembers of neigh-boringparishes,andatanygiventimeaparishwaslikelytobeatpeacewithsomeneighborsandactivelyprosecutinghostil-itieswithothers.Bymutualconsent,peacecouldbedeclared,butthetenor of interparishrelationswassubjecttorapidturnabout.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligituBeliefs.Forereligionconsists of acomplexbody of beliefsconcerningnature,humannature,andthespiritualrealm.Itisanimatedbyahost of ancestorspirits,ghosts of therecentlydeceased,andnaturespirits.CentralfiguresinForecosmologyincludeasacredcreator-spiritcouplewhoemergedfromaswampinSouthForeandtraveledthroughtheregion,leavinghumansandmanyusefulspecies of plantsandanimalsalongtheway.Theyalsoprovidedfundamentalteachingsforacceptablehumanexistenceemphasizingthethemes of fertility,strength,cooperation,andloyaltythatareexpressedinmythsandritualactivities.ThiscoupleexistsinmanymanifestationsamongtheFore,andtheymaketheirpresenceknownmostfrequentlybygivingtheirvoicestotheplaying of sacredflutesonallimportantceremonialocca-sions.Ghostsandnaturespiritsarecapable of causingillnessormisfortunewhenoffendedand of rewardingrespectfulbe-haviorbyensuringabundantgardensandwildresources.Inrecentdecades,manyForehavebeenevangelizedbyChris-tianmissionaries.66Futuna.coast.IntheKeleMeaperiod,Futunanstookupresidenceintheinterior of theislandinfortifiedsites;Alofiwasalsoin-habitedduringthisperiod.KeleUlaistheperiodcoveredbyoraltradition,whenFutunawaslinkedwithTongaandSa-moa(andpossiblyFiji)throughvisitsbychiefsandtheirfol-lowersforbothpeaceableandwarlikepurposes.Oraltradi-tionalsorecordsthearrival of a'Chinese"shipwhosecrewleftnumerousdescendants.In1837FatherChanel,aFrenchMaristpriest,wasone of thefirstEuropeanstotakeupresi-denceonFutuna;hewasmurderedin1841,buttheCatholicmissioncontinueditsstrongpresence.Chanelwasbeatifiedandhisrelicsreturnedin1976torestinashrineonFutuna.In18 42, thelavelua(highchief) of WallissoughtprotectionfromFrance,amovewithwhichthetwotraditionalleaders of Futunaagreed.Futuna,togetherwithWallis,becameapro-tectorate of Francein1887andacolonyin1913.In1961,FutunaandWallisbecameanoverseasterritory of France.Futunawasmarginallyinvolvedin World WarIIwithafewshipsbeingwreckedthere,particularlyoffitsnortherncoast.WhennickelminesopenedinNewCaledonia,Futunanstookadvantage of theopportunitytoworkforwages;thestream of migrationhascontinuedtothepresentday,withafewreturningtotheirhomeisland,especiallyintheiroldage.SettlementsTheisland of FutunaisdividedbytheVaigaifoRiverintotwokingdoms,SigaveinthewestandAlo(includingtheisland of Alofi)intheeast.Villagesarelocatedaroundthecoastline of Futunaandlinkedbyoneroad;therearenopermanentin-habitantsonAlofi.ThemaincommercialandadministrativecenterisinLeavainSigave,buttherearesmallshopsandachurchineachof...

... a world inhabitedbyavariety of non-humanspirits,most of whicharedangeroustohumanswhocomeintocontactwiththem.Eachclanhasoneormorepowerfulspiritsorpowerembodiedinananimalform,insealife,orinalandscapefeatureonclanland.Spirits of thedead,particularlythose of individualswhodiedaviolentdeath,canbeasource of dangertohumanswhoencounterthem.Un-seenpowerorenergyisthoughttobeasource of variedforms of controlbyhumanswhoknowhowtodirectitthroughmagicspells.Theuse of magic,forbothpositiveandnegativepurposes,isacommonsubject of concerninMandaklives.ReligiousPractitioners.Mostadultmenandwomenarethoughttopossesssomemagicspells,althoughonlysomemenarecapable of performingstrongerforms of sorcery,rit-ualempowerment,andsuchspecializedforms of magicasusedinsharkcatching,seabecalming,andweathercontrol.Villagechurchleadersareusuallyfromamongthelocalmalepopulation.Manam167ManamETHNoNYM:VulkanIslandersOrientationIdentification.ManamIsland,formerlycalledVulkan-InselorHansa-VulkaninselbytheGermans,anditsoutlier,thesmallisland of Boesa(Aris-Insel)6.5kilometerstothenorthwest,arepart of theSchoutenIslandarchipelago,achain of smallvolcanicislandsthatstretchesalongthenorth-eastcoast of PapuaNewGuinea.Nearthemouths of theRamuandSepikrivers,Manamispart of thenorthcoastandSepikRivercultureareas.Location.Situatedjustsouth of theequatorat4°5'Sand145°3'EandwithinthePacificRing of Fire,Manamisasmallcone-shapedislandabout13kilometersacrossand40kilometersincircumference.Astill-activevolcanowithcra-tersthatreachaheight of 1,350meters,itcontinuouslyspewsforthashandoccasionallyeruptsmoltenlava.In1957theentirepopulationwasevacuatedtothemainlandforayear,attheend of thattimereturningtotheremains of ash-coveredvillagesontheisland.Manamis16kilometersfromthemain-landdistrictstation of Bogia,nearHansaBayinMadangProvince.Therearenoriversorpermanentstreamsontheis-land.NorthwestmonsoonwindsbringarainyseasonthatlastsfromNovembertoApril,traditionallyatimeforcanoebuildingandthestaging of feastsandceremonies.FromMaytoOctober,southeasttradewindsbringadryseasonthatwasalwaysatime of scarcitybeforetheadvent of tradestores.Demography.In19 82 thepopulation of Manamwasesti-matedtobe6,400,withanother 420 peopleonBoesaIsland.DespitethefactthatmanyyoungerManamhavechosentolivepermanentlyonthemainlandbecause of thelimitationonavailablelandontheisland,theManamareconcernedaboutarapidlyincreasingpopulation.ThevillagepopulationispredominantlyindigenousManamIslanders,withonlyasmallnumber of in-marryingspousesfrommainlandPapuaNewGuinea.LinguisticAffllaion.Manam,withWogeo,isclassifiedintheSiassiFamily of Austronesianlanguages.TheManamrefertotheirlanguageas'Manampile"(Manamspeechorlanguage).Althoughthesamelanguageisspokenthroughouttheisland,itisundergoingasoundshiftandtwoformsarecurrentlyspokenondifferenthalves of theisland.MostManamalsospeakTokPisin(MelanesianPidgin)andsome-mostlyyoungereducatedpeople-alsospeakEnglish.HistoryandCulturalRelationsAustronesianspeakersarrivedinNewGuinealaterthanPap-uanspeakers,bringingwiththemitemssuchasthedomesti-catedpig,outriggercanoes,andnavigationalskills.TheProto-AustronesianLapitaculture,centeredintheBismarckArchipelagosinceatleast1,600B.c.,isbelievedtobeances-traltotheManam.TheManamthemselvessaythattheycamefromthewestpriortosettlingonManam.EarlywrittenreferencestoManamarefoundfromthesixteenthcenturyonintheships'logs of Europeanswhonotedtheisland'svol-cano.RegularcontactwithEuropeansbeganwhentheGer-mansclaimedsovereigntyovernortheastNewGuineain1884.Therehaveneverbeennonindigenouscoconutplanta-tionsonManam;however,overtheyearsmanyManam.haveworkedascontractlaborersoncoastalplantationsandinthegoldfields of WauandBulolo.Sinceitsestablishmentontheislandin1 925 ,theSociety of DivineWordCatholicmissionhasbeenthemostsignificantWesterninfluence.During World War11theJapaneseoccupation of themainlandcausedtheManamtoabandontheirvillagestoliveinthejunglefortheduration of thewar.Theend of thewaropenedthewaytoconsiderablechange,includingmuchinterestinthecargocultandprotonationalistactivities of theRaiCoastleaderYali,nativeproduction of copraforsale,andthedevel-opment of othercommercialactivities.Theseenterprises,combinedwithincreasingeducationalandjobopportunitiesonthemainland,haveledtoacontinuingdependenceoncashandaconsumereconomy.TheManamhavetradition-allymaintainedexchangerelationswithhereditarytradepart-ners(taoa)onthemainland.ThereislittleornocontactwithotherSchoutenIslanders.TrademostfrequentlyoccurswiththeMomboanvillagesonthecoastdirectlyacrossfromManamandwithKaian,Boroi,Watam,andMarangisvillagesneartheRamuRiver.SettlementsTherearefourteenvillagesonManamandtwoonBoesaranginginsizefromaround115to1,000people,withtheav-eragebeingabout500.Villagesarescatteredsettlementsrangingfromthebeachupthemountainsideintothejungle.Gardensareusuallylocatedonthemountainsidebeyondthesettledarea.Housesarebuilt of woodwithroofs of coconut-frondthatchandwalls of wovenbambooorcoconut-frondsiding.Eachvillagehasacentralclearedceremonialgroundandalargemen'sceremonialhouse(inTokPisin,haustam-baran)prohibitedtowomen.Othersettlementsincludeasmallvolcanologyobservatory,agovernmentsubdistrictheadquarters,andtwoCatholicmissions,eachwithachurchandgovernment-runschool.Adirtroadpartiallycirclestheisland,butvehiclesarefewandtravelbetweenvillagesispri-marilybyfoot,boat,orcanoe.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheManamarefishersandsubsistencegardenerswhopracticeslash-and-bumhorticulture.Because of therelativelypoorsoilandlack of groundwater,alimitedvariety of cropsisgrown.Mostim-portantamongthemaretaro,sweetpotatoes,cassava,andbananas.Yams,prevalentonthemainland,donotgrowwellonManam.Treecrops,suchasbreadfruit,coconuts,andCanatiumalmonds,supplementthevegetablediet.Fishingisseasonal,themonsoonshinderingfishingonthesouthside of theisland.Pigsareanoccasionalsource of proteinbutaremostimportantaswealthitemsusedinbothlocalandexter-naltrade.Otherdomesticatedanimalsincludechickensanddogs.Thelatter,primarilyraisedforhuntingandprotection,aresometimeseaten.Copra,soldeitherlocallytodistributorsordirectlytotheCopraMarketingBoardinMadang,istheonlycashcrop.Coffeeandcacao,importantmainlandcashcrops,arenotviableonManam.Atpresent,cashfromcopraisusedtobuyrice,tinnedmeat,fish,andotherimportedfoodspurchasedattradestoresontheisland.Malaita161SettlementsVerysharpcontrastsinecologicaladaptationdistinguishthe'bush'peoples of theMalaitainteriorfromthose of thela-goons of thenortheastcoast(Lauspeakers,whoalsohaveacolonyonMaramasike)andthelagoons of thecentralwestcoast(Langalangaspeakers).Theformer,livingonisletsandoncoralplatformsdredgedfromthelagoonfloor,specializeinfishing(inthelagoonandtheopensea)andinbarteringfishandothermarineproductsforrootvegetablesandforestproductsofferedbypeoples of theadjacentmountains.TheLangalangaspeakersmayearlierhavehadasimilaradapta-tion,butinrecentcenturiestheirfishinghasbeencomple-mentedandovershadowedbythespecializedproductionandexportorbarter of shellvaluables.Whatfollowsdealsprimar-ilywiththenumericallypreponderant'bush"peoples,butitalsobrieflyexaminesthe'saltwater'variantsoncommoncul-turalthemes(thecontrastbetweentoloor'bush'andasiorseaiswidelydrawninMalaitalanguages).Inbushareas,settlementswerescatteredhomesteadsortinyhamlets,clus-teredcloseenoughforcollectivedefenseandfrequentlymovedbecause of pollutionviolationsorgardeningcycles.Eachsettlementmappedoutacosmologicalpatterninwhichthemen'shouseaboveandthemenstrualhutbelowbecamesymbolicmirrorimages,withdomestichousesinbetween.Duringthecolonialperiod,missions,laborrecruiters,andthegovernmentencouragedmovementstothecoast;andthesemovementswereacceleratedbythepostwarMaasinaRuleanticolonialmovement.Nowadays,theMalaitapopulationismainlyconcentratedalongthecoastinsubstantialvillages,exceptinremainingpaganareas(notablytheeastKwaiointe-rior)whereoldpatternsstillprevail;largeMalaitapopula-tionshavealsoresettledaroundHoniara,withpocketselse-whereintheSolomons.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Inbushareas of Malaita,tarowastheprimarysubsistencecrop,growninacontinuouscycleinforestswiddens.Yamswereasecondarysubsistencecrop,butbecausetheyweregrowninanannualcycle,theywereaccordedritualimportance.Plantainsandarange of othercultigensandforestproductsaugmentedthesestarchystaples.(Thetaroplantsweredevastatedbyviralandfungalblightsafter World WarII,andsweetpotatoes-culturallydisvaluedbutconvenient-havebecomethedomi-nantstaple.)Animalproteincamefromfish,grubs,birds,cuscus,opossums,andothergame,aswellasdomesticpigs.Thelatter(andtheirtheftanddefense)wereafocus of cul-turalattention;thepigswereusedmainlyinsacrifices,mortu-aryfeasts,bride-wealth,andcompensationpayments.Strungshellbeadsanddolphinteethservedasmediums of ex-change,usedinbride-wealth,homicidepayments,compensa-tion,andmortuaryfeasts.Red-shelldiscsproducedinLanga-langa(especiallytheten-stringedtafuli'ae of northernMalaita)werewidelyused,butKwaioproducetheirownwhite-shellbeads,whichinstandardlengthsandcombina-tions(denominations)serveasanall-purposemedium of ex-change.For 120 years,Malaitanshavebeenlockedintoasys-tem of circulatingmaleplantationlabor(originallytoQueensland,Fiji,Samoa,andNewCaledonia,and,inthiscentury,tointernalplantations).Inthelast 20 years,thisad-aptationhasincreasinglygivenway(exceptforthediehardpagans)topeasantproduction of copra,cocoa,andlivestock,topettyentrepreneurship,andtowagelaborinurbanset.tings.Today,Malaitansoccupyeveryrung of adevelopingclasssystem,rangingfromprosperousbusinesspeopleandparliamentarianstoamarginalizedandviolentlypredatoryurbanunderclass.IndustrialArts.Traditionally,chippedchertadzesweretheprimaryfellingandcuttingtools.Otherelements of earlyMalaitatechnologyincludedpouchesandbagswovenfrombushfibers,riverfishandbirdnets,intricatefishhooks,andlargecompositeseagoingcanoeswithcaulkedplanksandhighprowandstem.Incontrasttotherelativeelaborateness of theirweaponryandsomeaspects of theirmaritimetechnology,Malaitabushpeoplesspecializedinakind of throwawaytooltechnology:crudelychippedchertadzebladeswereusedinplace of oldergroundbasaltblades;giantbamboowasusedforwater,cooking,andconstruc-tion;today,diggingsticksarenotevenfire-hardened(atleastamongtheKwaio).Withhighlyunevenaccesstoedu-cationandWesternizationonMalaitaduringthelastfortyyears,Malaitansnowspanatechnologicalrangefromengi-neers,doctors,andpilotstosubsistencecultivatorsusingmagicanddiggingsticks.Trade.Precolonialtradesystemsincludedthefar-flungLangalanganetworks,throughwhichshellvaluablesweretradedforpigs,produce,andotheritems,andthewell-organizedmarkets(especiallyonthenortheasterncoast)whereLaubarteredfishandmarineproductsfortaro,yams,Canariumalmonds,andforestproductswithinteriorpopula-tions(Baegu,Baelelea,Fataleka,To'aba'ita).Chertforadzebladesandotherscarcematerialsseemalsotohavebeentraded.Division of Labor.Menandwomenhadcomplementaryrolesinthedivision of labor,withwomendoingthebulk of everydaygardenwork,foraging,domesticlabor,andchildcareandmenfellingtrees,fencingland,fishing,andfighting.LandTenure.Primaryrightstolandareobtainedthroughtracingpatrifiliation,butsecondaryrightsarealsograntedtothosewithmaternallinkstoancestors.KinshipKinGroupsandDescentThroughouttheMalaitainte-rior,descent-basedlocalgroupshavingprimaryinterestsinestatesinlandandprimaryconnectionstoancestorsarethemostimportantsociopoliticalunits.Everywhere,theidealpatternisforvirilocalresidenceandpatrifiliation,withchil-drengrowingupintheirfather'splaceanddevelopingapri.maryattachmenttheretolandsandancestors.Ideally,then,members of thegroupshouldallbeconnectedtothefound-ingancestorsthroughpatrifilialchains(andthosewhoare,aredistinguishedas"agnates").However,throughoutMa-laita,connectionswithmaternalrelatives(and,throughthem,tolandsandancestors)areregardedasveryimportantandcomplementarytoconnectionstoandthroughpaternalrelatives."Nonagnates"arerecognizedashavingsecondaryrights of residenceandlanduse.Suchtiesareextendedthroughfather'smother,mother'smother,andmoredistant6n;andancestorsrelatedthroughsuchlinkswerecommonlyMalaita163distantrelative,iftheseducerorsorcerercouldnotbekilledhimself.Aculturaldistinctionwasmade(atleastamongtheKwaioand'Are'are)betweenpowers of productivity(andas-sociatedmagicandritual)andpowers of destruction(war-fare,theft,vandalism):akind of uneasytensionexistedbe-tweengroupswhoseprimarycommitmentsweretostabilityandprosperity(andwhosesafetylayintheircapacitytoputupbloodmoneyagainsttransgressors)andgroupswhosean-cestorsincitedandsupportedkilling,theft,anddestruction(andwhoselivingwasconsequentlytoounstabletoallowsus-tainedproductivity).ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheprecolonialreligioussystemonMa-laitacenteredonthepropitiation of ancestralspirits(akalo,agalo,adalo)throughtheconsecrationandsacrifice of pigs.Eachdescentgrouphadoneormorefocalshrineswherereli-giousofficiantssacrificed;hierarchies of shrinesandpriest-hoodsmarkedhigherlevels of segmentaryconnectionbe-tweengroupsandbondstocommonancientancestors.Incommunitieswithmaritimeorientations(Lau,Langalanga,Maramasike),sharkswere ... isnegotiated,withmost of ittobepaidduringthecourse of theMejbratfeastcycle.Wifegiversreciprocatewithprestations of lesservalue:taroandothergardenproduce,netbags,andstring.Most of theclothsthatmakeupthewifetaker'sprestationgotothenewwifeandformthenucleus of thenewhousehold'swealth.DomesticUnit.Mejbratwivesareconsideredimportantdecisionmakersandenjoyahighdegree of respectwithinthemaritalunitforthreemajorreasons:becauseawife'sgarden-inglaborisveryimportant;becauseMejbratholdthatawom-an'sgardenproducebelongstoher,andbecause,withuxorilocalresidence,marriedwomenliveneartoclose,sup-portivekin.Intheearlydays of marriage,ayoungwifewilltemporarilylivewithherhusband'smother,butthecouplequitesoonestablishesitsownhouseholdinthearea of thewife'sfather'smaternalkin.Whenchildrenarequitesmalltheylivewiththeirparents,butuponattainingtheage of ini-tiationaboywillgotoliveforextendedperiods of timewithhismother'sbrotherandagirlwillspendmuchtimeinthehousehold of herfather'ssister.Ahouseholdproperwillcon-sist,therefore, of ahusbandandwife,theiruninitiatedchil-dren,and,often,aninitiation-agenieceornephewaswell.Inheritance.Accesstogardenlandsfollowsthematernallinethroughwives.Otherpropertytendstopassfrommoth-er'sbrothertosister'ssonandfromfather'ssistertobrother'sdaughter.Esotericloreispassedalongthesamelinesasmov-ableproperty,butitistaughtratherthaninherited.Socialization.Youngchildren,stilllivingwithinthenatalfamily,arecaredforanddisciplinedbytheirmothers.Educa-tionintheappropriateskillsandloreisthejob of themoth-er'sbrother(forboys)orthefather'ssister(forgirls).Bothsexesundergoinitiationundertheguidance of theappropri-ateuncleoraunt.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Mejbratsocialorganizationcentersontheconsanguinealfamily,definedinterms of themother,mother'sbrother,andmother'sbrother'sdaughter.Thesib-lingrelationship,withadifferentiationbetweeneldersandjuniors,alsostronglyinfluencestheorganization of peopleintocooperativegroups.PoliticalOrganization.Mejbratsocietyisessentiallyegali-tarian,buta"firstamongequals"big-mansystembasedonprestigeandwealthisnotable.Leadershipstatuscanbeachievedbywomenaswellasbymen,buttherangeoverwhichthisleadershipmaybeexercisedisquitesmall-essentiallylimitedtothehouseholdsettlement.GovernmenteffortstoorganizetheMejbratintokampongshashadlittleapparentimpactonMejbratpoliticalandsociallife:thekam-pongstendtoexistsolelyonpaper,andtheMejbratcontinuetofollowtraditionalsettlementandorganizationalpatterns.Thissituationcanbeattributedlargelytothefactthatgov-ernmentalorganizationalexpectations,being of aWestern,male-centeredmodel,arecontradictedonalllevelsbytradi-tionalMejbratpractice.SocialControl.Most of Mejbratsocialcontroliseffectedthroughthebeliefinandobservance of taboosregardingin-terpersonalbehaviors.Arichsystem of totemicbeliefsandsupernaturalsanctionsservetokeepmostproblemsincheck.However,fines of clothwealthmayalsobeleviedagainstanoffendingparty-ifayoungmaniscaughtengaginginpre-maritalsex,forexample,thefamily of theyoungwomanin-volvedisentitledtodemandthathe"showrespect"throughpayment of agreatmanycloths.Warfare.ThereisnoinformationavailableregardingMej-bratwarfarepriortothearrival of theMoluccantradersintheregion,butitisknownthatonceslavingwasintroducedtheMejbratengagedinwarfare.Dutchcontroleventuallybroughtslavingtoanend,andtheMejbratarenotknowntobeparticularlyinterestedinlarge-scaleconflict.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheMejbratconceive of theearthasaflatdisk,atthecenter of whichisalargeisland.Peopleliveonthetop of thisisland,whilespiritsliveonitsotherside.Com-municationbetweenthesetwoworldstakesplaceat"places of emergence"throughwhichspiritscanpass.Each of the190MarquesasIslandscities of acognaticsystem,andthefactthatmarriageoftentookplacewithinvalleys(suchthatindividualswouldnotmovefarfromtheirnatallands)meantthatlandrightswerehighlycontested;evenifthefirstbornwasthetheoreticalowner,othersmighthaveuserightsthatwere,ineffect,un-conditional.Prominentwarriorsandothers of highstatusoftenownedsubstantialtracts of landthatwerefarmedbyde-pendentswhoeffectivelyexchangedtheirlaborforsecurityandaccesstothemeans of production.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.ThemainunitsinMarquesansocietywereterritorialratherthandescent-based;althoughresidencewasnormallypatrivirilocal,cognaticreckoningper-mittedstrategicaffiliationandmobility.Withmata'eina'a("tribes")themaincorporateactiongroupswerefactionsas-sociatedwithaparticularlypowerfulfigure,whichdevelopedthroughpoliticalmanipulationandeconomicdependence,andtapugradesassociatedwithparticularoccupations,suchasfishing,woodcarving,etc.;thesegroupsweresometimesalsofeastingandritualgroups.KinshipTerminoloy.Marquesankintermsare of theHawaiiantype.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.TheMarquesasarewell-knownincomparativemarriagestudiesfortheinstitution of nonfraternalpolyandry,butthisfeature of theirsocietyoftenhasnotbeenadequatelycontextualizedwithinindigenousrankstructuresandeco-nomicrelations.Onlywomen of highrankhadsecondaryhusbands,whowerevirtuallyalwaysalsoservantsorother-wise of muchlowerstatusthantheirprimary,oftenchiefly,husbands.Conjugalrelationsvariedwithsocialstatus:intheupperlevels,marriageswereoftencontractedbetweenelitefamiliesfromdifferentvalleysorislands,forthepurpose of initiatingorconsolidatingpoliticalalliances;atmiddlelevelstherewasgreaterlocalendogamy;andrelationsamongcomZmonersweresaidtobemorefluidandpromiscuous.DomesticUnit.Marquesanmenandwomen of rankoftenateinsegregatedclubhouses,whiledependentshadnoau-tonomoushouseholds of theirown.Hencedomesticitywastructuredbywidereconomicandritualrelations,especiallybytapuprinciplesthatrequiredthose of rank,andmostmengenerally,toeatseparately.Polyandry,andtheassociatedre-lations of rankanddependence,brokedowninthesecondhalf of thenineteenthcentury,andfamiliesapproximatheWesternnuclearmodeldeveloped.Inheritance.Inthenineteenthcenturyinheritancewaystructuredbytheprinciples of primogenitureandbirth-order-basedrank,inthenorthernpart of thegroupespecially,itap-pearedthatchildrenotherthanthefirstbornwouldinheritlittle.Inequalitywas,however,qualifiedbytheextension of userightsandalteredbyperiodicseizuresandredistributions of land.Socialization.Infantsandchildrenwereraisedbybothparentsandoldersiblings;adolescentsandyoungadultswereexpectedtobehaveinarelativelyuncontrolledandantisocialmanner.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Marquesansocietywashierarchi-callystructuredonthebasis of tapuprinciples,ritualoccupa-tions,sex,age,chieflyrank,andproperty.Poweracquiredthroughwarfareorshamanisticaccomplishmentwasasim-portantaslegitimateclaimstorank.Asindigenousrankstructuresbrokedown,otherforms of privilegeassociatedwithparticularforms of paidemploymentdeveloped.TheclassdistinctionsnowapparentintheMarquesasarethesameasthosethatexistelsewhereinFrenchPolynesia,andtheyderivefromeducation,governmentorprofessionalem-ployment,andinsomecasesinvestment.PoliticalOrgaizaon.AsinothereasternPolynesiangroups,therewere'chiefdoms,"butthesedidnotusuallyconstituteclearlydefinedterritorialdomains.Withinvalleys,therewereoftenseveralcompetingchiefs,sometimeswithcrosscuttingloyalties.Mostislandsweresplitintodualdivi-sions,theconstituenttribes of eachnotionallysharingde-scentfromone of apair of brothers.Inthenorthernpart of thegroupthisdivisiondidseemtostructurewarfare,buteventhereconflictwithinaswellasbetweenthegroupsoccurred.Therewasnochieflyleadershipatthedivisionlevel.SocialControl.Intheearlynineteenthcenturydisputeswereresolvedthrougharbitrationorfighting;thelosersinanymajorconflictsometimeslefttheislandsincanoestosearchforanewhome.Sorcerywaswidelypracticed,butitwasdoneintheinterests of individualsratherthanasanexpression of collectiveauthority.MarquesanlawwasneverrecognizedbytheFrenchcolonialregime.Conflict.Warfarewasendemicinearlycontactsociety,anditwassystematicallylinkedwithrivalrousfeastingandcompetitivefoodproductioninthestruggleforprestigeandland.Factionaldisputeswithinparticularvalleypopulationswerealsocommon,andtheyoftenresultedinthedisplace-ment of chiefsandotherprominentfamilies.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Indigenousreligionwasstronglydualis-tic,postulatingaliving world of light(ao)anda world of ghosts,deities,darkness,andnight(po).Thepresence of dei.ties(etua)inthis world wasbelievedtobevitalformakingworkefficaciousandforsecuringlifeandprosperity.Therewasanextensivehierarchy of deities,rangingfromthefound-ingoriginators of thecosmostotheirparticularexpressionsinthegods of occupationsandplaces,andtherealsowereapotheosizedshamansandchiefs,oftenlinkedwithlocaltemples(me'ae).Theaggrievedghosts of majorshamanswereoftenpropitiatedtorelievefamine,andmanylesserfigureswereassociatedwithillnessandothermisfortunes.Sincethelatenineteenthcentury,morethan90percent of MarquesanshavebecomeCatholics,most of theremainderbeingProtes-tantsdescendedfromHawaiianmissionteachers.ModemMarquesanreligionhasnotbeenadequatelyinvestigated,butsyncreticelementsappeartopersist,includingbeliefinarange of evilspirits,suchasghosts of womenwhohavediedinchildbirth.ReligiousPractitioners.Thereweretwomajorclasses of indigenouspriests:shamans(tau'a),whoweredirectlyin.spiredbydeitiesandinsomecaseswerethoughtresponsibleMaisin157andotheradornments,andassumemourningdressthatcon-cealstheentirebodyandface.Immediatelyupondiscovery of adeath,theseclosekinsetupawailinglamentation,whilelesscloserelatives of thedeceasedbringcoconutsfordistri-butionthroughoutthevillage.Assoonaspossibleafteradeath,thebodyiswashedanddecoratedandachantisper-formedoverthecorpseinanefforttodeterminethesorcererresponsible(thecorpseisthoughttoreactviolentlyatthenaming of thesorcerer'svillage).Assoonasmaybeafterthesepreparations,thebodyisburiedeitherunderthehouse of thedeceasedorinhisgardens.Ifthelatterburialisper-formed,asmallmortuaryhutisbuiltoverthegrave.Aseries of smallfeastsareheldduringtheensuingperiod of moum-ing,andafterabouttwotothreemonthsthebodyisduguptoretrievethehead,whichthereafteriskeptinasmallbasketinthehouse of thesurvivingmembers of thedeceased'shouse-hold.Afinal,large-scalemortuaryfeastisheldbetweensixmonthstoayearafterthedeath,oftenaspart of themaduna,whereone of thenearestkin(thoughneverthefatherorthewidow of thedeceased)performsadancewiththedeceased'shead.Atthistimethemortuaryhutisdestroyed,andtheper-iod of publicmourningcomestoanend.BibliographyAbbi,B.L(1975).TraditionalGroupingsandModernAssoci-ations:AStudy ... land of thedead,whichisunderthesurface of theearthandreferredtoas'darkParadise."SeealsoPentecostBibliographyDeacon,A.Bernard(1934).Malekula:AVanishingPeopleintheNewHebrides.London:Routledge&KeganPaul.Larcom,JoanC.(1980).'PlaceandthePolitics of Marriage:TheMewun of Malekula,NewHebrides."Ph .D. dissertation,StanfordUniversity.MacClancy,Jeremy(1981).ToKillaBirdwithTwoStones:AShortHistory of Vanuatu.PortVila,Vanuatu:VanuatuCul-turalCentrePublications.Sope,Barak(1976).LandandPoliticsintheNewHebrides.Suva,Fiji:SouthPacificSocialSciencesAssociation.Weightman,Barry,etal.(1981).Vanuatu:TwentiWanTing-tingLongTaemblongIndependens.PortVila,Vanuatu:Insti-tute of PacificStudies.JOANC.LARCOMMailu155IndustrialArts.Mailumanufacture,beyondtheconstruc-tion of theirhouses,includesthebuilding of fencesforthegardens,theweaving of matsfrompandanusleavesandreeds,basketweaving,themaking of armshells,andtheforging of stoneimplements.OnMailuIsland,thetwomostsignificantitems of manufacturearethecoiledclaypotsand, of course,thecanoesuponwhichtheislandeconomyisbased.Trade.TheMailuIslanders,withtheirbig,oceangoingca-noes,participateinawide-rangingtradenetworkthatex-tendsbeyondtheirownterritory.Tradeisaseasonaloccupa-tion:fromJulythroughAugust,MailutravelwestwardwithlocallymanufacturedpotteryinordertotradeforbetelnutswiththeAroma.Onthereturnvoyagetheywillstoptofishforshellswithwhichtomaketheshellarmbandsthatareusedthroughouttheregionastradeitems.FromSeptemberthroughOctobertheysailwestagain,carryingacargo of sur-plussagototradeforpigsanddogs.DuringNovemberandDecember,theyvoyageeastwardwiththepigsanddogstotradeforarmshells,ebonycarvings,baskets,and(priortotheintroduction of steelaxes)polished-stoneaxeblades.Tradi-tionally,Mailualsotradedboartusks,shelldisks,andim-portednettedstringbags.Thistradewasnotonlythecenter-piece of theislander'ssubsistenceeconomy,italsoprovidedthenecessarywealthtosupportthebigfeasts(maduna)heldbythevillageclanseveryyear.Division of Labor.Potterymakingisdoneonlybywomen;armshellmanufacture,seagoingtrade,canoebuilding,houseconstruction,andhuntingarealldoneonlybymen.Gardenclearingandtheconstruction of gardenfencesaremen'stasks,whileallweedingisdonebywomen.Womendoalltheday-to-daycooking.Exceptforlimitednightfishingwithtorches,womendonotfish.Pigtendingisprimarilyawom-an'stask.Menmaketheirowntoolsortradeforthem.Childcareistheprovince of women.LandTenure.Ownership of gardenlandsandcanoesisvestedinthelocalclansection,underthedirection of theheadman.Dwellinghousesbelongtothehouseholdhead,andownershippassesfromhimtohiseldestson,whileinthepastthemen'shouseswereheldcorporatelybytheclan.Rightstoindividualcoconutandbetelpalmsareheldindividually.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Mailuclansarepatrilineal,dis-persedoverseveralvillages.Local(village-level)clan"sec-tions"arenamed,exogamous,andagnaticallyrecruited.Anin-marryingwomanexchangesherclanmembershipforthat of herhusband,andherchildren,thoughinitiallyheldtobe-longtoherbrother(thustoherfather'slineage),arenormallyclaimedatsomepointbyherhusbandthroughthegiftof...

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Siwai303ressSocietywasestablishedtomarketcocoa,copra,andotherlocalcommodities;thesocietygrewrapidlyinthe1960sand1970sbutcollapsedasindividualproducerstradeddi-rectlywitheastcoastwholesalers.Mostvillageshaveatleastonetradestore.Division of labor.Horticulturewasandiswomen'swork,andwomenworkedinthegardensfourtimesasmuchasmenintheearlydecades of thiscentury.Menspentsometimeinthegardens,undertookarduousclearingactivities,hunted,wereresponsibleforgardenmagic,andorganizedceremonialactivities.Theintroduction of sweetpotatoesreducedthene-cessityforlonghours of horticulturalworkforthewomen.Cashcropsbecamemaleactivities,gardenmagicdisap-peared,andtimespentonceremonialactivitiesdeclined.ManymenandsomewomenarenowemployedinsideSiwai,butevenmore of thepeopleworkoutsideSiwaiatthemineandinthetowns.landTenure.ThroughoutSiwai,landisownedbymatri-lineages.Everymatrilineageownsfullorresidualrightstotracts of gardenlandorpotentialgardenlandandmostmatri-lineagesclaimownership of moredistanthuntingareasorfishingstreams.Landwassoldincertainexceptionalcircum-stances,andsomeraretracts of landarenowindividuallyowned.Menconductedagriculturalactivitiesontheirwives'land,andhighlevels of cross-cousinmarriagepreviouslyen-suredtheintegrity of tracts of matrilineageland.Highpopu-lationdensities,nontraditionalmarriage,andcocoacultiva-tionhaveincreasedthecomplexity of landtenureandinheritance.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Siwaisocietyisdividedintomanymatrilineages,butmostvillagesareprimarilycomposed of twomatrilineageswhosemembershavebeenmarryingeachotherforgenerations.Suchintermarryingmatrilineagesbecomelocaldescentgroups.Mostmatrilineagesproducetheirownstores of wealthandtheirownparticulartracts of land.Thereisregularinteractionbetweenmatrilineagemembers.KinshipTerminology.Siwaikinshipterminologyissimi-lartootherterminologiesthathavebeenlabeledDravidian,characterizedastwo-sectionsystems,andassociatedwithbi-lateralcross-cousinmarriageandsisterexchange.Genealogi-calknowledgeisveryshallow.Therearefewstrictlyaffinalterms.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Inthetraditionalmarriagesystem,matriline-ageswereoftenpairedandbothmatrilateralandpatrilateralcross-cousinmarriagewerestronglyfavored.Marriagestomembers of thesamematrilineagewereforbiddenandhavenotoccurred.Inthepast,polygynywasnotuncommonandleadersoccasionallyhadseveralwives.Itisrareincontempo-rarySiwai.Divorcewascommonandwidowsandwidowersnormallyremarried.Althoughcross-cousinmarriageswithinvillagesremaincommon,manymarriagesarenowcontractedbetweenSiwaisandmembers of otherlinguisticgroupsfromotherparts of thecountryorevenbeyond.Postmaritalresi-dencewasinitiallyvirilocal,butlateritoftenshiftedtoavun-culocaloruxorilocal.DomesticUnit.Mosthouseholdsarenuclearfamilies;ex-tendedhouseholdsareveryrare.Youthsoftensleepinsepa-ratehousesfromtheirparents.Inheritance.Personaleffectsareusuallyinheritedbytheoldestson.Untilveryrecentlysuchgoodshavebeenfewandinconsequential.Socialization.Childrenarenormallytreatedwithaffec-tionateindulgencebytheirparentsanddiscipliningisoftenineffective.Punishmentandrewardsarenormallyverbal.Conflictsbetweenchildren,especiallybrothers,aremorecommonthandisputesandconflictswithparents,whoareaccordedconsiderablerespect.Primaryschooleducationisnoweffectivelyuniversalandmanychildrengoontosec-ondaryandtertiaryeducation.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Inprecontacttimesagecarriedsomestatusbutthegreateststatuswasheldbytraditionalleadersorbig-men(mumi),thegreatest of whominthepresentcenturywasSoni of Tutuguanvillage.Leadershipwasachievedthroughacquiringwealthandrenown,whichresultedfromindustriousness,charisma,acumen,diplomacy,andkinshipsupport.Leadersnormallyacquiredwealthinpigs,land,andalsowives,throughvariousexchanges,andthroughforms of redistribution,usuallyinassociationwithfuneraryfeasts.Othermenhadvariousdegrees of renownandprestige,buttherewasnoformalrankingsystem.Womenhadsubstantialauthorityprincipallyintheirownproductiveandritualareas;womenwerenotrecognizedastraditionalleadersintheirownright.Inthepostwaryears,thoughsomemenarestillrecog-nizedastraditionalleaders,leadershipitselfhastakenonnewforms,asbusinessmenandpoliticianshaveacquireddifferentspheres of operationandfeastinghasbecomegenerallylesssubstantialandsignificantineverydaylife.Manymenareoftenabsentfromthevillagesforlongperiods of time.Theeconomicindependence of womenhaslessenedasthecasheconomyhasbecomemoreimportant.PolidialOrganiation.InprecontacttimeSiwaiwasnotatribalgroupinanysenseotherthanlinguistically.Inthepre-waryears,theadministrationappointedindividualsineachvillagetoliaisewithadministrationofficials,butSiwaionlybecameaneffectivepoliticalunitinthe1960swiththeestab-lishment of alocalgovernmentcouncil.Otherwise,Siwaiwasstilldividedintosevendistricts,anditeffectivelyrevertedtoitsformerdecentralizedpoliticalorganizationinthe1970swiththeestablishment of communitygovernmentstoreplacethelocalgovernmentcouncil.Mostvillagesnowhavetheirowncouncils.Siwaielectstwomembers of theNorthSolomonsProvincialGovernmentandispart of thenationalSouthBougainvilleconstituency.SocialControl.Inearliertimes,leadersweretheprincipalmeans of socialcontrolandacquiredrenownpartlythroughtheirabilitytoachievethis.Inthe1 920 s,theadministrationappointedvillageheadmentoassisttheadministrationinachievinglawandorder,however,exceptfornewoffenses,theirauthoritywaslessthanthat of traditionalleaders.Amoremodemcourtsystemevolvedalongsidethelocalgov-emmentcouncilbutwasreplacedbymoretraditionalvillagecourtsworkingwithcommunitygovernments.Serious of- fensesareconsideredattheprovinciallevel.Traditionallead-SantaCruz 29 1bers,barkcloth,acurrencymade of fibersandredfeathers,andpersonalornamentsmadefromavariety of materials.Since World WarIIthemanufacture of localproductshasrapidlydeclined,asgoodsimportedfromtheindustrial world, andcashtopurchasethem,havebecomeincreasinglyavailable.Trade.Asmentioned,themostconspicuousfeature of traditionalNend6economywasintra-andinterislandtrade,inwhichprofitandtheamassing of wealthwerethemainob,jectives.Sincethetradeconcernedthedistributon of locallyproducedcommodities,ithasallbutdisappearedasim-ported,industriallyproducedgoodshavedisplacedlocalproducts.Feathercurrency,theformermedium of exchangefortrade,hasalsonearlydisappeared.Division of Labor.Womendomost of thegardeningandcollecting of reefproducts;menlookafterorchards,fish,hunt,andcollectintheforests;bothsexestendpigs.Untilthe1930stherewasmuchspecialization of laborwithrespecttotheproduction of commoditiesandperformance of skilledservices.Everymaturemanwasexpectedtohaveaneco-nomicspecialty,bymeans of whichheearnedwealththatcouldbeaccumulatedandstoredinfeathercurrency.Womencouldalsohaveeconomicspecialties.Suchspecializationhasallbutdisappeared.Menleavetheislandtoworkforwagesandprocesscopraforcash.LandTenure.Landthathasbeenimprovedandused'be-longs"totheuser.Suchuserightscanbeloaned,rented,givenaway,andtransmittedbyinheritance,butonlyrecentlycouldtheybesoldformonetarygaintoanotherindividual.Landrightsthathavelapsedbyfailuretoexercisethemreverttocorporateownershipbyadistrict.Withdistrictconsent,anindividualmayconvertcorporateownership of designatedplotstoexclusivepersonaluserightsbyimprovingorusingtheland.Rightsoverreefsandlagoonsarecorporatelyheldbydistricts;men'sassociationscontrolthecanoepassagesthatservetheirclubhouses.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Therearethreekinds of kingroupsonNend6:domesticgroups;disperseddescentgroups(sibs);andmen'sassociations.Amen'sassociationcanbestartedbyanyadultmanwhowishestoformoneforhissonsand,often,hisbrothersandtheirsons.Someassociationsflourishandgrow;somedonot.Intime,thosethatflourishwillincludedistantagnates,affines,andevennonkin,buttheconsanguinealideologyremains.Overmost of Nend5,indi-vidualsareaffiliatedwithnonlocalized,exogamous,usuallytotemic,matrilinealdescentgroups(sibs).Insomeareassibsarearrangedintomatrimoieties.InseveraldistrictsaroundGraciosaBay,thedescentprincipleispatrilineal,butindivid-ualsareoftenunsure of theiraffiliations.Inonedistrictonthesouthcoastdescentisnotrecognized,althoughitisbe-lievedthatmatrilinywasformerlytherule.KinshipTerminology.Kintermsvarybetweenspecialversions of HawaiianandIroquoistypes.Allterminologiesdistinguishtherelation of mother'sbrothertosister'schildfromotheravuncularrelationships.Insomelocalitiesthetermfor'sister"(asusedbyamalespeaker)isappliedtofa-ther'ssisterandfather'sfather'ssisterwiththelogicalconsequences.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Traditionally,allfirstcousinsweremarragea-ble,marriageswereusuallymonogamous,andalargebride-pricewas,andstillis,required.NendamenoftenimportwivesfromtheReefIslands,especiallyfromthepoorerPoly-nesian-spealdngcommunitiesthere.Sororalandnonsororalpolygynywerepermitted;polygynousunionsrarelyinvolvedmorethantwowives.Polygynyisnotpracticednow.For-merly,too,therewasapattern of collectiveconcubinage,whichwasalsoaform of femaleslavery,inwhichagroup of menjointlypurchasedawomanasasexpartnerandprosti-tute.Theprotectorategovernmentbannedthisconcubinagepatterninthelate1 920 s.Initialpostmaritalresidenceisusu-allyviripatrilocal,onlyoccasionallyuxorimatrilocal,butafterchildrenarebornresidenceoftenbecomesneolocal.Maritalseparationsarefrequent;divorcehasalwaysbeendifficult,ex-ceptincases of severeabuseandcontinuedadultery.DomesticUnit.Themostcommondomesticgroupisanuclearfamily,oftenaugmentedbyelderdependentrelatives of eitherthehusbandorwife.Smallpatrilocalextendedfami-liesexistforashortperiodwhenasonmarries.jointfamilies,consisting of thedomesticunits of brothersand/orclosemaleagnates,arecommon.Women of thesejointfamiliesassisteachotherwiththeirdomesticresponsibilities.Inheritance.Gardenandorchardplotsareusuallynotpartible,andtheycanbepassedontoeithermaleorfemaleheirs,butmostrealpropertygoestomales.Personalproperty,especiallyheirloomsandvaluables,areinheritedalonggenderlines:motherstodaughters,fatherstosons.Socialization.Boysandgirlsaresocializedseparatelyandquitedifferently.Fromanearlyage,girlsarerigorouslytrainedattheirmother'ssidetomastergardeninganddomes-ticskillsassoonastheycan.Atayoungageboysmoveawayfromtheirdwellingsandintodormitoriesormen'sassocia-tionhouses,andanavoidance of theirsistersandotherfe-malesisinvoked.Therearenoinitiationritesforeithersex,butatmarriagewomenundergoaformaltransitionfromminortoadultsocialstatus.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialO0ganization.Formerly,therewasamarkedsocialdichotomyandseparationbetweenmen'sandwomen'sspheres of life.Womenwerefocusedontheirgardensandhouseholds,menontheirspecializedskillsandmen'sassocia-tions.Underattackfrommissionandgovernmentalike,thisdivisionbygender,whichamountedtoageneralizedavoid-ance,hasgreatlylessenedoverthepastfewdecades.PoliticalOrganizaton.Traditionally,thebasicpoliticalunitwastheset of households(onetotwentyormore)whosemaleheadsbelongedtothesamemen'sassociation.Oneormoremen'sassociations,inalooseconfederation,formedavillage,andmostvillages,overtime,becameincorporatedtotheextentthattheycontrolledanddefendedaboundedterrntory.Suchwasthecorporatedistrict.Mostdistrictswerehos-tiletoeachother,butalliancesbetweenmen'sassociations of differentdistrictsmadeitpossibleformentocrosstheboundaries.Trademovedalongtheselines of men'sassocia-tionalliances,eachassociationagreeingtopurchaseandre-distributelocallyallthegoodsofferedbyanalliedassocia- 29 6.JC#&aGzIgxcultterrainandsparsepopulationisolatedmanyinteriorSengsengfromdirectcontactwiththeAustraliangovern-mentuntilthemid-1950s,thoughvillagersnearerthecoastcameundergovernmentinfluenceearlier.Followers of acargocultcenteredoutsideSengsengterritorypersuadedanumber of interiorpeopletomovenearerthecoastinthelate1950s,andthesevillagerswereconvertedtoRomanCatholi-cism.Sincethattimetheyalsohavebelongedtothesystem of localgovernmentcouncils,whereasinteriorvillagesstillhadasystem of government-appointedheadmenin1981.Mission-ariesbegantoworkintheinteriorabout1984.SettlementsSettlementsaretiny,usuallycontainingnomorethanadozenpeopleandoftenfewer.TheAustraliangovernmentes-tablishedofficialconsolidatedvillagesforcensuspurposesbuttheseplacesarerarelyinhabited.Asettlementcontainsamen'shouse,oneormorefamilyhouses,andafewtreessuchascoconutandbetelpalms.Untilwarfarewasforbidden,eachsettlementwaslocatedonahilltop,whichideallyfea-turedalargestranglerfigthatcouldbeclimbedifenemiesat-tacked.Womenusesheltersbuiltinthebushoutsidetheset-tlementwhilemenstruatingandgivingbirth.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Thestarchsta-pleistaro,butbecauseithasbeenaffectedbyablightsinceabout1960,maniochasbecomeincreasinglyimportant.Othercultigensincludebananas,variousgreens(especiallyHibiscusmanihot),yams,sugarcane,and,nearthecoast,sweetpotatoes.Because of atraditionalpattern of plantingasinglelargegardeninoneday,oftennotaroisavailableforlongperiods.ThentheSengsengrelyonwildfoods,particu-larlywildyams(Dioscoreaspp.)and,inseason,breadfruit.Year-round,perhaps50percent of theircaloriescomefromwildfoods.Coconutsdonotgrowwellintheinteriorandarereservedforfeasts.Domesticanimalsarelimitedtopigsanddogs.Whenapig'suppercaninesareremoved,theloweroneseventuallygrowinacompletecircle,andthekilling of suchatuckerisamajorevent.Domesticporkiseatenonlyatfeasts;mostproteincomesfromwildsources.Birds,bats,andarbo-realmarsupialsarehuntedwithlongblowguns,andwildpigswithdogsandspears.Othercreaturesarecollectedwhenen-countered.Theyincludepythons,bandicoots,frogs,andin-sects,especiallythegrubs of longicornbeetlesandtentcater-pillars,supplementedbyanoccasionalwallabyorcassowary.Eelsarehighlyprized,andduringdryweatherstreamsaredammedandbaileddrysoastoobtainlargesupplies of shrimpandothercrustaceans.Manywildfruitsandnutssup-plementthediet.MengoawaytoworktoobtainmoneyandparticularlytobuycheaplyelsewhereinPapuaNewGuineaone of themainforms of wealthinSengseng,gold-lippearlshells.LocallytheSengsengearnmoneybysellingshellstoforeigners,whousethemtomanufacturetheirownmoney.IndustrialArts.Technologyincludeswoodenspears,shields,hourglassdrums,flutes,panpipes,barkcloth,andbagsmade of vine.Themostimportantwealthitems-pierced,polisheddisks of blackandwhitestone,calledniklak-are of unknownorigin.Ornamentsaremade of plaitedvines,dogs'teeth,shells,andcassowarypinions,aswellascircularpigs'tusks.Trade.Tobaccoandbetelnutsgrowparticularlywellintheinteriorandare ... widerarea of thecoast,itshinterland,andthepeoplewholivedthere.Location.TheSiwaioccupythecenter of theBuinPlain of southernBougainville,NorthSolomonsProvince,PapuaSambia 28 5Trade.Vegetablesaltbars,barkcapes,featherhead-dresses,anddriedmeatsandfishwerealltradedtraditionallywiththeneighboringWantulduandUsurumpiatribesandasfarsouthasthePurariDelta.Womentodaybringhome-grownproducetolocalmarkets.Division of labor.Thesexualdivision of laborisstrikingandrigidamongtheSambia.Womendomost of thegarden-ing,weaving,cooking,andchildcare.Menhunt,fish,andareresponsibleforwarandpublicaffairs.Mosthouseholdchores,excepthouseconstructionitself,arefemaleactivities.Menandwomensharetheharvesting of feastcropsandnow-adays of coffeegardens.LandTenure.AUlandandwatercoursesareownedbyin-dividualsandclansascorporategroups.Fishing,hunting,gardening,andforagingrightsareinviolable,anduserightsmaybeextendedtodistantkin,in-laws,ortradepartners.Landlessnessisnonexistent.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Threelevels of kingroupingarefound.Theclan,linkedbypatrilinealdescent,isexogamous.The'greatclan"isformedfromtwoormoreclansthattracedescenttoarealancestor.Thephratryisconstituted of manyclansandgreatclans,whoseputativeancestorsareregardedas'brothers,"makinginclusivemembersrelated.Theyalsoshareadjacentterritories,certainidentitymarkerssuchasdress,andritualcustoms.Theyintermarry.Intimes of wartheyusuallysupporteachother,andforritualinitiation,theyconductjointceremoniesfortheirsons.KinshipTerminology.Sambiakintermsareessentially of theOmahatype,withmarkedgenerationalskewing.Agegradingintheinitiationsystemalsocreatesputativekinrela-tionsformales(brothers)andfemales(sisters).MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Therearefourtypes of marriage:infantbe-trothal(delayedexchange),sisterexchange(directex-change),andbride-service(delayedexchange),whicharetraditional;andbride-wealthmarriage,whichhasbeenintro-ducedsince1973.Marriageisprimarilyarrangedbyparentsandclanelders.Because of exogamy,intravillagemarriageinpioneervillagesisabsent,butitdoesoccurinconsolidatedvillages.Infantbetrothalandsister-exchangemarriageac-countedfor90percent of allmarriagetransactionstradition-ally.Father'ssister'sdaughtermarriageisapproved.Newly-wedsestablishpatrilocalresidencesoonaftermarriageinanewhuthousehold.Divorceisrare.Polygynyisideallypre-ferredbutisinfrequent.DomesticUnit.Thenuclearfamilyistheminimaldomes-ticunit.Theyeatandsleeptogether.Sonsremaindomiciledthereuntilinitiation,anddaughtersideallyremainaswelluntilmarriage.Theextendedfamily of familiarityincludesgrandparents,grandchildren,aunts,uncles,andcousins,usu-allywithinthesamevillage.Allactiveadultscontributetodomesticlaborandchildrenalsohelp.Cowivesmayresideto-gether,buttypicallytheyhaveseparateresidences.Inheritance.Propertyisinheritedmainlybymales,al-thoughdaughtershaveuserightstocertaingardenland.Sta-tusandofficesarenotinheritedbutachieved,exceptformys-ticalpowers of shamans.Socialization.Earlyinfantcareisexclusivelydonebywomen.Olderchildrenarecaredforbybothparentsandoldersiblings.Independenceandautonomyarestressed,butmoreformalesthanfemales.Genderandsexualsocializationareaccomplishedmainlythroughrituals.SociopoliticalOrganizationSambiawastraditionallyanacephaloustribe.Todayitisanencapsulatedsemiautonomoustribalgroupwithin ... notindustrialarts,invillages.Weaving of grassskirtsandstringbagsisdonebywomen;armbands,headbands,arrows,bows,andallmilitarygeararemadebymen.Sacredartisrare,andmasksandcarvingsarenotmade.Siwai301thesegroupsformerlycomprisedmen'sclubhouses,whoseac-tivitiesindudedancestralcultritualandthenot-so-friendlyrivalriesentailedinthecompetitivedistribution of yamsandpigsandexactingvengeance-orcompensation-fordeathorinjuryinflictedbyanothergroup.Much of Siosociallife,however,consistsinparticipatinginthoserelationshipsthatservetobindmembers of thesegroupstogether,namely,thosebetweenaffines,maternalunclesandnephews,andagemates(formerly,menwhohadundergoneinitiationtogetherasyouths).PoliticalOrganization.Traditionalleaderscombinedanumber of ascribedandachievedroles.First,theywerefirst-bomsons,clubhouseleaders,andlineageheads.Second,theywereexpectedtodemonstratesuperiorperformanceingardening,artisanship,trade,oratory,diplomacy,fightingskill,competitivefeasting,andlearning.Thosewhowerepre-eminentlysuccessfulinthesevariedactivities,helped of coursebytheirwivesandsupporters,weretruebig-menwhowieldedinfluenceinthecommunityatlarge.SocialControl.Antisocialandviolentbehaviorsweredealtwithby:thedispositiontodemandandacceptcompen-sationratherthantofightwithweapons;theweight of publicopinion,especiallyasarticulatedbyinfluentialleaders;andthefear of punishmentbyancestralghosts.Conflict.TheinteriorpeopleswerethetraditionalenemiesincontrasttoislandandcoastalneighborswithwhomSiohadmainlypeacefuldealingsintrade.Theirmilitaryposturewasprimarilydefensive;theislandvillageprovidedanaturaldefenseandremotegardenswereworkedbyassociationsthatwerelargeenoughtocopewithparties of raiders.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Ancestralghostswhoservedaspatrondeities of themen'sclubhousesandforest-dwellingspiritsfig-uredprominentlyintraditionalbeliefs.Theghostswerevengefulbeingswho,althoughtheycouldbeplacatedbythesacrifice of pigs,inflictedillnessanddeathfortransgressions of socialrules.Spirits,whoseusualformwasthat of hairydwarfsbutwhoalsomanifestedthemselvesasanimalsorin-animateobjects,werecapriciousintheirbehaviortowardhu-mans.Sometimesmalevolent,causingmishaps,theymightalsorevealthemselvestohumans,indreamsforexample,andoffermagicalknowledgeinreturnfortheobservance of cer-taintaboos.AnotiosecreatordeitynamedKindaeniissaidtohavecreatedtheuniverse.Magicalknowledgeandtechniqueswere...

... Introductionxxxineers,preyingontheSpanishgalleonsthatbythenregularlysailedbetweenthePhilippinesandSouthAmerica,butoth-erswereinsearch of coloniesorscientificknowledge.FrenchnavigatorssuchasPhilipCarteretandLouisAntoinedeBou-gainvilleexploredtheSolomonIslands,andtheEnglishmanSamuelWallisvisitedtheMarshallIslands,Tahiti,andotherparts of MicronesiaandPolynesia.ButthemajorEuropeanfigureinthePacificfrom1768to1779wasthegreatBritishnavigatorCaptainJamesCook.Cook'sfirstvoyage,from1768to1771,wasundertakenprimarilyforscientificknowledge(althoughBritishcolonialambitionswereasignificantfactoraswell).Hewascommis-sionedtoobservethetransit of Venusbeforethesun,withTahitiidentifiedasthebestlocationforthenecessaryastro-nomicalmeasurements,andtofindTerraAustralis.Here-turnedwithdetailedchartsandnewinformationregardingTahitiandNewZealand,aswellasotherislands,butnonews of asoutherncontinent.From17 72 to1775,hecoveredal-mostthewhole of thePacific,includingthecoast of Antarc,tica,andestablishedthatAustraliawaslarge,butnotthecontinentthathadbeenimagined,andindeedthatTerraAustraliswasonlyimaginary.Onafinalvoyage,from1776to1779,hisgoalwasanotherillusion-tofindthe'NorthwestPassage"thatwouldconnecttheNorthAtlanticandNorthPacificoceans.WhathefoundincludedtheHawaiianIslands(whichhenamedtheSandwichIslandsafterhisfriendandpatron,theEarl of Sandwich),wherehewaskilledbynativeHawaiiansin1779.Thelist of islandsandislandgroups'dis-covered"or"rediscovered"byCookislong,indudingtheHa-waiiangroup,ChristmasIsland,NewCaledonia,theCookIslands,theGilbertIslands,Fiji,Tonga,theSolomonIslands,EasterIsland,andpart of theTuamotuArchipelago.Inaddi-tion,hiscarefullydrawnchartsprovedfinallythatNewGuinea,NewZealand,andAustraliawerenotjoinedto-gether,asmanyhadsupposed.Cook'saccomplishments,in-cludingavastquantity of scientificspecimensandobserva-tions,haveneverbeenequaled,inthePacificorelsewhereinthe world. Bytheconclusion of Cook'svoyages,themainoutlines of theislandgroups of Oceania werecharted,andonlylocallysystematicexplorationwouldbeundertakeninthefuture.FromtheEuropeans'point of view,nowwasthetimeforexploitation of theresourcesandpeople of thisvastnewrealm.TheWar of 18 12 effectivelydisruptedtheAmericanwhalingindustryintheAtlanticOcean,butworldwidede-mandforwhaleoilforlampsandwhaleboneforcorsetsandotherusescontinuedunabated.Untilmarketschangedandwhalepopulationsdwindledinthe1850s,hundreds of whal-ingshipsprowledthecentralPacific,introducingWesterngoodsandWesterndiseasesintheprocess.ThecontinuingtradeinspiceshadcreatedincreasingdemandsbyAsiansforfurs,pearlshells,trepang,andsandalwood,thelastbeinganaromaticwoodtakenfromtreesthat,aswassoondiscovered,coveredvasttracts of theislands of theNewHebrides,Fiji,andmuch of therest of Polynesia.Duringtheheyday of thewhalersandtraders(178 0-1 850)therewasvirtuallynooffi-cialEuropeancolonialpresencein Oceania, andreports of atrocitiesintheislandsfannedtheflames of evangelicalmovementsthenpopularinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.Missionarieswerequicktoseeaneedfortheirinfluence,andfewparts of thePacificwereleftuntouchedbythem.TheLondonMissionarySocietysentthefirstwave,in1797,toTahiti,Tonga,andtheMarquesasIslands,andadditionalgroupstoFijiin1835andtheNewHebridesin1839.Con-gregationalistsfromtheUnitedStatesarrivedintheHawai-ianIslandsin1 820 ,andotherProtestantgroupsfannedoutintotheCookIslands(1 821 ),Tonga(1 822 ),FijiandSamoa(1830),theCarolineIslands(18 52) ,andtheGilbertsandMarshalls(1857).Inadditiontoother,smaller,missiongroups,CatholicmissionariessoonwereestablishedinTahiti(1836),NewCaledonia(1840),andFiji(1844).Tothisday,newgroups of missionariesarearrivingandexpandingthroughout Oceania, butthoseearlyrepresentativeswerees-peciallysignificant,notonlyinterms of theireffectsonthecustomsandbeliefs of Pacificislandersbutalsobecausetheirpresenceconstitutedamajorfactorinthedevelopment of commerceandaccompanyingdemandsfortheestablishment of colonialgovernmentsandservices.Fromthemiddle of the1840stothebeginning of theFirst World War,newcomersbegansystematicallytostrip Oceania of itsresources,bothnaturalandhuman.In1847thefirstlaborerswere'recruited"fromtheNewHebridesandtheLoyaltyIslands,andsoonblackbirderswerescouringthePacific,offeringtrinketsandoften-falsepromises of goodpayandpromptrepatriationafteraterm of serviceonAustraliansugarplantations,intheguanomines of Peru,orwherevercheaplaborwasneeded.Thousands of malePacificislanderswerethusshippedofftodistantplaces,oftenundercoercionandtreatedasvirtualslaves.Manydied of diseasesorothercauses,andcountlessindividualswereneverreturnedtotheirhomes,sometimessimplybeingdroppedoffatwhateverportwasconvenientforthelaborrecruiters.Inpartduetopres-surefromPacificmissionaries,GreatBritainpassedananti-blackbirdingactin18 72, whichlargely,butnotcompletely,endedthistrafficinhumancargo.Asifinreciprocityforthosewhowereremoved,Euro-peanpowersalsocametoregard Oceania asadumpinggroundfortheir"undesirables,"withNewCaledoniachosenin1864bytheFrenchasaplacetogetrid of convictsfromhomejustasAustraliahadbeenfoundedasacolonybytheBritishin1788forthesamepurpose.AsiansbegantopourintothePacific,withChineseandJapaneselaborers(in1865and1878,respectively)beingbroughttoworkonplantationsinHawaii.PeoplewerealsobroughtfromIndiatoworkintheburgeoningsugarindustry of Fiji;thefirstgrouparrivedin1879,andtodaytheirdescendantsconstitutethemajoritypopulationintheFijiIslands.ThedemandforlaboronPacificislandswasnearlylimit-lessasEuropean-ownedplantationsbegantooccupyvasttracts of land.WhilesugarcanewasthemajorplantationcropinQueensland,Australia,andFiji,thecopratradehadabroaderandlonger-lastinginfluence.Thedriedmeat of thecoconut(copra)washighlyvaluedasasource of oilforcook-ing,soaps,cosmetics,andotherproductsinworldwidede-mand,andmillions of coconutpalmswereplantedandman-agedthroughoutthePacific.Missionariessawcopraasalimitlesssource of cash,andcommercialfirmsobtainedrightstocountlesshectares of coastalandislandland.Forexample,from1884to1899,theNeuGuineaKompagnieturnedmost of thecoastline of northeasternNewGuineaintoplantationsforcopra,aswellastobaccoandothercrops,and,beginningin1905,thefirm of LeverBrothersestablishedLever'sPacificIntroductionxxxjii volume, thepeoples of IrianJaya,whohavenotbeenstudiedasextensivelyashavetheireasternneighbors,arerepresentedbytenculturalsummaries.Theeasternhalf of theislandcon-stitutesthemainportion of PapuaNewGuinea(capital,PortMoresby),anindependentstateandmember of theBritishCommonwealthsince1975withatotallandarea of about4 62, 000squarekilometers(seemaps3and4).In1984,ana-tionalcensusestimatedapopulation of 3,350,000,whichin-cludedtheinhabitants of the'mainland"(representedinthis volume byfifty-ninesummaries)andtheislands of Bougainville(twosummaries),Buka(Kurtatchi),Manus(one),NewBritain(four),andNewIreland(three).ElsewhereinMelanesia(seemap4),theTerritory of NewCaledoniaandDependencieshasbeenanoverseasterritory of Francesince1946,withNoumeaasthecapitalcity.Itslandarea of about19,000squarekilometerswashometo145,400peoplein1984onNewCaledoniaitselfandtheLoyaltyIs-lands(seeAjiiandLoyaltyIslandssummariesinthisvol-ume).TheSolomonIslandsbecameanindependentstateandmember of theBritishCommonwealthin1978.Its1984pop-ulation of 25 1,000(representedbytenculturalsummaries)wasdistributedacrossabout30,000squarekilometers of land,includingsuchmajorislandsasChoiseul,Guadalcanal(wherethecapital,Honiara,islocated),Malaita,NewGeor-gia,SanCristobal,theSantaCruzIslands,andSantaIsabel.Finally,theformerNewHebridesbecametheRepublic of Vanuatu,anindependentstate,in1980.Itconsists of abouteightyislandsandislets,totalingabout13,000squarekilome-ters of landandincludingmostprominentlyAmbrym,Aoba(Ambae),theBanksIslands,Efate(home of thecapital,Port-Vila),Erromanga,EspirituSanto,Malekula,Pentecost,Tanna,andtheTorresIslands.The1 32, 000ni-Vanuatu(in-digenouscitizens of Vanuatu)censusedin1984are ... Introductionxxxineers,preyingontheSpanishgalleonsthatbythenregularlysailedbetweenthePhilippinesandSouthAmerica,butoth-erswereinsearch of coloniesorscientificknowledge.FrenchnavigatorssuchasPhilipCarteretandLouisAntoinedeBou-gainvilleexploredtheSolomonIslands,andtheEnglishmanSamuelWallisvisitedtheMarshallIslands,Tahiti,andotherparts of MicronesiaandPolynesia.ButthemajorEuropeanfigureinthePacificfrom1768to1779wasthegreatBritishnavigatorCaptainJamesCook.Cook'sfirstvoyage,from1768to1771,wasundertakenprimarilyforscientificknowledge(althoughBritishcolonialambitionswereasignificantfactoraswell).Hewascommis-sionedtoobservethetransit of Venusbeforethesun,withTahitiidentifiedasthebestlocationforthenecessaryastro-nomicalmeasurements,andtofindTerraAustralis.Here-turnedwithdetailedchartsandnewinformationregardingTahitiandNewZealand,aswellasotherislands,butnonews of asoutherncontinent.From17 72 to1775,hecoveredal-mostthewhole of thePacific,includingthecoast of Antarc,tica,andestablishedthatAustraliawaslarge,butnotthecontinentthathadbeenimagined,andindeedthatTerraAustraliswasonlyimaginary.Onafinalvoyage,from1776to1779,hisgoalwasanotherillusion-tofindthe'NorthwestPassage"thatwouldconnecttheNorthAtlanticandNorthPacificoceans.WhathefoundincludedtheHawaiianIslands(whichhenamedtheSandwichIslandsafterhisfriendandpatron,theEarl of Sandwich),wherehewaskilledbynativeHawaiiansin1779.Thelist of islandsandislandgroups'dis-covered"or"rediscovered"byCookislong,indudingtheHa-waiiangroup,ChristmasIsland,NewCaledonia,theCookIslands,theGilbertIslands,Fiji,Tonga,theSolomonIslands,EasterIsland,andpart of theTuamotuArchipelago.Inaddi-tion,hiscarefullydrawnchartsprovedfinallythatNewGuinea,NewZealand,andAustraliawerenotjoinedto-gether,asmanyhadsupposed.Cook'saccomplishments,in-cludingavastquantity of scientificspecimensandobserva-tions,haveneverbeenequaled,inthePacificorelsewhereinthe world. Bytheconclusion of Cook'svoyages,themainoutlines of theislandgroups of Oceania werecharted,andonlylocallysystematicexplorationwouldbeundertakeninthefuture.FromtheEuropeans'point of view,nowwasthetimeforexploitation of theresourcesandpeople of thisvastnewrealm.TheWar of 18 12 effectivelydisruptedtheAmericanwhalingindustryintheAtlanticOcean,butworldwidede-mandforwhaleoilforlampsandwhaleboneforcorsetsandotherusescontinuedunabated.Untilmarketschangedandwhalepopulationsdwindledinthe1850s,hundreds of whal-ingshipsprowledthecentralPacific,introducingWesterngoodsandWesterndiseasesintheprocess.ThecontinuingtradeinspiceshadcreatedincreasingdemandsbyAsiansforfurs,pearlshells,trepang,andsandalwood,thelastbeinganaromaticwoodtakenfromtreesthat,aswassoondiscovered,coveredvasttracts of theislands of theNewHebrides,Fiji,andmuch of therest of Polynesia.Duringtheheyday of thewhalersandtraders(178 0-1 850)therewasvirtuallynooffi-cialEuropeancolonialpresencein Oceania, andreports of atrocitiesintheislandsfannedtheflames of evangelicalmovementsthenpopularinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.Missionarieswerequicktoseeaneedfortheirinfluence,andfewparts of thePacificwereleftuntouchedbythem.TheLondonMissionarySocietysentthefirstwave,in1797,toTahiti,Tonga,andtheMarquesasIslands,andadditionalgroupstoFijiin1835andtheNewHebridesin1839.Con-gregationalistsfromtheUnitedStatesarrivedintheHawai-ianIslandsin1 820 ,andotherProtestantgroupsfannedoutintotheCookIslands(1 821 ),Tonga(1 822 ),FijiandSamoa(1830),theCarolineIslands(18 52) ,andtheGilbertsandMarshalls(1857).Inadditiontoother,smaller,missiongroups,CatholicmissionariessoonwereestablishedinTahiti(1836),NewCaledonia(1840),andFiji(1844).Tothisday,newgroups of missionariesarearrivingandexpandingthroughout Oceania, butthoseearlyrepresentativeswerees-peciallysignificant,notonlyinterms of theireffectsonthecustomsandbeliefs of Pacificislandersbutalsobecausetheirpresenceconstitutedamajorfactorinthedevelopment of commerceandaccompanyingdemandsfortheestablishment of colonialgovernmentsandservices.Fromthemiddle of the1840stothebeginning of theFirst World War,newcomersbegansystematicallytostrip Oceania of itsresources,bothnaturalandhuman.In1847thefirstlaborerswere'recruited"fromtheNewHebridesandtheLoyaltyIslands,andsoonblackbirderswerescouringthePacific,offeringtrinketsandoften-falsepromises of goodpayandpromptrepatriationafteraterm of serviceonAustraliansugarplantations,intheguanomines of Peru,orwherevercheaplaborwasneeded.Thousands of malePacificislanderswerethusshippedofftodistantplaces,oftenundercoercionandtreatedasvirtualslaves.Manydied of diseasesorothercauses,andcountlessindividualswereneverreturnedtotheirhomes,sometimessimplybeingdroppedoffatwhateverportwasconvenientforthelaborrecruiters.Inpartduetopres-surefromPacificmissionaries,GreatBritainpassedananti-blackbirdingactin18 72, whichlargely,butnotcompletely,endedthistrafficinhumancargo.Asifinreciprocityforthosewhowereremoved,Euro-peanpowersalsocametoregard Oceania asadumpinggroundfortheir"undesirables,"withNewCaledoniachosenin1864bytheFrenchasaplacetogetrid of convictsfromhomejustasAustraliahadbeenfoundedasacolonybytheBritishin1788forthesamepurpose.AsiansbegantopourintothePacific,withChineseandJapaneselaborers(in1865and1878,respectively)beingbroughttoworkonplantationsinHawaii.PeoplewerealsobroughtfromIndiatoworkintheburgeoningsugarindustry of Fiji;thefirstgrouparrivedin1879,andtodaytheirdescendantsconstitutethemajoritypopulationintheFijiIslands.ThedemandforlaboronPacificislandswasnearlylimit-lessasEuropean-ownedplantationsbegantooccupyvasttracts of land.WhilesugarcanewasthemajorplantationcropinQueensland,Australia,andFiji,thecopratradehadabroaderandlonger-lastinginfluence.Thedriedmeat of thecoconut(copra)washighlyvaluedasasource of oilforcook-ing,soaps,cosmetics,andotherproductsinworldwidede-mand,andmillions of coconutpalmswereplantedandman-agedthroughoutthePacific.Missionariessawcopraasalimitlesssource of cash,andcommercialfirmsobtainedrightstocountlesshectares of coastalandislandland.Forexample,from1884to1899,theNeuGuineaKompagnieturnedmost of thecoastline of northeasternNewGuineaintoplantationsforcopra,aswellastobaccoandothercrops,and,beginningin1905,thefirm of LeverBrothersestablishedLever'sPacificIntroductionxxxjii volume, thepeoples of IrianJaya,whohavenotbeenstudiedasextensivelyashavetheireasternneighbors,arerepresentedbytenculturalsummaries.Theeasternhalf of theislandcon-stitutesthemainportion of PapuaNewGuinea(capital,PortMoresby),anindependentstateandmember of theBritishCommonwealthsince1975withatotallandarea of about4 62, 000squarekilometers(seemaps3and4).In1984,ana-tionalcensusestimatedapopulation of 3,350,000,whichin-cludedtheinhabitants of the'mainland"(representedinthis volume byfifty-ninesummaries)andtheislands of Bougainville(twosummaries),Buka(Kurtatchi),Manus(one),NewBritain(four),andNewIreland(three).ElsewhereinMelanesia(seemap4),theTerritory of NewCaledoniaandDependencieshasbeenanoverseasterritory of Francesince1946,withNoumeaasthecapitalcity.Itslandarea of about19,000squarekilometerswashometo145,400peoplein1984onNewCaledoniaitselfandtheLoyaltyIs-lands(seeAjiiandLoyaltyIslandssummariesinthisvol-ume).TheSolomonIslandsbecameanindependentstateandmember of theBritishCommonwealthin1978.Its1984pop-ulation of 25 1,000(representedbytenculturalsummaries)wasdistributedacrossabout30,000squarekilometers of land,includingsuchmajorislandsasChoiseul,Guadalcanal(wherethecapital,Honiara,islocated),Malaita,NewGeor-gia,SanCristobal,theSantaCruzIslands,andSantaIsabel.Finally,theformerNewHebridesbecametheRepublic of Vanuatu,anindependentstate,in1980.Itconsists of abouteightyislandsandislets,totalingabout13,000squarekilome-ters of landandincludingmostprominentlyAmbrym,Aoba(Ambae),theBanksIslands,Efate(home of thecapital,Port-Vila),Erromanga,EspirituSanto,Malekula,Pentecost,Tanna,andtheTorresIslands.The1 32, 000ni-Vanuatu(in-digenouscitizens of Vanuatu)censusedin1984are ... province of theDutch.Theirprimarymotivationwasbusiness,particularlyinspices,andin16 02 theyestablishedtheDutchUnitedEastIndiaCompany.Fromtheirbasesinthe'DutchEastIndies"(Ma-laysiaandIndonesia),Dutchshipsprobedtotheeast,withWillemSchoutenandJacobleMairesailingalongthenorth-emcoast of NewGuineaandeastwardtoFutunaandTongain1616,andAbelTasmanexploringmuch of thesoutherncoast of AustraliaaswellasTasmania,whichnowbearshisname,andasfareastasFijiin1643.Little of whattheDutchfoundwasmadepublicduetotheirconcernwithsecrecyforpurposes of trademonopoly,butsketchyreportstrickledbacktoEuropeandinspiredsuchfancifulworks of literatureasGulliver'sTravels.FurtherpowerstrugglesinEuropeintheeighteenthcen-turyresultedinsignificantnewpresencesin Oceania. Occa-sionalDutchexplorersstillmadenew'discoveries,"suchasJacobRoggeveen,whosightedSamoaandEasterIslandin1 722 ,butitwastheFrenchandEnglishshipcaptainswhocametodominatethePacificinthe1700s.Somewerebucca-mXPrefacexitheproject,andnotjustfortheirownvolumesbutalsofortheprojectasawhole.TimothyO'Leary,TerenceHays,andPaulHockingsdeservespecialthanksfortheircommentsonthisprefaceandtheglossary,asdoesMelvinEmber,presi-dent of theHumanRelationsAreaFiles.Members of the of. ficeandtechnicalstaffalsomustbethankedforsoquicklyandcarefullyattendingtothemanytasksaproject of thissizeinevitablygenerates.TheyareErlindaMaramba,AbrahamMaramba,VictoriaCrocco,NancyGratton,andDouglasBlack.AtG.K.HaLl,the encyclopedia hasbenefitedfromthewiseandcarefuleditorialmanagement of ElizabethKubikandElizabethHolthaus,theeditorialandproductionman-agement of MichaelSimsandAraSalibian,andthemarket-ingskills of LindaMayandLisaPemstein.Finally,IwouldliketothankMelvinEmberandtheboard of directors of theHumanRelationsAreaFilesfortheiradministrativeandin-tellectualsupportforthisproject.DAVIDLEVINSONReferencesMurdock,GeorgePeter(1967).EthnographicAtlas.Pitts-burgh,Penn.,University of PittsburghPress.Murdock,GeorgePeter(1983).Outline of World Cultures. 6threv.ed.NewHaven,Conn.HumanRelationsAreaFiles.ProjectStaffEditorialBoardResearchChristopherLathamNancyGrattonLindaA.BennettMemphisStateUniversityEuropeFernandoCimaraBarbachanoInstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCityMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanEditorialandProductionEvaKitsosAbrahamMarambaVictoriaCroccoElizabethHolthausAraSalibianJohnAmburgNancyPriestNormaJ.DiamondUniversity of MichiganChinaPaulFriedrichUniversity of ChicagoSovietUnionCartographyRobertSullivanRhodeIslandCollegeTerenceE.HaysRhodeIslandCollege Oceania PaulHockingsUniversity of IllinoisatChicagoSouthandSoutheastAsiaRobertV.KemperSouthernMethodistUniversityMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanKazukoMatsuzawaNationalMuseum of Ethnology,OsakaEastAsiaJohnH.MiddletonYaleUniversityAfricaTimothyJ.O'LearyHumanRelationsAreaFilesNorthAmericaAmalRassamQueensCollegeandtheGraduateCenter of theCityUniversity of NewYorkMiddleEastJohannesWilbertUniversity of CaliforniaatLosAngelesSouthAmericavixviiiPrefaceTheHumanRelationsAreaFiles,aninternationaleduca-tionalandresearchinstitute,isrecognizedbyprofessionalsinthesocialandbehavioralsciences,humanities,andmedicalsciencesasamajorsource of informationonthe cultures of the world. Uses of the Encyclopedia This encyclopedia ismeanttobeusedbyavariety of peopleforavariety of purposes.Itcanbeusedbothtogainageneralunderstanding of acultureandtofindaspecificpiece of in-formationbylookingitupundertherelevantsubheadinginasummary.Itcanalsobeusedtolearnaboutaparticularre-gionorsubregion of the world andthesocial,economic,andpoliticalforcesthathaveshapedthe cultures inthatregion.The encyclopedia isalsoaresourceguidethatleadsreaderswhowantadeeperunderstanding of particular cultures toad-ditionalsources of information.Resourceguidesintheency-clopediaincludeethnonymslistedineachsummary,whichcanbeusedasentrypointsintothesocialscienceliteraturewheretheculturemaysometimesbeidentifiedbyadifferentname;abibliographyattheend of eachsummary,whichlistsbooksandarticlesabouttheculture;andafilmographyattheend of each volume, whichlistsfilmsandvideosonmany of the cultures. Beyondbeingabasicreferenceresource,theencyclope-diaalsoservesreaderswithmorefocusedneeds.Forresearch-ersinterestedincomparing cultures, the encyclopedia servesasthemostcompleteandup-to-datesamplingframefromwhichtoselect cultures for...

... inthe1930s,chiefslostthepower of lifeordeathovertheirfollowers;however,thecentralgovernmentexercisedlittlecontrolovertheinter-nalpoliticalandlegalaffairsoftheislandthroughouttheco-lonialera.Today,Ambaeremainslargelyautonomousincon-ductingitslegalaffairs.Ambaeansprocessmostdisputesandabroadrange of offensesinvillageanddistrictcourts.Thesecourtsusewrittenlegalcodesthatlocalpeoplethemselvesde-vised.Thecourtsimposefinesthatoffenderspayincashorintraditionalvaluables,specificallypigsandpandanusmats.Conflict.Theintroduction of firearmsalmostcertainlyin-creasedlevels of violenceontheisland,althoughthetrueex-tent of conflictbeforecontactishardtojudgewithaccuracy.However,allsources-Europeanandindigenousalike-agreethat1870to1930onEastAmbaewasanera of en-demicraiding,"days of never-endingrevenge,"inwhichthepoliticalreputation of chiefsdependedasmuchontheirprowessinwarfareasontheirabilitiesinthegradedsociety.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Exceptfortwopeople,everyoneontheislandidentifiedthemselvesasaChristianonthe1979cen-sus.Withinlivingmemory,however,mostpeoplebelievedinahighgod-TagaroLawo(orTagivui)-whomadetheearth,andintwocultureheros-TagaroBidandMweram-buto-whocreatedhumansandmanyelements of customaryculture.ReligiousPractitioners.Themainpractitionerswhodealinmagicandthesupernaturalarediviners,clairvoyants(whofindlostobjects),andweathermagicians.Otherpractitionersarespecialistsincustomarymedicine,whichisstillwidelypracticed.Peoplesometimesaccuseeachother of sorcery,aseriousbreach of locallaw.Ceremonies.Majorceremonialoccasionsincluderanktakings,betrothals,weddings,funerals,Christmas,Easter,andsaints'dayshonoringthepatronsaints of localchurches.Kava,drumming,singing,andtraditionaldancingareimpor-tantelements of manyceremonies,especiallyontheeasternhalf of theisland.Art.Unlikethepeople of AmbrymandMalekula,Am-baeansarenotwellknowninVanuatuascarversandartisans.TheartistsinanAmbaeancommunityarethecommunity'sbestsingers,dancers,storytellers,speechmakers,weavers of pandanusmats,andmakers of ahighlyregardedfeastfood(genericallycalledlaplapinBislama)made of gratedrootcropssteamedinanearthovenanddecoratedwithcoconutcream. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 1I OCEANIA 8ARietroducedavariety of plantandanimalspeciesincludingdeer,whichtheAjiinowhuntintheforest.ColonizationaffectedKanakagriculturedramatically.Landswereconfiscatedbysettlers,gardenswereravagedbymaraudingcattle,andirriga-tionnetworksweredestroyedbyminers.Thefallowperiodwasshortened,whichledtoerosionandadiminishedpro-ductivecapacity.Subsistencecropsgavewaytocashcropssuchascoffee,whichtheAjiEbeganproducingasearlyas1900andwhichremainsanimportantsource of income.Yamsaretheonlycropthathasofferedsomeresistancetotheoverallregression of Kanaksubsistenceagriculture.Apower-fhlminingandmetallurgicalindustrycoexistswithagricul-tureinNewCaledonia.Inaddition,tertiaryactivitieshaveexpandedquicklyinkeepingwiththeterritory'shighlydevel-opedprivateandpublicsectors.One of themajornickelandcobaltcentersontheeastcoastwasopenedneartheAjie'sterritoryin1901,andalthoughagriculture,fishing,andfor.estryarestillthemajoremployers,miningisadosesecond,followedbypublicservice.IndustrialArts.Kanaksmanufacturedvarioustools,weapons,andceremonialobjectsout of serpentine,whichwascollectedatthebase ... H.(1971).Songs of Sydney:AngusandRobertson.CentralAustralia.JOHNMORTONHistoryandCulturalRelationsAsanindigenousPapuanpeople,theAsmataredescendedfromgroups of lowland,swamp-dwellingpeoplewhosestill-earlierancestorslikelysettledportions of NewGuineaasfarbackas30,000yearsago.Owingtoaccurateaccountskeptbyexplorersandtraders,virtuallyall of theearliestcontactsmadewiththeAsmatbyEuropeansareknown.ThefirstwasmadebytheDutchtrader,JanCarstensz,on10March1 623 .Nexttoarrive,almost150yearslateron3September1770,wasCaptainJamesCookLOccasionalcontactsweremadeduringthenext150years,butitwasnotuntil1938thataDutchgovernmentpostcalledAgatswasopened.Permanentcontacthasbeenmaintainedsincetheearly1950s.AgatshasgrownintoAsmat'scentraladministrative,trading,andmis-siontown.AsmatSettlementsETHNONYMS:Asmat-ow,SamotOrientationIdentification.TheAsmatarehunting,fishing,andgath-eringpeoplewhoinhabitanareawhichtheyrefertoasAsmatcapinmi,theAsmat world. Theterm"Asmat"(or'As-amat")means"wethetreepeople."Inanthropologicalusage,thetermAsmatlabelsthepeople(collectively),thelanguage,andthegeographicarea.Asingleindividualisreferredtoasan'Asmatter."Location.TheAsmatlivewithintheIndonesianprovince of IrianJaya(previouslyknownasWestIrian),whichinturnoccupiesthewesternhalf of theisland of NewGuinea.Scat-teredoveranarea of some 25 ,000squarekilometers,thesepeopleinhabitatropicallowland,alluvialswamp,andrain-forestzone.Thegeographiccoordinatesareapproximately6°Sand1385E.IrianJayaislocatedattheperiphery of themonsoonregion,withthemostprevalentwindsinAsmatblowingfromNovemberthroughApril.ThehottestmonthisDecember,thecoolestJune.Rainfallregularlyexceeds450centimetersannually.Demography.Itisestimatedthatthereareapproximately50,000Asmatpeople.Villagesizecurrentlyrangesfromabout300to 2, 000.Whileextremelyvariable,theestimatedaveragerate of growthhasbeenabout1percentduringthepastthirtyyears.Thereisverylittlemigrationintoorout of thearea.Demographicfactors of importanceinthepre-andearly-contacterasincludedthepractice of infanticide,papis(ritualwifeexchange),intra-andintervillageadoption of childrenandwidows of war,anddeathsassociatedwithwar-fare.Duringthecontactera,diseasessuchascholera,influ-enza,andyawshaveimpactedgrowth.linguiticAffiliation.Thedetermination of whichscat-teredgroupsconstitutetheAsmatis,inpart,anartifact of outsideinterventionandclassificationprocessesdatingtothepre-1963era of Dutchoccupation.Fivedialectsarespo-kenintheAsmatlanguage,whichisamember of theAsmat-KamoroFamily of Non-Austronesianlanguages.BahasaIn-donesia,thenationallinguafranca of thecountry,alsoisspokenbymany.Villages(inthestrictestsense of theterm)havearisenduringthecontactera.Therehasbeenatrendtowardthespatialconsolidation of traditionallymoredisparateyew(themaxi-malsocial/kinunit,eachcenteredaroundamen'shouseandbasedonprinciples of patriambilinealdescent).Settlementsusuallyarelocatedeitheralongouterperimeters of sweepingriverbends,oralongsmalltributariesnearpointswheretheyjoinlargerivers.Theselocationsaffordbothstrategicandre-sourceadvantages.Missionandgovernmentpostsarebasednearsomevillages.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheAsmattra-ditionallyweresubsistence-based,relyinguponacombina-tion of hunting,fishing,andgatheringactivities,whichcon-tinuetoday.Horticulturalactivityfirstwasintroducedinthelate1950s.Processedstipe of thesagopalmremainsthedie-tarystaple.FirstunderDutchandthenIndonesianauspices,apartialwage-basedeconomyhasbeenintroduced.Export-ablehardwoodsandcrocodilehidesareamongthemostval-ueditems,reachingSingaporeanandJapanesemarkets.IndustialArts.Traditionallythecraftemphasiswasuponwoodcarving.Thewowipits,"mastercarver,"wasrenownedforhistechnicalskillandcreativity.Perindustrian,theIndo-nesiantermfor'cottageindustry,"hasbeenintroducedtoaidproductionandmarketingactivities.Asmatcarvingsaresoughtbycollectorsworldwide.Trade.Duringtheprecontacteramosttradewasintrare-gional,withtheprimaryitemsbeing of ritualvalue(e.g.,tri-tonshells).Oneexceptionwasstoneforuseinaxes.Thiswasobtainedthroughanextendednetworkreachingtothefoot-hills of thecentralhighlands.Currenttradepatternsnowin-cludemanufactureditemsaswellandalsoinvolvemerchants(primarilyIndonesians of JavaneseandChineseheritage),missionaries,andtheoccasionaltourist.Division of Labor.Thislargelyisbasedongender.Womenareresponsiblefornetfishing,gathering(assistedbychildren),thetransport of firewood,andmostdomestictasks.Menareresponsibleforlineandweirfishing,hunting,mosthorticulturalactivities,thefelling of trees,andcon-structionprojects.Bothsexesassistwithsagoprocessing.Ambae1theChurch of Christ,adenominationthatencouragedcopraproductionbutprohibitedranktaking,kavadrinking,andtraditionalforms of marriageandburial.ChristianityandcashcroppingcoexistwithcustomarypracticesinEastAmbae,whereAnglicanstolerant of manyelements of thein-digenousculturegainedamajority of converts.SettlementsPriortothe1930s,mostsettlementsinEastAmbaewereinthehillswhereresidentswerenearertheirgardensandsaferfromattackthanonthecoast.Intimes of warfare,someset-tlementswerefortifiedwithlogpalisades.Eachmarriedwoman,includingcowives,hadherownhouseinwhichshesleptwith ... ashes of afire."Allotherdeathsareattributedtomagicandsorcerymostlyperformedinothervillages.Symbols of people'slifesoulsarekeptinspe-cializedvillages.Assoonasalethalillnessissuspectedthesearecheckedinordertofindthecauseandorigin of thesor-ceryperformed.Afterdeaththecorpseisdisplayedinfront of theceremonialhouseandawakeisheld.Thebodyisburiedthefollowingmorning.Therearemanyritualsheldoversev-eralyearsuntilthesouliseternallyfreedfromitsbondtolife.Therearedifferentsouls,oneassociatedwithblood,onewithbones.Thelatterisconsideredtheeternalone,whobecomesvisibleduringthenightasashiningstar.Seealsolatmul,YangoruBolkenBibiographyForge,Anthony(1966)."ArtandEnvironmentintheSepik."RoyalAnthropologicalInstitute,Proceedingsfor1965,pp. 23 -3 1.London.Kaberry,PhyllisM.(1941)."TheAbelamTribe,SepikDis-trict,NewGuinea:APreliminaryReport." Oceania 11 :23 3- 25 8,34 5-3 67.Kaberry,PhyllisM.(1971)."PoliticalOrganizationamongtheNorthernAbelam.'InPoliticsinNewGuinea,editedbyRonaldM.BerndtandPeterLawrence,3 5-7 3.Seattle:Uni-versity of WashingtonPress.Lea,DavidA.M.(1969)."AccesstoLandamongSwiddenCultivators:AnExamplefromNewGuinea."AustralianGeo-graphicalStudies7:13 7-1 52. Scaglion,Richard(1981)."SamukundiAbelamConflictManagement:ImplicationsforLegalPlanninginPapuaNewGuinea." Oceania 52: 2 3-3 8.Scaglion,Richard.(1983)."The'Coming' of IndependenceinPapuaNewGuinea:AnAbelamView."Journal of thePoly-nesianSociety 92: 46 3-4 86.BRIGrITAHAUSER-SCHAUBLINAjieETHNONYMS:Canaque,Houalou,Kanak,KanakaOrientationIdentificadmi.Ajiiisone of themajorsouthernlanguagesfoundinNewCaledonia.Today,Ajiispeakerscallthem-selves"Kanak,"whichhasdeeppoliticalmeaningforthem,becausealongwiththevastmajority of theothernativepeo-plesinNewCaledonia,theyareaskingforindependencefromFrance."Canaque'wasintroducedtotheterritorybyPolynesiansailors,andinthelocalcontextithadapejorativemeaning.Intheearly1970sthenativepeoples of NewCale-Ajii9Christianitymonogamyisnowtheruleanddivorceisnotcommon,althoughcouplessometimesseparateandtakeupcommon-lawrelationshipswithotherpartners.DomesticUnit.Thenuclearfamilyisthebasicsocialunit.Childrenmovearoundfrequentlyamongrelativesanditisnotuncommonforachildlessfamilytoreceivechildrentoraiseastheirown.Olderparentswilllivewithone of theirchildren.Inheritance.Underthecurrentsystemreservelandisinal-ienableandisownedcollectively,andthereforeoneinheritstheright of accesstolandinthereserveratherthanthelanditself.Homesandmovablepropertyareinheritedbythespouseandchildren.Socialization.Childrenareraisedbybothparents,sib-lings,andotherrelatives.Childrenaretaughttorespectclaneldersanditistheelderswhowillcollectivelydisciplineawaywardyouth.Boysarebroughtupthroughaseries of initia-tionritesandgirlsreceiveinstructionduringmenstrualseclusion.SociopoliticalOrganizationNewCaledoniaisanoverseasterritory of Franceanditisruledthroughtheoffice of thehighcommissioner.Theterri-toryhassomeautonomyoverregionalmatters,butFrancecontrolsallareas of education,defense,lawandorder,justice,etc.Today,everyoneinNewCaledoniaisconsideredaFrenchcitizen.SocialOrganization.Thetraditionalsocialstructurewascloselyrelatedtoaset of spatialreferencepointssuchashomesteadmounds,inhabitedplaces,andvariousothernat-uralfeatures,all of whichwerecarefullyinventoriedandde-limitedtherights of thehumanpopulationoveritslandsandwaters.Thosepeopledescendedfromthefirsthomesteadmoundsoccupiedbytheclanwereconsideredclaneldersandtheywereconsultedonallmoralissues(e.g.,landdisputes)andmatrimonialmatters.Ceremonialexchangesreinforcedfamilies'socialandpoliticalidentityvis-i-visoneanother.Forexample,maternalandpaternalkin-grouprelationsweredefinedbytheceremonialexchangessurroundingbirth,mar-riage,anddeath.PoliticalOrganizaion.Heads of lineageswereseenastheguardians of thesocialandsymbolicrelationsthatunitedfamiliesintocommunalandregionalpoliticalalliances.These'chiefs"werealsofocalpointsinaredistributionnet-work.Theyreceivedapart of thefirstyamharvestandacer-tainportion of allthelandanimalsandfishcaught.Somehaveseentheseofferingsasatype of tributebutinfactthechiefquicklyredistributedtheseofferingsandsometimesevensupplementedtheredistributionwithfoodfromhisowngarden.Chiefswerereducedbycolonialcivilserviceintolabor-recruitmentofficersandtax-collectionagents.Theter-ritoryisnowdividedintothirty-twodistrictsknownascom-munesandorganizedintothreeprovincesthatsendelectedofficialstoaterritorialcongress.Alargenumber of tradi-tionalchiefshaveenteredthemodempoliticalarena.SocialControl.ThestructuralmodelforKanaksocietywasthefamilywherethejuniorfamilymemberswereundertheauthority of theseniormembers.Similarly,juniorlineagestraditionallyowed'service'toelderonesandconverselytheeldershadresponsibilitiestowardthecadetlineages,justasadultswereresponsibleforthewell-being of thechildrenwhoowedthemobedience.Conflict.PriortoFrenchoccupation,Kanakmenengagedinclanwarfare.TheKanaksalsostronglyresistedFrenchoc-cupation,killingsettlersandmissionaries.Thelargestrebel-lionagainstFrenchpresencetookplacein1878whentheKanaksalmostregainedcontrol of theirislands.Inthetwen-tiethcentury,theclash of Kanaknationalismagainstthemass of entrenchedsettlershascatapultedtheterritoryinto world headlines.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligHiBeliefs.Themajority of AjiiwereconvertedtoChristianityintheearly1900sbythefamousFrenchProtes-tantmissionaryandethnologist,MauriceLeenhardt,whobuilthischurchandschoolintheheart of Ajiiterritory.Priortothat,theAjiihadanumber of importanttotemssuchastheshark,thecaterpillar,thelizard,andthunder.Inthetradi-tionalreligionthegodsinhabitedallimportantgeographicalfeatures of theKanaklandscape-mountainsummits,riversources,grottos,etc.Eachclanhaditsowngodsthathadgivenbirthtotheclanancestorsorwithwhomtheclanan-cestorshadformedalliances.Itwasthesegodswhogavepowertohumanritualsandsymbols.Godswereworshippedonclanaltars,andeachtimeaclanchangedlocationtheclangodsweremovedtothenewsite.Spirits of thedeadalsowerebelievedtoroamtheKanaklandscapeandtobedangeroustohumanactivities.ReligiousPractitioners.Eachclanhadaspecialmagicknowledgethattheyspecializedin.Withintheclantherewerealsospecialistswhodealtwithspecificmagicandritualssuchaspreparingthegardensforplantingorthewarriorsforbattle.Sorceryexistedbutitwasnotpracticedbyspecialists;rather,itwasavailabletoallwhocaredtouseitsinceitwasoccultpowerandnotthepersonthatwasthesource of theillwillCeremonies.Themostelaborateceremonywasthepiloupilot,whichcouldtakethreetofouryears of preparationandlastseveralweeks.Itwastheculmination of Kanaksociallife,expressingthevitality of thehostclananditsalliancesthroughorations,collectivefeasting,dancing,andadistribu-tion of ceremonialobjectsandfood.Arts.PetroglyphshavebeenfoundinNewCaledonia;however,theiroriginsremainuncertain.Kanaksculpturewasprimarilypart of thearchitecture of thelargecentraldwelling:carvedsupportposts,ridgeposts,anddoorways.Elaboratear-rowheadswerethemainartformandrepresentation of theclanancestorswastheprincipaltheme.Themaleartistswerespecialistsandrecognizedassuch.Thereputation of awell-knownartistwouldcontinueafterhisdeath.Kanaksalsopos-sessedarichoraltradition of historicaltales,myths,humor-ousandmoralstories,poetry,andproverbs.Kanakmusicconsisted of songsandpercussionmusic.Danceswereoftennarrative,achoreographedversion of atraditionalactivitysuchasfishingoryamproduction.Menandwomenbothpar-ticipatedinthecollectivedancesthataccompaniedallcere-monialeventsandwerepart of thepreparationsforbattle.Medicine.Illnesswasassociatedwithatotem:forexam-ple,weightlosswiththelizard,hysteriawiththecaterpillar,Abelam5ualplotsownedbydifferentlineagesaremarkedbyperennialplants;theseareoftenovergrownbyshrubsbutarequicklyre-discoveredbyoldmenwhendisputesoverlandarise.Ifamandearslandforanewgardenorplantstreesongroundnotusedbyhimbeforeandnobodyprotestsagainstit,heisre-gardedastherightfulowner.KinshipKinGroupsandDescentMostclansaresplitintoline-ages,members of whichoftenlivetogetherasalocalunit.Inahamletgenerallytwoorthreeclans(orratherlineages)arerepresented.Thisarrangementmeansthat,withinalineage,amanwithhisbrothersandtheirsons,aswellasmost of thein-marryingwives of theirchildren,livetogether.Relationsbetweensiblingsareclose,expressingthemselvesalsoincon-tinuousmutualassistanceinallkinds of matters,withsuchassistancealsoextendedtothechildren of brothers.Theelderbrotherhassomeauthorityovertheyoungerwhopayshimrespect.Eachnuclearfamilyhasseveralhouses:asleep-inghouseforthefather,adwellinghouseforthemotherandherchildren,andoneorseveralstorehousesfortherootcrop.Inpolygamousmarriagesnotallin-marryingcowivesliveto-getherinthesamehamlet-wheretheylivedependsontherelationshipbetweencowives.Butamanwantshiswivestoliveonhisownland.Otherwise,ifhischildrenarebornonanotherclan'sland,hisclaimoverhischildrenmaybechal-lenged.Although,ideally,Abelamclansaresaidtobepatri-lineal,affiliationswithotherlineagesandclansareveryflex-ible.Continuousrelationswithone'smother'srelatives(livingontheland of themother'sbrother),fosterage,andadoptiongivemanyopportunitiesfortemporaryand/orper-manentassociation.Thisflexibilityalsoleadstomanydis-putesoverlandownership,rights of landuse,etc.Andbe-cause of thisassociationalflexibilityandalsotheabsence of elaborategenealogies,clansassocialorganizationalunitsareonlypredominantinquestions of landownership.Clansareassociatedwiththenames of spirits,specificwaterholeswherethespiritsaretemporarilyfound,magicalleaves,andemblems(mostlybirds).Most of theseattributesbecomerel-evantonlyinritualcontextbuteventhentheyarenotappliedsystematicallybutrathercasuallyorinaflexiblemanner.Sometimestheyareusedasattributesformoietiesratherthanclans.KinshipTerminology.Kintermsareusedmostlyonspe-cialoccasionssuchasduringadisputewhensomebodywantstoexpresshowcloselyrelatedheorsheiswithsomebodyelse.Inmortuaryceremonies,duringthewake,andbeforethecorpseisburied,thedeceasedisaddressedinkintermsonly.Ineverydaylifemostlypropernamesareused.CousintermsfollowtheIroquoissystem.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Lineagesaresaidtobeexogamousandmar-riageswithinthemarefrownedupon.Marriagestakeplacewithinavillage.Insomeparts of Maprikregionendogamywithintheceremonialmoieties(ara)prevailinordertopre-ventcompetitionbetweenfatherandson-in-law.Sisterex-changeisapreferredform of marriage.Ingeneral,consider-ablefreedom of choiceisacknowledgedtowomenincaseswheretheparentshadnotarrangedintermarriage of theirchildren.Informerdaysmarriagetookplacesoonafterfirstmenstruation.Inmarriagetransactionsshellrings(nowadayssupplementedbymoney)playanimportantrole.Marriagepaymentscanbesubstitutedbygivingatleastonechildbacktothewife'sclan.Sometimes,ifnomarriagepaymentatallisgiven,amanwithhisfamilyhastoliveonhisfather-in-law'slandandassisthim,asamember of thathousehold,inallcommunalsubsistenceactivitiessuchasclearingbrush,planting,andharvesting.Divorceisnotuncommonandusu-allyoccurswiththewife'sreturntoherownfamily;insuchcasesthebride-wealthisreturnedbyherkinorbyhernewhusbanduponremarriage.DomesticUnit.Thesmallestdomesticunitconsists of amanwithoneormorewivesandtheirchildreniftheyallliveinthesamehamlet.Butformostactivitiesinthegardens,brothersandtheirwivescooperate,oftenassistedbybrothers-in-law.Withinacommongardenownedmostlybymalerela-tives of alineage,eachfamilyhasitsownplot.Eachwomanownsherownpigsandchickensandplansherdailyworkin-dependentlyfromothers.Shehastobeaskedpermissionifherhusbandwantstosellone of herpigs.Eveninpolygynoushouseholds,cookingisdonebyeachwomanseparately.Inheritance.Ideally,inheritanceispatrilineallyorganized.Thisconcernsmainlylandownershipandclanmembershipthoughtherearemanyexceptionswhichgiverisetodisputes.Socialization.Thepattern of adultrolesistransmittedtochildrenataveryearlyagethroughtheirbeingactivelymoti-vatedtoparticipateineverydayactivities.Ifleftbackinthevillage,theyareputunderthesupervision of olderchildrenwhoformplayinggroups.Atthesametimetheyareentrustedwithsocialresponsibility.Throughvariousstages of initia-tion,boysandyoungmenattainmanhood,whichiscon.nectedwithritualknowledge.Themostprominentritualeventinagirl'slifeisthefirst-menstruationceremony,whichisactedoutcommunallybyallwomen of avillage.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Apartfromhouseholds,lineages,andclanswithinthevillage,thenonlocalizedmoietysystemprovidesthestructureformaleinitiationsaswellasforyamfestivals.Members of onemoiety(ara)havetheirpersonalyamexchangepartners,andeachaminitiatesthesons of theirexchangepartners.Thus,allceremonialactivityisbal-ancedbetweenara.Althoughmembershipisprimarilyinher-itedfromone'sfather,theequality of thetwoaras'member-shipmaybemaintainedbyoccasionallytransferringmembersfromonearatotheother.PoliticalOrganization.Withinthearabutalsowithinas-sembliesheldbyhamletsorlargerparts of thevillages(asindisputes)therole of 'bigmen"(nemandu)astheactualleadersbecomesapparent.Apartfromritualknowledge(oftentrans-mittedtothefirst-bornson),whichisusedasreligiouslegiti-mationforpoliticalactions,oratoricalskillisanimportantqualificationforbecominganemanduoraninfluentialman.SocialControLNemanduaremostlyconflictresolvers,settlingdisputesbystressingtheimportance of solidarityandcooperation.Disputes(whicharequitefrequent)areheldontheceremonialground.Theybecomesettledundertheguid-ance of influentialmenthroughthesinging of conciliatoryritualsongs,bytheexchange of shellrings,orbyfighting.16AnutaYen,DouglasE.,andJanetGordon,eds.(1973).Anuta:APolynesianOutlierintheSolomonIslands.PacificAnthropo-logicalRecords,no. 21 .Honolulu:BerniceP.BishopMu-seum,Department of Anthropology.RICHARDFEINBERGArandaETHNONYMS:Arrernte,AruntaOrientationIdentification.Arandarefersfirst of alltoalanguagegroup.Therehavebeenatleastelevendialectsinthisgroup,eachspokenbyadifferentculturalbloclivinginthedesertar-eas of centralAustralia.Themostnortherly of thesegroups,theAnmatjera,Kaititi,Iliaura(orAlyawarra),Jaroinga,andAndakerebina,arenotusuallyknownasAranda,eventhoughtheyareArandaspeakers.Arandaisapostcontactde-nomination,nowcommonlyaccepted.Itnormallyrefersonlytothefollowinggroups,some of whichhavediedoutbynoworlosttheirdistinctidentities:WesternAranda,NorthernAranda,EasternAranda,CentralAranda,UpperSouthernAranda(orPertame),andLowerSouthernAranda(orAlenyentharrpe).Location.Arandicgroupshavebeendistributedthrough-outthearea of theNorthernTerritory,Queensland,andSouthAustraliabetween1 32 and139'Sand 20 °and 27 0E.Theyhavemainlyoccupiedtherelativelywell-wateredmoun-tainousareas of thisdesertregion,althoughseveralgroups,particularlyaroundthenorthern,eastern,andsouthernfringes of theAranda-speakingarea,haveveryextensivesandhillregionswithintheirterritories.Demography.Thetotalpopulation of Arandaspeakersinprecontacttimesprobablydidnotexceed3,000.Thepopula-tionfellverysharplyafterthecoming of Whites,mainlythroughtheintroduction of newdiseases.Atthepresenttimethetotalpopulationfigureiscomparabletothat of thepre-contacteraandisrising,althoughthespatialandculturaldis-tribution of thatfigurehasshifteddramatically.Majorsettle-mentsatornearHermannsburg,AliceSprings,andSantaTeresaaccountforthebulk of theArandapopulation.InguisticAffiliation.AustralianAboriginallanguages, of whichtherearesome 25 0,formadistinctfamily. Of theArandicdialects,themostcommonlyheardtodayareWest-ernAranda(Hermannsburg/AliceSpringsdistrict)andEasternAranda(AliceSprings/SantaTeresadistrict).Thetotalnumber of Arandaspeakersprobablydoesnotexceed3,000,one-half of whomwouldbespeakers of WesternAranda.Mostpeoplearecompetentinmorethanonedialectandmanyarefluentinsecondandthirdlanguages,includingvariousforms of English.Loanwords,largelyfromWesternDesertandWarlpirineighbors,arecommonlyusedandinte-gratedintoAranda.Arandiclanguagesnowhaveanumber of literaryformsforuseinpublishingandbilingualeducation.HistoryandCulturalRelationsAborigineshavelivedincentralAustraliaforatleast 20 ,000years,althoughfewdetails of theirhistoryareknown.TheAr-andawerenomadichuntersandgathererswhenWhitesfirstcametoCentralAustraliainthe1860s,butfromthe1870sonwardtheysteadilymovedintoamoresedentary(thoughstillmobile)way of lifeonmissions,pastoralstations,andgovernmentsettlements.RelationsbetweenArandagroupsandbetweenArandagroupsandtheirneighbors(mostlyWesternDesertpeople)havevariedfromfriendship,alliance,andintermarriage,ontheonehand,toenmityandhostilityontheother.RelationswithEuropeaninterestshavealsovar-iedgreatlyovertheyears,rangingfromguerrillawarfareandcattlestealingtoenforcedorvoluntarysettlementandworkonmissionsandcattlestations.Europeanattitudesandprac-ticestowardsArandapeoplehavealsovariedgreatly-fromtolerancetobigotry,fromlaissez-fairetopaternalism,andfromprotectionismtomurder.Since World War11,whende-velopmentincentralAustraliagreatlyincreased,theArandahavelivedthroughtheofficialgovernmentpolicy of assimila-tion.Theyarenowexperiencingtheeffects of therelativelynewpolicy of self-determination,whichhascausedtheirlivestobeincreasinglyaffectedbyAboriginalbureaucracies.SettlementsAlthoughtheArandausedtobenomadichuntersandgatherers,theyhadverydearnotions of homelands.Withintheseterritoriestherewerewell-troddencircuitsthatpeoplewoulduse...

... theislandswhentheywishedtocom-municate,andEuropeanmissionarieschoseBaufortransla-tion of theBible.EuropeanizedBauan,sometimesalsocalledOldHighBauan,hasnowbecomethebasisforStandardFi-jian,whichisintheOceanicBranch of Austronesianlanguages.HistoryandCulturalRelationsAlthoughFijihasbeeninhabitedforatleast3,500years,muchinterveninghistoryhasbeenlosttomemory.AU of thegreatchiefdoms of easternVidLevutracetheirfoundingan.cestorstotheNakauvadraMountainsnearthenorthcoast,butexistinggenealogicalinformationcannotbeheldtorelatetoearlierthanthesixteenthcentury.TheBauhadtwogreatchieflylines,that of theRokotuiBau,thesacredchiefs,andtheVunivalu,warchiefsandexecutivechiefs.Aftermovingtotheislet,theBaubeganextendingtheirinfluence.TheVunivaluNaulivouexploitedmusket-bearingEuropeanbeachcomberstosucheffectthatatthetime of hisdeathin1 829 ,BauseemedwellonthewaytoestablishingaFiji-widehegemony.Rebellionin18 32 haltedthisinexorablerise,andasthecenturyadvanced,relationshipsbetweenBauandotherchiefdoms,andbetweenFijiansandEuropeans,be-cameincreasinglycomplex.MissionariesarrivedatBauin1839.Theirprogresswaslimitedduringtheearlystages of thewarbetweenBauandRewa,whichdominatedFiji'spoliticsduringthemiddleyears of thecentury,butin1854,theVuni-valuCakobauconvertedtoChristianity,andtheclimacticbattle of Kaba,in1855,tookonthecharacter of astrugglebe-tweenpaganandChristianpowerinFiji.Thereafter,Euro-peaninfluenceincreased.FijiwascededtoGreatBritainin1874,withCakobausigningthedeedasKing of Fiji.TheBritishcolonialadministrationadoptedafairlybenignpater-nalismtowardsallFijians.Alienation of landwasstopped,butevolution of Fijiansocietyandadaptationtochangewereseverelylimited.TheoldchiefdomssuchasBaubecamerela-tivelyinsignificant,althoughsome of thechiefswereinvolvedinadministration.Withindependencein1970,andevenmoresoafterthemilitarycoups of 1987,however,thechieflyconfederationshaveonceagaincometothefore.SettlementsAlthoughthefocus of thechiefdomwasBauIsland,thereweremanytributarytownsandvillages,eachwiththeirownterritoryupanddowntheTailevucoast,alongthenorthcoast of thedelta,andonnearbyislandsintheKoroSea.Duringtheperiod of greatestturbulence,villageswereelabo-ratelydefended.Thoseintheswamplands of thedelta,inpar-ticular,weresurroundedwithimpenetrablebarriers of fencesandditchesstrengthenedwithconcealedandupraisedspikes.Specialstructuresincludedthetempletotheancestralgod of theparamountchiefs,thehousesites of themostimportantfamilies,whichwerebuiltonrock-steppedplatforms,andthestone-borderedcanoedocks,representingpoliticalsuprem-acy.Inordertoprovidemoreland,terraceswereleveledandforeshorereclaimed,andabridgewasbuilttoconnecttheisletwiththemainlandmorethanakilometeraway.Duringthetime of friendshipwithRewa,a 2- kilometercanalwasduglinkingadjacentchannels of thegreatrivertoprovideeasieraccessbetweenthetwocenters of power.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.BauanFijiansweresubsistencehorticulturists,raisingrootcropssuchastaroandcassavaonaswiddenbasisonthedrierTailevucoastallands,butplantingswamptaroincarefullymoundedandditchedplotsintheRewaDelta.Fishingandcollectingtheresources of mangrovesandthenearbyreefsprovidedim-portantadditionalfood.TradingwithEuropeansbeganwhenthelatterdiscoveredstands of sandalwoodonthenorthernisland of VanuaLevuinthefirstdecade of thenineteenthcentury,anditgreatlyintensifiedwhenthetechnologyassoci-atedwiththedrying of seaslugs(trepang)wasbroughttoFijifromChinainthe1 820 s.Thechiefs of Baudeployedtheirsupportersinordertoacquirethecashtheyneededtobuyguns,ammunition,and,inthecase of theVunivaluCakobau of Bau,aschoonerforhispersonaluse.Today,60percent of thetotalpopulationlivesinvillages,largelystillwithasub-sistenceeconomyandthecontinuedobligations of commu-nallife,butrural-urbandriftiscreatingproblems.MoreFiji-answorkforwagesandseekemploymentintowns,resultinginalack of housing,employment,andeducationopportuni-tiesandaweakening of theresources of thevillages.Sincethecoups of 1987,theFijian-dominatedgovernmenthassoughttoredressimbalancesthatitperceivesbetweenFijiansandIn-dians,originallybroughttothecountrybythecolonialad-Bikini 27 of eitherswifthead-huntingraidsormassivesiegesaimedatthedevastation of theenemyvillage.Also,rivalryamongchiefsandcompetitionovertideinheritancecreatedpowerfulmotivesforpoliticalassassination.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligotsBeliefs.BelauhasbeenheavilymissionizedbyCatholics,Seventh-DayAdventists,andMormons.Anativ-isticmovement,Modekngei,or"LetUsGoForthTogether,"isapowerfulreligiousandeducationalforce.Exceptforsomevillagegods(representedinstonemonuments),thetradi-tionalpantheonhasbeenreplacedbytheChristiantrinity.ChristianityandModekngeiprovidetheprimaryreligiousdogmas;thelatterstressespurificationritesandtrances.ReligisPractitioners.Traditionalmaleandfemalereli-giousspecialistsperformedofferingstolocalgods(chelid)and,whileintrance,spokethemessagesandprophecies of thegods.Maletitleholdersservedasritualspecialistsinthedomesticcult,focusingonmanipulatingancestralspirits(bladek)throughofferings of burntcoconutandsmallpieces of money.Today,BelauanscanserveasChristiandeacons,ministers,andpriests;Modekngeiutilizesritualspecialists.Ceremonies.Importanttraditionalceremoniesincludein-terdistrictdancingfestivals(ruk)andcompetitivefeastsbe-tweenlocalfishermen'sclubs(onged).ProtestantsandCath-olicsobservetheprincipalfestivals of theChristiancalendar,followers of Modekngeiassembleweeklyattheritualcenterinlbobang.Arts.Skillssuchascanoebuildinganddecorativewoodcarvingarecurrentlybeingrevivedasfolkart"Storyboard"carvingsdepictingeventsfromfolkloreareamajortouristitem.Localdanceteamsperformatfestivals;olderwomensingarchaicfuneralchantsandsongs.Storytellingisahighlyrespectedform of verbalart.Medicine.WesternmedicineisavailableatthecentralhospitalinKororandinvillageclinics;villagesplaceahighvalueonpublichealthandsanitation.Traditionalcuringem-ploysherbalmedicinesappliedontheside of thebodyoppo-sitetheaffectedpart.DeathandAfterlife.Funeralsarecostly,elaboraterituals.Thedeceased'sfemalerelativesmaintainamourningperiod,andmalerelativescollectfinancialcontributionstobedis-tributedtoheirsatasubsequentceremonialoccasioncalled"deathsettlementtalks."Burialtakesplaceincommunitygraveyards,althoughformerlyburialwasunderthehouseplatform.Aweekafterburial,closerelativesmeetagaintopavethegraveandtosendthespirittoitsfinalrestingplaceinthesouthernpart of thearchipelago.SeealsoWoleaiBibliographyBarnett,H.G.(1949).PalauanSociety:AStudy of Contempo-raryNativeLifeinthePalauIslands.Eugene:University of Or-egonPublications.Force,Roland,andMaryanneForce(19 72) .JustOneHouse:ADescriptionandAnalysis of KinshipinthePalauIslands.Ber-niceP.BishopMuseumBulletinno. 23 5.Honolulu.Krimer,Augustin(191 7-1 929 )."Palau."InErgebnissederSiidsee-Expedition,190 8-1 910,editedbyGeorgThilenius,B.Melanesien,vol.1.HamburgFriederichsen.Parmentier,RichardJ.(1987).TheSacredRemains:Myth,History,andPolityinBelau.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.RICHARDJ.PARMENTIERBikini*ETHNONYMS:EscholtzIslandsBikiniisthelargest of thetwenty-sixislandsintheBikiniAtollintheMarshallIslands.BikiniisthenorthernmostatollintheRatakchain of atollsandislandsandislocatedat11031'Nand165°34'E.Thetwenty-sixislandshaveatotallandarea of 7.6squarekilometersandsurroundalargelagoonsome641squarekilometersinarea.Bikinihasdrawnconsid-erableattentionsincetherelocation of the161residentBik-iniansin1946sothattheatollcouldbeusedasatestsiteforatomicandnuclearweaponsbytheU.S.government.Be-cause of radiationcontaminationfromthetests,Bikiniisun-inhabitatedtodayandwillprobablyremainsoforsomeyears.Bikinianstodaynumberover400andliveelsewhereintheMarshallIslands,mainlyonKili.Bikinianidentityisbasedonrightstoownership of landonBikinithatareinheritedfromancestors.Bikiniwassettledbefore1800possiblybypeoplemigrat-ingfromWotjeAtoll.Because of theisland'srelativeisola-tion,BiinianshadlittlecontactwithotherpeoplesintheMarshalls.FirstcontactwithEuropeanswasevidentlyin1 824 withtheRussianexplorerOttovonKotzebue,althoughnoEuropeanactuallysettledonBikiniuntilafter1900.ThefirstAmericanmissionaryarrivedin1908andBikiniansweredrawnintothecopratradeduringtheGermancolonialper-iod,whichendedwith World War1.TheJapaneseruledtheMarshallsfrom World WarIto World WarII,andtheyestab-lishedabaseonBikiniduring World WarII.Afterthewar,theMarshallsbecameaTrustTerritory of theU.S.andachievedindependencein1986.Because of itsisolationandthelargelagoon,BikiniAtollwasselectedbytheU.S.governmentasthesitefortestingtheeffects of atomicbombsonnavalvessels.ThisdecisionledtonegotiationswiththeBikiniansandtheiragreeingtorelocatetoRongerikIslandin1946.Whenthissiteprovedinade-quate,theyrelocatedagaintoKwajaleinIslandin1948andthenKililaterin1948,wheremostremained,althoughsomealsosettledonKwajaleinandJaluit.AnorganizedattemptwasmadebytheDepartment of theInteriortodeveloptheKilicommunityeconomically,aneffortthatmetwithlimitedsuccess.From1946to1957,twenty-threeatomicandnucleartestswereconductedatBikini.In1968,BikiniwasdeclaredhabitablebytheU.S.governmentand100Bikinianshadre- 28 Bikiniturnedby1974,thoughtheislandwasnowbarren of much of thevegetationthathadexistedwhentheyleftin1946.Whentestsin1978showedunacceptablyhighlevels of strontium90radiationinBiliniansontheisland,theislandwasde-dareduninhabitableandthepeoplerelocatedagaintoKili.Ascompensationfortheloss of theirland,theBikinianswereawardedhundreds of thousands of dollarsin1956bytheUnitedStates.Somepaymentswenttoindividualswhileoth-erswereusedtoestablishatrustfundfortheentirecommu-nity.ThesepaymentshavemadeBikinians,alongwithpeoplefromEnewetak,Rongelap,Utirik,andKwajaleinwhoalsore-ceivedcompensation,wealthierthanotherMarshallIsland-ers.ThepaymentsalsomadetheBikinianseconomicallyde-pendentonincomefromthetrustfundandcontributedtoanerosion of participationinprerelocationeconomicpursuitssuchastaroandcopraproduction.Relocationalsochangedtraditionalpatterns of socialandpoliticalorganization.OnBikini,rightstolandandlandownershipwerethemajorfac-torinsocialandpoliticalorganizationandleadership.Also,theBikinians,asMarshallIslanders,wereunderthenominalcontrol of theParamountChief of theislands,thoughactualcontactwithotherislandswasminimal.AfterrelocationandsettlementonKili,adualsystem of landtenureemerged,withdisbursements of interestfromthetrustfundlinkedtoland-ownershiponBikiniandaseparatesystemreflectingcurrentlandtenureonKiliinfluencingcurrentpoliticalalliancesandleadership.RegularcontactwiththeU.S.governmentledtheBikinianstorejecttheprimacy of theParamountChiefandinsteadtolooktoU.S.governmentofficialsforsupportandassistance.SeealsoMarshallIslandsBibliographyKiste,RobertC.(1974).TheBikinians:AStudyinForcedMi-gration.MenloPark,Calif.:CummingsPublishingCo.Mason,Leonard(1954).'Relocation of theBikiniMarshal-ese:AStudyinGroupMigration."UnpublishedPh .D. disser-tation,YaleUniversity.BoaziETHNONYMS:Boadzi,SukiOrientationIdentification.Boaziisthename of alanguagespokenbyapproximately 2, 500peoplewholivealongthemiddlereaches of theFlyRiverandalongthecentralandnorthernshores of LakeMurrayinthesouthernlowlands of NewGuinea.Boazispeakersusethename'Boazi"torefertotheirlanguage,buttheirnamesforthemselvesarethenames of theeightterritorialgroupsintowhichtheyaredivided.Theuse of thename"Boazi"(bothbyBoazispeakersandothers)torefertoallBoazispeakers(orinsomecasestorefertothosewholivealongtheFlyRiverasopposedtothosewholivearoundLakeMurray)istheresult of therecentcolonialandcurrentpostcolonialcontextinwhichBoazispeakerslive.Priortothecolonialperiod,theredoesnotseemtohavebeenanycon-ception of groupmembershipbeyondtheterritorialgroup.Nonetheless,theeightBoazi-speakingterritorialgroupsshareacommonhistory,culture,andsocialstructure.Earlycolo-nialdocumentsalsorefertoBoazispeakersas"Suli,"anamenowreservedforculturallysimilarpeoplelivingfartherdowntheFlyRiver.Location.TheLakeMurray-MiddleFlyareaislocatedbe-tween6°30'and8°S,and141°and141°5'E.Thedominantgeographicalfeatures of theareaaretheFlyRiver,withits1 0- kilometer-widefloodplain,andLakeMurray,whichis60ki-lometerslongand15kilometerswideatitswidestpoint.Awayfromtheriverandlakearelowridgescoveredwithopenforestorclosedcanopyrainforest.Inthemarginallylowerar-easbetweentheseridgesareextensivesagoswampsfromwhichBoazispeakersgetmost of theirfood.Theareareceives 25 0centimeters of rainperyear,overhalf of whichfallsdur-ingthenorthwestmonsoon,whichlastsfromlateDecembertomid-April.Demography.In1980therewereapproximately 2, 500Boazispeakers.Thepopulationdensity of theLakeMurray-MiddleFlyareaisabout0.3personpersquarekilometer.Thereisnoreliableinformationonpopulationgrowthordecline.linguisticAffiliation.AccordingtoC.L.Voorhoeve(1970),Boaziisspokeninthreedialects:KuniatLakeMurray,andNorthBoaziandSouthBoazialongtheFlyRiver.TheBoazilanguageisone of twolanguagesintheBoaziLanguageFamily,theotherbeingZimakaniwhichisspokenaroundthesouthernpart of LakeMurrayandtheconfluence of theFlyandStricklandrivers.TheBoaziLan-guageFamilyistheeasternmost of thethreelanguagefamiliesintheMarindStock,whichispart of theTrans-NewGuineaPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsBoazispeakersareculturallysimilartogroupstothesouthandwest of theLakeMurray-MiddleFlyarea,includingtheSuki,Yi-nan,Marind-anim,BianMarind,andthetribes of theTrans-Fly,buttheyareculturallyverydifferentfromthepeopleswholivetothenorth of theLakeMurray-MiddleFlyareasuchastheYonggom,Aekyom(orAwin),andtheParespeakers.TodatenoarchaeologicalresearchhasbeendoneintheLakeMurray-MiddleFlyarea.Itisthereforeimpossi-bletosaywithanycertaintyhowlongpeoplehavebeenintheareaorwheretheancestors of thepresent-dayBoazispeakerscamefrom.Boazispeakersclaimthattheirancestorsorigi-natedintheLakeMurray-MiddleFlyareaitself,andBoazioralhistoryrecordsvariousmilitaryconquestsandsubse-quentmovements of peoplewithintheLakeMurray-MiddleFlyareapriortothearrival of Europeans.Thefirstcontactbe-tweenBoazispeakersandEuropeanstookplaceinJune1876during d& apos;Albertis'sexploration of theFlyRiver. d& apos;Albertishadbriefhostileencounterswithpeoplealongthemiddlereaches of theriverbothduringhisascentandduringhisde-scentlaterthatyear.Forthefiftyyearsfollowing d& apos;Albertis'svisit,BoazispeakersbothalongtheFlyRiverandatLakeBau 23 ministrationin1878toworkintheplantationsugarindustrythateventuallybecamethebasis of thecolonialeconomy.IndustrialArts.Traditionalcrafts of Fijiincludedthemaking of pots,wovenmats,andfinebarkclothbythewomen,and,bythemen,thecarving of whaleboneivory(sometimesinlaidwithpearlshell)andawidevariety of woodenartifacts,includingspearsandclubs,bowlsfortheceremonialdrinking of kava,andthegreatseagoingdouble-hulledcanoesthatpermittedspeedypassagebetweentheis-lands of FijiandtoSamoaandTongatotheeast.Trade.Bauanpowerrestedontheabilitytomaintainawidenetwork of tributaryrelationshipsthatinvolvedthesup-plyingtoit of alltheresources of thelandandsea,includingthecraftsmentionedabove.Europeanswereintegratedintothesystemwheneverpossible,particularlyinthefirsthalf of thenineteenthcentury.Division of Labor.Intraditionaltimes,familyunitsspreadwidelyovertheland,cultivatingandcollecting.Thedivision of laborwasaccordingtobothageandsex.Menproducedafargreaterproportion of thefamily'sfood,foragriculturewasandremainsthedomain of men.Younggirlsmightcollecttaroleaves,butotherwisetheywouldnotgotothegardens.Fishingbylineornetandthecollection of molluscsandotherproducts of thereefarewomen'swork,asisthefetching of water,mostcooking,andthecare of houseandchildren.Youngchildren of 8or9mighthelptheirparents,butlack of responsibilityusuallylastsuntil14orso.Theheaviertasksfallontheyoungermenandwomen.Thedomesticsenioritysystemservestoorganizehouseholdproduction;thisarrange-mentwasespeciallytrue of thetraditionalextendedfamily.LandTenure.Landwasheldbythe"family,"whichwasdefinedmoreorlessinclusivelyindifferentparts of Fiji.Dur-ingtheperiod of itsrisetopower,BaustruggledwithRewaforcontrol of thedeltaandsoughttoimposeatributaryrelation-shiponthosetheyconquered.Thecolonialgovernmentde-finedprinciples of landtenureretrospectively,creatingho-mogeneityinplace of asystembuiltondynamismandchange.TheybasedtheirsystematleastinpartonBauannorms.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Fijiansocietyisorganizedintoahierarchy of kinshipgroups of increasingorders of inclusive-ness.AtBau,thechieflyyavusawasdividedintofourpatricIans:thetwochieflymataqali,awarriorclan,andaher-aldclandividedintotwosubclansassociatedwitheach of thechieflylines.Withtherisetopoliticalimportance of thechieflyconfederationssincethe1987coups,clanrelation-shipsattheindividuallevelarebecomingmoreimportantonceagain.KinshipTerminology.Thesystemis of theIroquoistype,withsomespecialfeatures.Thereistheusualsharpdistinc-tionbetweencrossandparallelrelatives,butbifurcatemerg-ingoccursinallbuttheseconddescendinggeneration,inwhichkinshipreckoningissimplygenerational.Amongthechieflyfamilies of Bau,thevasurelationship,betweenegoandmother'sbrother,wasusedtocementtieswithotherchiefdoms.Thevasuwasabletomakeparticulardemandsonthematerialwealth of hismaternaluncle'skingroup,fre-quentlydoingsointheinterests of hisownchiefdom.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Traditionally,thepreferredmarriagealliancewasbetweencrosscousins;marriagebetweentribeswaspossi-bleonlyafterformalrequest.Nonsororalpolygynywasprac-ticed,andaman'sstatuswasdefinedbythenumber of hiswives.Thegreatchiefsmarriedmanytimes,usuallyinthein-terests of extendingpoliticalpower.Thismeantthatall of thechieflyfamilies of Fijiwerecloselyrelated,oftenmanytimesoverinsucceedinggenerations.Insuchsituations,thestatus of thefirstwifewasdistinctlysuperior.Thetitle of theprinci-palwife of theRokotuiBauwas'RadiniBau,"andhissec-ondwifewastided'RadiKaba."Theprincipalwife of theVunivaluwascalled'RadiLevuka."Marriageceremonialwasmoreorlesselaboratedependingontherank of thepartici-pants.Patrilocalresidencewasthenorm,anddivorcecouldbeeffectedeasilybyeitherparty.DomesticUnit.Thetraditionalextendedfamilyconsisted of severalmarriedpairsandtheirchildren,inhabitingsepa-ratedwellingsbutsharingandcooperatinginonecookhouse.Typically,men of thefamilywouldbecloselyrelatedtothepaternalline,butadaughterandherhusbandmightalsobelong.Theseniormalewouldusetheancestralhousesite(yavu).Inheritance.Dwellinghousesareallocatedbythefamilyheadandremainunderhiscontrol,asdogardenplotsandotherfamilypropertysuchascanoes.Athisdeath,hissurviv-ingseniorsiblingdeterminesthedisposition of thehouseifthedeceasedhasnomaturesons.Inthecase of thegreatchiefs,thecouncil of thewholetribe(yavusa)woulddeter-minesuccessionandwithitallrightstoproperty.Socialization.Therigorandprinciples of familyrankingareamicrocosm of largerkingroupsandcommunities.Chil-drenaresubordinatetotheirparents,buttheyarealsorankedrelativetoeachotherbybirthorder.Aboriginally,theywererankedfirstbyorder of marriage of theirmothersandthenbe-tweenfullsiblingsbybirthorder.Thefirstchild(ulumatua)hasaspecialstatus.Obedienceandrespectaredemanded of thechildbythefather,afterinfancythechildisconstantlytakingorders.Punishmentbythefatheristhemaindiscipli-narymechanism,andthemotherismoreindulgentthanthefather,particularlytowardsboysandyoungmen of thefamily.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganizato.Thesocialorganization of thechiefdomwasextraordinarlycomplex,withallaspects of itsexistenceringedwithceremony.Eachindividualidentifiedwithahierarchy of increasinglyinclusivegroups:extendedfamily,subclan,clan(yavusa),federation of clans(vanua),andpoliticalconfederation(matanitu).Thefocus of thechiefdomwasthechieflyclan,whichwassupportedandde-fendedbytwogroups of hereditaryfishers,whoalsohadtherole of defendingthechiefsfromattackbylandorsea.PoliticalOrganization.Ashead of thepoliticalconfedera-tion,thechieflyclan of Bausoughttomaintainanetwork of tributaryrelationshipsthroughitssubclans.Thisarrangementimpliedadegree of politicalinstability,and,indeed,thehistory of thefirsthalf of thenineteenthcenturywasone of aceaselessstruggleforpower.Warriorsubclanswerespreadasashieldalongthenorthcoast of theRewaDeltaandatthebase of the 24 BauKabaPeninsula,separatingBauandRewa.Moredistanttieswerebasedonacknowledgedancestralkinrelationships.Assuch,theyrequiredtobeconstantlyreinforcedwithinthecon-temporaryplay of politicalforces.Thecolonialadministrativesystemandthat of theimmediatepostindependenceperioddi-videdtheoldchiefdom of Baubetweenseveralnewadminis-trativeunits,butinpostcoupFijithechieflyconfederationsareagainassumingpoliticalsignificance.SocialControl.Reflectingapreferenceforavoidingdirectconfrontation,gossip,ostracism,andsocialwithdrawalhavealwaysbeenimportantforms of socialcontrol.Fear of divineretributionwasandremainsapowerfulsanctionatboththeindividualandthecommunitylevel.Thecolonialgovern-mentmadeFijianssubjecttoitsjudicialsystem,butsincethe1987coupstherehasbeenanattempttoreincorporatetradi-tionalprinciplesintothelegalsystem.Conflict.Therewereceremonialways of askingforgivenesswheretherewasawishforreconciliation,endingwiththedrinking of kava.Thevasucouldalsodefusepotentialcon-flict,beingableeffectivelytorepresentthefemalesideinapatrilinealsociety.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Intraditionaltimes,religiousbeliefcen-teredonthedeifiedfounders of clans,frequentlyworshippedinanimalform.Inaddition,eachgrouphaditsownset of ani-malandplanttotems,deemedtobeinhabitedbyancestralspirits.Themissionariessucceededindrivingancientbeliefsunderground,buttheysurfacedseveraltimesattheend of thenineteenthcentury,usuallyintheform of atavisticcultsasvehiclesforanticolonialopposition.Today,Methodismclaimsthesupport of mostFijians,althoughthereisanim-portantRomanCatholicminority.ReligiousPractitioners.Traditionally,priestsformedhe-reditarydans,exercisingimportantdivinatoryandhealingrolesandactingasthevoice of theancestralgods.Ceremonies.Theseweremainlyassociatedwithlifecyclesandwithintergrouprelationships.Inancienttimes,therewasaceremony of firstfruits,whenthevarioustributaries of Baubroughtofferings of foodtotheRokotuiBauandlatertotheVunivalu,theseusuallybeingintheform of delicaciesforwhichparticulargroupswerewellknown.Thisceremonywasconductedaccordingtothetraditionalcalendar.Arts.Singingandchanting,dancing,andjoketellingwerethetraditionalarts.Thesexesneverdancedtogetherandhadquitedifferentdances.Bothdancedstandingandsitting.Thewomenuseddelicatehandmovements,whilethemenoftendancedwithfanandspearorclub,orwithsticks.Medicine.Diseasewasunderstoodasderivingfrommalev-olence of thespirits,particularlyaftertheviolation of taboos.Womencollectedandcompoundedherbalcures,whilemenappliedthem-areflection of thebeliefthatmenpossessedheavenlypower(mana)whereasthestrength of womencamefromtheearth.Massagewasalsoanimportanthealingtech-nique,butwomenmassagedonlywomen,andmenonlymen.DeathandAfterlife.Theceremonyassociatedwithdeathwasextremelyelaborate,particularlywhenthestatus of thedeceasedwashigh,reflectingitsimportanceintraditionalbe-lief.Tributarygroupswouldcometopayhomagetothecorpseandtothebereavedfamily,cementingtiesintheproc-ess.Aftertheburial of ahighchief,ataboowaslaidonthewatersaroundBau,andthewomen,havingkeptvigiloverthecorpseforfourtotendays,wouldcuttheirhair,onlyafter100nights of mourningwouldthetaboosbelifted.Wiveswerestrangledtogowiththeirhusbandsintothespirit world, foronthewaylurkedRavuyalo,whokilledthespirits of thosewhofailedtoaccompanytheirspouses.Theunmarriedwereburiedwithaclubfortheirowndefense.SeealsoLauBibliographyNayacakalou,RR.(1975).LeadershipinFiji.Melbourne:OxfordUniversityPress.Ravuvu,Asesela D. (1988).DevelopmentorDependence:ThePattern of ChangeinaFijianVillage.Suva,Fiji:University of theSouthPacific.Thomson,Basil(1908).TheFijians:AStudy of theDecay of Custom.London:Heinemann.Reprint.1968.London:Dawsons.Williams,Thomas(1858).FijiandtheFijians.Vol.1,TheIs-landsandTheirInhabitants.London:AlexanderHeylin.Re-print.19 82. Suva:FijiMuseum.DAVIDROUTLEDGEBelauETHNOMYMS:Palau,PelewOrientationIdentification.Hearingthewordbeluu,"villagehome-land",earlyBritishexplorers of thewesternPacificmistakenlyreferredtotheBelauIslandsas"Pelew";thespelling'Palau"becamestandardizedinnineteenth-centuryGermanscien-tificwritings.Theform'Belau"moreaccuratelyreflectscon-temporarypronunciationandhasbecomeasymbol of na-tionalunity.Location.Belau,anarchipelagointhewesternPacificOcean,islocatedbetween6°and8"Nand134°and135°E.Theislandsformthewesternmostgroup of theCarolineIs-lands of Micronesia.Belauincludesover 20 0geologicallyandecologicallydiverseislands;thelargest,Babeldaob,isavol-canicisland of 3 62 squarekilometers.Otherislandtypesin-cludehighlimestoneandplatformlimestoneislands,smallreefislands,andonetrueatoll.Acoralreefencirclingmost of thearchipelagocreateslagoonsrichinmarineresourcesandpermitsrelativelysmoothintervillagesailing.Theclimateistropical,withconstantlyhighhumidity,ameantemperature of 27 °C,andrainfallrangingfrom 320 centimetersperyearinthesouthto 425 centimetersperyearonBabeldaob.ABanaro 21 Practitioners.Sorcerersandshamans(namer-o)mediatebetweenhumansandthespirit world. Thesestatusesrepre-sentvisionarycallingsrequiringlongapprenticeships.Practi-tionersperformmagic,exorcisms,andhealing.Tesmaypitsorganizeandsuperviserituals,employingheadsingersandprovidingfoodforceremonies.Inrecentyears,cargo-cultleadersalsohaveemerged.Ceremonies.Villagescelebratemajorritualsonatwo-tofour-yearcycle.Ritualwarfare(andtheactivitiesthatpre-cededandfollowedeachbattle)traditionallywasunderstoodasintegraltothecosmology of dualism,reciprocity,andchecksandbalances.Feasting,dancing,thecarving of art-works,andlengthysongcyclescontinuetoreflectthisper-spective.Mythological,legendary,andhistoricalheroesareextolledinepicsong-poemslastingseveraldays.Initiation,papis,adultadoption,andmen'shouseconstructionarealsoaccompaniedbyceremonies.Arts.Asmatart,music,andoralliteraturearecloselyboundtoceremonialandsocioeconomiccycles.Themastercarvers(wowipits)havebeenrecognizedasamongthebest of thepreliterate world. Exuberance of form,shape,andcolorcharacterizeancestor(bis)poles,warshields,andcanoeprows.Drumsandhead-huntinghornsareconsideredtobesacredobjects,althoughonlysingingisviewedas'music."Musicservesasavehicle of possession,socialbonding,politi-caloratory,therapy,culturaltransmission,andrecreation.Medicine.Mostcurersalsoarereligiouspractitioners.Theyemployherbalremedies(includingtobacco),sorcery,andmagic.Theintroduction of WesternmedicinehasbeensystematicallypromotedbymissionariesbutonlyerraticallypromotedbytheIndonesiangovernment.EarlierDutchpro-gramsweredeemedsuperior.DeathandAfterlife.Virtuallyallsicknessanddeathisat-tributedtospiritualinterventionorcosmicimbalance.Suchimbalanceleadstovulnerability.Upondeath,familyandclosefriendsgrieveopenlyandintensivelyforseveralhours,flingingthemselvesdownandrollinginthemud of theriver-bank.Mudisbelievedtomaskthescent of thelivingfromthecapriciousspirit of thedead.Thebodytraditionallywasboundinpandanusleaves,placedonaplatform,andlefttodecay.Relativesretrievedcertainbones;theskull of one'smotheroftenwaswornonastringaroundtheneckorusedasapillow.Thespirits of thedeadentersafan,"theotherside."MostAsmatnowrelyuponburial,withsomedeathsaccom-paniedbyChristianfunerals.SeealsoMimikaBibliographyAmelsvoort,V.F.P.M.(1964).Culture,StoneAge,andModernMedicine.Assen,TheNetherlands:VanGorcum.VanArsdale,Kathleen0.(1981).MusicandCulture of theBismamAsmat of NewGuinea:aPreliminaryInvestigation.Hastings,Nebr.:CrosierPress,AsmatMuseum.VanArsdale,PeterW.,andCarolLRadetsky(198 3-1 984)."LifeandDeathinNewGuinea."Omega14:15 5-1 69.Voorhoeve,C.L.(1965).TheFlamingoBayDialect of theAsmatLanguage.TheHague:MartinusNijhoff.PETERVANARSDALEANDKATHLEENVANARSDALEBanaroETHNONYMS:Banar,BanaraTheBanaroareagroupnumberingabout 2, 500locatedalongthemiddlecourse of theKeramRiver,atributaryoftheSepikRiverinMadangandEastSepikprovinces,PapuaNewGuinea.BanaroisaPapuanlanguageisolatebelongingtotheSepik-RamuPhylum.TheBanaroaretodayconcentratedintwovillages.Formerly,theylivedinfourvillages,twoonei-therside of theKeram.Eachvillageconsists of fromthreetosixhamlets,whichinturnhave ... theislandswhentheywishedtocom-municate,andEuropeanmissionarieschoseBaufortransla-tion of theBible.EuropeanizedBauan,sometimesalsocalledOldHighBauan,hasnowbecomethebasisforStandardFi-jian,whichisintheOceanicBranch of Austronesianlanguages.HistoryandCulturalRelationsAlthoughFijihasbeeninhabitedforatleast3,500years,muchinterveninghistoryhasbeenlosttomemory.AU of thegreatchiefdoms of easternVidLevutracetheirfoundingan.cestorstotheNakauvadraMountainsnearthenorthcoast,butexistinggenealogicalinformationcannotbeheldtorelatetoearlierthanthesixteenthcentury.TheBauhadtwogreatchieflylines,that of theRokotuiBau,thesacredchiefs,andtheVunivalu,warchiefsandexecutivechiefs.Aftermovingtotheislet,theBaubeganextendingtheirinfluence.TheVunivaluNaulivouexploitedmusket-bearingEuropeanbeachcomberstosucheffectthatatthetime of hisdeathin1 829 ,BauseemedwellonthewaytoestablishingaFiji-widehegemony.Rebellionin18 32 haltedthisinexorablerise,andasthecenturyadvanced,relationshipsbetweenBauandotherchiefdoms,andbetweenFijiansandEuropeans,be-cameincreasinglycomplex.MissionariesarrivedatBauin1839.Theirprogresswaslimitedduringtheearlystages of thewarbetweenBauandRewa,whichdominatedFiji'spoliticsduringthemiddleyears of thecentury,butin1854,theVuni-valuCakobauconvertedtoChristianity,andtheclimacticbattle of Kaba,in1855,tookonthecharacter of astrugglebe-tweenpaganandChristianpowerinFiji.Thereafter,Euro-peaninfluenceincreased.FijiwascededtoGreatBritainin1874,withCakobausigningthedeedasKing of Fiji.TheBritishcolonialadministrationadoptedafairlybenignpater-nalismtowardsallFijians.Alienation of landwasstopped,butevolution of Fijiansocietyandadaptationtochangewereseverelylimited.TheoldchiefdomssuchasBaubecamerela-tivelyinsignificant,althoughsome of thechiefswereinvolvedinadministration.Withindependencein1970,andevenmoresoafterthemilitarycoups of 1987,however,thechieflyconfederationshaveonceagaincometothefore.SettlementsAlthoughthefocus of thechiefdomwasBauIsland,thereweremanytributarytownsandvillages,eachwiththeirownterritoryupanddowntheTailevucoast,alongthenorthcoast of thedelta,andonnearbyislandsintheKoroSea.Duringtheperiod of greatestturbulence,villageswereelabo-ratelydefended.Thoseintheswamplands of thedelta,inpar-ticular,weresurroundedwithimpenetrablebarriers of fencesandditchesstrengthenedwithconcealedandupraisedspikes.Specialstructuresincludedthetempletotheancestralgod of theparamountchiefs,thehousesites of themostimportantfamilies,whichwerebuiltonrock-steppedplatforms,andthestone-borderedcanoedocks,representingpoliticalsuprem-acy.Inordertoprovidemoreland,terraceswereleveledandforeshorereclaimed,andabridgewasbuilttoconnecttheisletwiththemainlandmorethanakilometeraway.Duringthetime of friendshipwithRewa,a 2- kilometercanalwasduglinkingadjacentchannels of thegreatrivertoprovideeasieraccessbetweenthetwocenters of power.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.BauanFijiansweresubsistencehorticulturists,raisingrootcropssuchastaroandcassavaonaswiddenbasisonthedrierTailevucoastallands,butplantingswamptaroincarefullymoundedandditchedplotsintheRewaDelta.Fishingandcollectingtheresources of mangrovesandthenearbyreefsprovidedim-portantadditionalfood.TradingwithEuropeansbeganwhenthelatterdiscoveredstands of sandalwoodonthenorthernisland of VanuaLevuinthefirstdecade of thenineteenthcentury,anditgreatlyintensifiedwhenthetechnologyassoci-atedwiththedrying of seaslugs(trepang)wasbroughttoFijifromChinainthe1 820 s.Thechiefs of Baudeployedtheirsupportersinordertoacquirethecashtheyneededtobuyguns,ammunition,and,inthecase of theVunivaluCakobau of Bau,aschoonerforhispersonaluse.Today,60percent of thetotalpopulationlivesinvillages,largelystillwithasub-sistenceeconomyandthecontinuedobligations of commu-nallife,butrural-urbandriftiscreatingproblems.MoreFiji-answorkforwagesandseekemploymentintowns,resultinginalack of housing,employment,andeducationopportuni-tiesandaweakening of theresources of thevillages.Sincethecoups of 1987,theFijian-dominatedgovernmenthassoughttoredressimbalancesthatitperceivesbetweenFijiansandIn-dians,originallybroughttothecountrybythecolonialad-Bikini 27 of eitherswifthead-huntingraidsormassivesiegesaimedatthedevastation of theenemyvillage.Also,rivalryamongchiefsandcompetitionovertideinheritancecreatedpowerfulmotivesforpoliticalassassination.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligotsBeliefs.BelauhasbeenheavilymissionizedbyCatholics,Seventh-DayAdventists,andMormons.Anativ-isticmovement,Modekngei,or"LetUsGoForthTogether,"isapowerfulreligiousandeducationalforce.Exceptforsomevillagegods(representedinstonemonuments),thetradi-tionalpantheonhasbeenreplacedbytheChristiantrinity.ChristianityandModekngeiprovidetheprimaryreligiousdogmas;thelatterstressespurificationritesandtrances.ReligisPractitioners.Traditionalmaleandfemalereli-giousspecialistsperformedofferingstolocalgods(chelid)and,whileintrance,spokethemessagesandprophecies of thegods.Maletitleholdersservedasritualspecialistsinthedomesticcult,focusingonmanipulatingancestralspirits(bladek)throughofferings of burntcoconutandsmallpieces of money.Today,BelauanscanserveasChristiandeacons,ministers,andpriests;Modekngeiutilizesritualspecialists.Ceremonies.Importanttraditionalceremoniesincludein-terdistrictdancingfestivals(ruk)andcompetitivefeastsbe-tweenlocalfishermen'sclubs(onged).ProtestantsandCath-olicsobservetheprincipalfestivals of theChristiancalendar,followers of Modekngeiassembleweeklyattheritualcenterinlbobang.Arts.Skillssuchascanoebuildinganddecorativewoodcarvingarecurrentlybeingrevivedasfolkart"Storyboard"carvingsdepictingeventsfromfolkloreareamajortouristitem.Localdanceteamsperformatfestivals;olderwomensingarchaicfuneralchantsandsongs.Storytellingisahighlyrespectedform of verbalart.Medicine.WesternmedicineisavailableatthecentralhospitalinKororandinvillageclinics;villagesplaceahighvalueonpublichealthandsanitation.Traditionalcuringem-ploysherbalmedicinesappliedontheside of thebodyoppo-sitetheaffectedpart.DeathandAfterlife.Funeralsarecostly,elaboraterituals.Thedeceased'sfemalerelativesmaintainamourningperiod,andmalerelativescollectfinancialcontributionstobedis-tributedtoheirsatasubsequentceremonialoccasioncalled"deathsettlementtalks."Burialtakesplaceincommunitygraveyards,althoughformerlyburialwasunderthehouseplatform.Aweekafterburial,closerelativesmeetagaintopavethegraveandtosendthespirittoitsfinalrestingplaceinthesouthernpart of thearchipelago.SeealsoWoleaiBibliographyBarnett,H.G.(1949).PalauanSociety:AStudy of Contempo-raryNativeLifeinthePalauIslands.Eugene:University of Or-egonPublications.Force,Roland,andMaryanneForce(19 72) .JustOneHouse:ADescriptionandAnalysis of KinshipinthePalauIslands.Ber-niceP.BishopMuseumBulletinno. 23 5.Honolulu.Krimer,Augustin(191 7-1 929 )."Palau."InErgebnissederSiidsee-Expedition,190 8-1 910,editedbyGeorgThilenius,B.Melanesien,vol.1.HamburgFriederichsen.Parmentier,RichardJ.(1987).TheSacredRemains:Myth,History,andPolityinBelau.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.RICHARDJ.PARMENTIERBikini*ETHNONYMS:EscholtzIslandsBikiniisthelargest of thetwenty-sixislandsintheBikiniAtollintheMarshallIslands.BikiniisthenorthernmostatollintheRatakchain of atollsandislandsandislocatedat11031'Nand165°34'E.Thetwenty-sixislandshaveatotallandarea of 7.6squarekilometersandsurroundalargelagoonsome641squarekilometersinarea.Bikinihasdrawnconsid-erableattentionsincetherelocation of the161residentBik-iniansin1946sothattheatollcouldbeusedasatestsiteforatomicandnuclearweaponsbytheU.S.government.Be-cause of radiationcontaminationfromthetests,Bikiniisun-inhabitatedtodayandwillprobablyremainsoforsomeyears.Bikinianstodaynumberover400andliveelsewhereintheMarshallIslands,mainlyonKili.Bikinianidentityisbasedonrightstoownership of landonBikinithatareinheritedfromancestors.Bikiniwassettledbefore1800possiblybypeoplemigrat-ingfromWotjeAtoll.Because of theisland'srelativeisola-tion,BiinianshadlittlecontactwithotherpeoplesintheMarshalls.FirstcontactwithEuropeanswasevidentlyin1 824 withtheRussianexplorerOttovonKotzebue,althoughnoEuropeanactuallysettledonBikiniuntilafter1900.ThefirstAmericanmissionaryarrivedin1908andBikiniansweredrawnintothecopratradeduringtheGermancolonialper-iod,whichendedwith World War1.TheJapaneseruledtheMarshallsfrom World WarIto World WarII,andtheyestab-lishedabaseonBikiniduring World WarII.Afterthewar,theMarshallsbecameaTrustTerritory of theU.S.andachievedindependencein1986.Because of itsisolationandthelargelagoon,BikiniAtollwasselectedbytheU.S.governmentasthesitefortestingtheeffects of atomicbombsonnavalvessels.ThisdecisionledtonegotiationswiththeBikiniansandtheiragreeingtorelocatetoRongerikIslandin1946.Whenthissiteprovedinade-quate,theyrelocatedagaintoKwajaleinIslandin1948andthenKililaterin1948,wheremostremained,althoughsomealsosettledonKwajaleinandJaluit.AnorganizedattemptwasmadebytheDepartment of theInteriortodeveloptheKilicommunityeconomically,aneffortthatmetwithlimitedsuccess.From1946to1957,twenty-threeatomicandnucleartestswereconductedatBikini.In1968,BikiniwasdeclaredhabitablebytheU.S.governmentand100Bikinianshadre- 28 Bikiniturnedby1974,thoughtheislandwasnowbarren of much of thevegetationthathadexistedwhentheyleftin1946.Whentestsin1978showedunacceptablyhighlevels of strontium90radiationinBiliniansontheisland,theislandwasde-dareduninhabitableandthepeoplerelocatedagaintoKili.Ascompensationfortheloss of theirland,theBikinianswereawardedhundreds of thousands of dollarsin1956bytheUnitedStates.Somepaymentswenttoindividualswhileoth-erswereusedtoestablishatrustfundfortheentirecommu-nity.ThesepaymentshavemadeBikinians,alongwithpeoplefromEnewetak,Rongelap,Utirik,andKwajaleinwhoalsore-ceivedcompensation,wealthierthanotherMarshallIsland-ers.ThepaymentsalsomadetheBikinianseconomicallyde-pendentonincomefromthetrustfundandcontributedtoanerosion of participationinprerelocationeconomicpursuitssuchastaroandcopraproduction.Relocationalsochangedtraditionalpatterns of socialandpoliticalorganization.OnBikini,rightstolandandlandownershipwerethemajorfac-torinsocialandpoliticalorganizationandleadership.Also,theBikinians,asMarshallIslanders,wereunderthenominalcontrol of theParamountChief of theislands,thoughactualcontactwithotherislandswasminimal.AfterrelocationandsettlementonKili,adualsystem of landtenureemerged,withdisbursements of interestfromthetrustfundlinkedtoland-ownershiponBikiniandaseparatesystemreflectingcurrentlandtenureonKiliinfluencingcurrentpoliticalalliancesandleadership.RegularcontactwiththeU.S.governmentledtheBikinianstorejecttheprimacy of theParamountChiefandinsteadtolooktoU.S.governmentofficialsforsupportandassistance.SeealsoMarshallIslandsBibliographyKiste,RobertC.(1974).TheBikinians:AStudyinForcedMi-gration.MenloPark,Calif.:CummingsPublishingCo.Mason,Leonard(1954).'Relocation of theBikiniMarshal-ese:AStudyinGroupMigration."UnpublishedPh .D. disser-tation,YaleUniversity.BoaziETHNONYMS:Boadzi,SukiOrientationIdentification.Boaziisthename of alanguagespokenbyapproximately 2, 500peoplewholivealongthemiddlereaches of theFlyRiverandalongthecentralandnorthernshores of LakeMurrayinthesouthernlowlands of NewGuinea.Boazispeakersusethename'Boazi"torefertotheirlanguage,buttheirnamesforthemselvesarethenames of theeightterritorialgroupsintowhichtheyaredivided.Theuse of thename"Boazi"(bothbyBoazispeakersandothers)torefertoallBoazispeakers(orinsomecasestorefertothosewholivealongtheFlyRiverasopposedtothosewholivearoundLakeMurray)istheresult of therecentcolonialandcurrentpostcolonialcontextinwhichBoazispeakerslive.Priortothecolonialperiod,theredoesnotseemtohavebeenanycon-ception of groupmembershipbeyondtheterritorialgroup.Nonetheless,theeightBoazi-speakingterritorialgroupsshareacommonhistory,culture,andsocialstructure.Earlycolo-nialdocumentsalsorefertoBoazispeakersas"Suli,"anamenowreservedforculturallysimilarpeoplelivingfartherdowntheFlyRiver.Location.TheLakeMurray-MiddleFlyareaislocatedbe-tween6°30'and8°S,and141°and141°5'E.Thedominantgeographicalfeatures of theareaaretheFlyRiver,withits1 0- kilometer-widefloodplain,andLakeMurray,whichis60ki-lometerslongand15kilometerswideatitswidestpoint.Awayfromtheriverandlakearelowridgescoveredwithopenforestorclosedcanopyrainforest.Inthemarginallylowerar-easbetweentheseridgesareextensivesagoswampsfromwhichBoazispeakersgetmost of theirfood.Theareareceives 25 0centimeters of rainperyear,overhalf of whichfallsdur-ingthenorthwestmonsoon,whichlastsfromlateDecembertomid-April.Demography.In1980therewereapproximately 2, 500Boazispeakers.Thepopulationdensity of theLakeMurray-MiddleFlyareaisabout0.3personpersquarekilometer.Thereisnoreliableinformationonpopulationgrowthordecline.linguisticAffiliation.AccordingtoC.L.Voorhoeve(1970),Boaziisspokeninthreedialects:KuniatLakeMurray,andNorthBoaziandSouthBoazialongtheFlyRiver.TheBoazilanguageisone of twolanguagesintheBoaziLanguageFamily,theotherbeingZimakaniwhichisspokenaroundthesouthernpart of LakeMurrayandtheconfluence of theFlyandStricklandrivers.TheBoaziLan-guageFamilyistheeasternmost of thethreelanguagefamiliesintheMarindStock,whichispart of theTrans-NewGuineaPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsBoazispeakersareculturallysimilartogroupstothesouthandwest of theLakeMurray-MiddleFlyarea,includingtheSuki,Yi-nan,Marind-anim,BianMarind,andthetribes of theTrans-Fly,buttheyareculturallyverydifferentfromthepeopleswholivetothenorth of theLakeMurray-MiddleFlyareasuchastheYonggom,Aekyom(orAwin),andtheParespeakers.TodatenoarchaeologicalresearchhasbeendoneintheLakeMurray-MiddleFlyarea.Itisthereforeimpossi-bletosaywithanycertaintyhowlongpeoplehavebeenintheareaorwheretheancestors of thepresent-dayBoazispeakerscamefrom.Boazispeakersclaimthattheirancestorsorigi-natedintheLakeMurray-MiddleFlyareaitself,andBoazioralhistoryrecordsvariousmilitaryconquestsandsubse-quentmovements of peoplewithintheLakeMurray-MiddleFlyareapriortothearrival of Europeans.Thefirstcontactbe-tweenBoazispeakersandEuropeanstookplaceinJune1876during d& apos;Albertis'sexploration of theFlyRiver. d& apos;Albertishadbriefhostileencounterswithpeoplealongthemiddlereaches of theriverbothduringhisascentandduringhisde-scentlaterthatyear.Forthefiftyyearsfollowing d& apos;Albertis'svisit,BoazispeakersbothalongtheFlyRiverandatLakeBau 23 ministrationin1878toworkintheplantationsugarindustrythateventuallybecamethebasis of thecolonialeconomy.IndustrialArts.Traditionalcrafts of Fijiincludedthemaking of pots,wovenmats,andfinebarkclothbythewomen,and,bythemen,thecarving of whaleboneivory(sometimesinlaidwithpearlshell)andawidevariety of woodenartifacts,includingspearsandclubs,bowlsfortheceremonialdrinking of kava,andthegreatseagoingdouble-hulledcanoesthatpermittedspeedypassagebetweentheis-lands of FijiandtoSamoaandTongatotheeast.Trade.Bauanpowerrestedontheabilitytomaintainawidenetwork of tributaryrelationshipsthatinvolvedthesup-plyingtoit of alltheresources of thelandandsea,includingthecraftsmentionedabove.Europeanswereintegratedintothesystemwheneverpossible,particularlyinthefirsthalf of thenineteenthcentury.Division of Labor.Intraditionaltimes,familyunitsspreadwidelyovertheland,cultivatingandcollecting.Thedivision of laborwasaccordingtobothageandsex.Menproducedafargreaterproportion of thefamily'sfood,foragriculturewasandremainsthedomain of men.Younggirlsmightcollecttaroleaves,butotherwisetheywouldnotgotothegardens.Fishingbylineornetandthecollection of molluscsandotherproducts of thereefarewomen'swork,asisthefetching of water,mostcooking,andthecare of houseandchildren.Youngchildren of 8or9mighthelptheirparents,butlack of responsibilityusuallylastsuntil14orso.Theheaviertasksfallontheyoungermenandwomen.Thedomesticsenioritysystemservestoorganizehouseholdproduction;thisarrange-mentwasespeciallytrue of thetraditionalextendedfamily.LandTenure.Landwasheldbythe"family,"whichwasdefinedmoreorlessinclusivelyindifferentparts of Fiji.Dur-ingtheperiod of itsrisetopower,BaustruggledwithRewaforcontrol of thedeltaandsoughttoimposeatributaryrelation-shiponthosetheyconquered.Thecolonialgovernmentde-finedprinciples of landtenureretrospectively,creatingho-mogeneityinplace of asystembuiltondynamismandchange.TheybasedtheirsystematleastinpartonBauannorms.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Fijiansocietyisorganizedintoahierarchy of kinshipgroups of increasingorders of inclusive-ness.AtBau,thechieflyyavusawasdividedintofourpatricIans:thetwochieflymataqali,awarriorclan,andaher-aldclandividedintotwosubclansassociatedwitheach of thechieflylines.Withtherisetopoliticalimportance of thechieflyconfederationssincethe1987coups,clanrelation-shipsattheindividuallevelarebecomingmoreimportantonceagain.KinshipTerminology.Thesystemis of theIroquoistype,withsomespecialfeatures.Thereistheusualsharpdistinc-tionbetweencrossandparallelrelatives,butbifurcatemerg-ingoccursinallbuttheseconddescendinggeneration,inwhichkinshipreckoningissimplygenerational.Amongthechieflyfamilies of Bau,thevasurelationship,betweenegoandmother'sbrother,wasusedtocementtieswithotherchiefdoms.Thevasuwasabletomakeparticulardemandsonthematerialwealth of hismaternaluncle'skingroup,fre-quentlydoingsointheinterests of hisownchiefdom.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Traditionally,thepreferredmarriagealliancewasbetweencrosscousins;marriagebetweentribeswaspossi-bleonlyafterformalrequest.Nonsororalpolygynywasprac-ticed,andaman'sstatuswasdefinedbythenumber of hiswives.Thegreatchiefsmarriedmanytimes,usuallyinthein-terests of extendingpoliticalpower.Thismeantthatall of thechieflyfamilies of Fijiwerecloselyrelated,oftenmanytimesoverinsucceedinggenerations.Insuchsituations,thestatus of thefirstwifewasdistinctlysuperior.Thetitle of theprinci-palwife of theRokotuiBauwas'RadiniBau,"andhissec-ondwifewastided'RadiKaba."Theprincipalwife of theVunivaluwascalled'RadiLevuka."Marriageceremonialwasmoreorlesselaboratedependingontherank of thepartici-pants.Patrilocalresidencewasthenorm,anddivorcecouldbeeffectedeasilybyeitherparty.DomesticUnit.Thetraditionalextendedfamilyconsisted of severalmarriedpairsandtheirchildren,inhabitingsepa-ratedwellingsbutsharingandcooperatinginonecookhouse.Typically,men of thefamilywouldbecloselyrelatedtothepaternalline,butadaughterandherhusbandmightalsobelong.Theseniormalewouldusetheancestralhousesite(yavu).Inheritance.Dwellinghousesareallocatedbythefamilyheadandremainunderhiscontrol,asdogardenplotsandotherfamilypropertysuchascanoes.Athisdeath,hissurviv-ingseniorsiblingdeterminesthedisposition of thehouseifthedeceasedhasnomaturesons.Inthecase of thegreatchiefs,thecouncil of thewholetribe(yavusa)woulddeter-minesuccessionandwithitallrightstoproperty.Socialization.Therigorandprinciples of familyrankingareamicrocosm of largerkingroupsandcommunities.Chil-drenaresubordinatetotheirparents,buttheyarealsorankedrelativetoeachotherbybirthorder.Aboriginally,theywererankedfirstbyorder of marriage of theirmothersandthenbe-tweenfullsiblingsbybirthorder.Thefirstchild(ulumatua)hasaspecialstatus.Obedienceandrespectaredemanded of thechildbythefather,afterinfancythechildisconstantlytakingorders.Punishmentbythefatheristhemaindiscipli-narymechanism,andthemotherismoreindulgentthanthefather,particularlytowardsboysandyoungmen of thefamily.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganizato.Thesocialorganization of thechiefdomwasextraordinarlycomplex,withallaspects of itsexistenceringedwithceremony.Eachindividualidentifiedwithahierarchy of increasinglyinclusivegroups:extendedfamily,subclan,clan(yavusa),federation of clans(vanua),andpoliticalconfederation(matanitu).Thefocus of thechiefdomwasthechieflyclan,whichwassupportedandde-fendedbytwogroups of hereditaryfishers,whoalsohadtherole of defendingthechiefsfromattackbylandorsea.PoliticalOrganization.Ashead of thepoliticalconfedera-tion,thechieflyclan of Bausoughttomaintainanetwork of tributaryrelationshipsthroughitssubclans.Thisarrangementimpliedadegree of politicalinstability,and,indeed,thehistory of thefirsthalf of thenineteenthcenturywasone of aceaselessstruggleforpower.Warriorsubclanswerespreadasashieldalongthenorthcoast of theRewaDeltaandatthebase of the 24 BauKabaPeninsula,separatingBauandRewa.Moredistanttieswerebasedonacknowledgedancestralkinrelationships.Assuch,theyrequiredtobeconstantlyreinforcedwithinthecon-temporaryplay of politicalforces.Thecolonialadministrativesystemandthat of theimmediatepostindependenceperioddi-videdtheoldchiefdom of Baubetweenseveralnewadminis-trativeunits,butinpostcoupFijithechieflyconfederationsareagainassumingpoliticalsignificance.SocialControl.Reflectingapreferenceforavoidingdirectconfrontation,gossip,ostracism,andsocialwithdrawalhavealwaysbeenimportantforms of socialcontrol.Fear of divineretributionwasandremainsapowerfulsanctionatboththeindividualandthecommunitylevel.Thecolonialgovern-mentmadeFijianssubjecttoitsjudicialsystem,butsincethe1987coupstherehasbeenanattempttoreincorporatetradi-tionalprinciplesintothelegalsystem.Conflict.Therewereceremonialways of askingforgivenesswheretherewasawishforreconciliation,endingwiththedrinking of kava.Thevasucouldalsodefusepotentialcon-flict,beingableeffectivelytorepresentthefemalesideinapatrilinealsociety.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Intraditionaltimes,religiousbeliefcen-teredonthedeifiedfounders of clans,frequentlyworshippedinanimalform.Inaddition,eachgrouphaditsownset of ani-malandplanttotems,deemedtobeinhabitedbyancestralspirits.Themissionariessucceededindrivingancientbeliefsunderground,buttheysurfacedseveraltimesattheend of thenineteenthcentury,usuallyintheform of atavisticcultsasvehiclesforanticolonialopposition.Today,Methodismclaimsthesupport of mostFijians,althoughthereisanim-portantRomanCatholicminority.ReligiousPractitioners.Traditionally,priestsformedhe-reditarydans,exercisingimportantdivinatoryandhealingrolesandactingasthevoice of theancestralgods.Ceremonies.Theseweremainlyassociatedwithlifecyclesandwithintergrouprelationships.Inancienttimes,therewasaceremony of firstfruits,whenthevarioustributaries of Baubroughtofferings of foodtotheRokotuiBauandlatertotheVunivalu,theseusuallybeingintheform of delicaciesforwhichparticulargroupswerewellknown.Thisceremonywasconductedaccordingtothetraditionalcalendar.Arts.Singingandchanting,dancing,andjoketellingwerethetraditionalarts.Thesexesneverdancedtogetherandhadquitedifferentdances.Bothdancedstandingandsitting.Thewomenuseddelicatehandmovements,whilethemenoftendancedwithfanandspearorclub,orwithsticks.Medicine.Diseasewasunderstoodasderivingfrommalev-olence of thespirits,particularlyaftertheviolation of taboos.Womencollectedandcompoundedherbalcures,whilemenappliedthem-areflection of thebeliefthatmenpossessedheavenlypower(mana)whereasthestrength of womencamefromtheearth.Massagewasalsoanimportanthealingtech-nique,butwomenmassagedonlywomen,andmenonlymen.DeathandAfterlife.Theceremonyassociatedwithdeathwasextremelyelaborate,particularlywhenthestatus of thedeceasedwashigh,reflectingitsimportanceintraditionalbe-lief.Tributarygroupswouldcometopayhomagetothecorpseandtothebereavedfamily,cementingtiesintheproc-ess.Aftertheburial of ahighchief,ataboowaslaidonthewatersaroundBau,andthewomen,havingkeptvigiloverthecorpseforfourtotendays,wouldcuttheirhair,onlyafter100nights of mourningwouldthetaboosbelifted.Wiveswerestrangledtogowiththeirhusbandsintothespirit world, foronthewaylurkedRavuyalo,whokilledthespirits of thosewhofailedtoaccompanytheirspouses.Theunmarriedwereburiedwithaclubfortheirowndefense.SeealsoLauBibliographyNayacakalou,RR.(1975).LeadershipinFiji.Melbourne:OxfordUniversityPress.Ravuvu,Asesela D. (1988).DevelopmentorDependence:ThePattern of ChangeinaFijianVillage.Suva,Fiji:University of theSouthPacific.Thomson,Basil(1908).TheFijians:AStudy of theDecay of Custom.London:Heinemann.Reprint.1968.London:Dawsons.Williams,Thomas(1858).FijiandtheFijians.Vol.1,TheIs-landsandTheirInhabitants.London:AlexanderHeylin.Re-print.19 82. Suva:FijiMuseum.DAVIDROUTLEDGEBelauETHNOMYMS:Palau,PelewOrientationIdentification.Hearingthewordbeluu,"villagehome-land",earlyBritishexplorers of thewesternPacificmistakenlyreferredtotheBelauIslandsas"Pelew";thespelling'Palau"becamestandardizedinnineteenth-centuryGermanscien-tificwritings.Theform'Belau"moreaccuratelyreflectscon-temporarypronunciationandhasbecomeasymbol of na-tionalunity.Location.Belau,anarchipelagointhewesternPacificOcean,islocatedbetween6°and8"Nand134°and135°E.Theislandsformthewesternmostgroup of theCarolineIs-lands of Micronesia.Belauincludesover 20 0geologicallyandecologicallydiverseislands;thelargest,Babeldaob,isavol-canicisland of 3 62 squarekilometers.Otherislandtypesin-cludehighlimestoneandplatformlimestoneislands,smallreefislands,andonetrueatoll.Acoralreefencirclingmost of thearchipelagocreateslagoonsrichinmarineresourcesandpermitsrelativelysmoothintervillagesailing.Theclimateistropical,withconstantlyhighhumidity,ameantemperature of 27 °C,andrainfallrangingfrom 320 centimetersperyearinthesouthto 425 centimetersperyearonBabeldaob.ABanaro 21 Practitioners.Sorcerersandshamans(namer-o)mediatebetweenhumansandthespirit world. Thesestatusesrepre-sentvisionarycallingsrequiringlongapprenticeships.Practi-tionersperformmagic,exorcisms,andhealing.Tesmaypitsorganizeandsuperviserituals,employingheadsingersandprovidingfoodforceremonies.Inrecentyears,cargo-cultleadersalsohaveemerged.Ceremonies.Villagescelebratemajorritualsonatwo-tofour-yearcycle.Ritualwarfare(andtheactivitiesthatpre-cededandfollowedeachbattle)traditionallywasunderstoodasintegraltothecosmology of dualism,reciprocity,andchecksandbalances.Feasting,dancing,thecarving of art-works,andlengthysongcyclescontinuetoreflectthisper-spective.Mythological,legendary,andhistoricalheroesareextolledinepicsong-poemslastingseveraldays.Initiation,papis,adultadoption,andmen'shouseconstructionarealsoaccompaniedbyceremonies.Arts.Asmatart,music,andoralliteraturearecloselyboundtoceremonialandsocioeconomiccycles.Themastercarvers(wowipits)havebeenrecognizedasamongthebest of thepreliterate world. Exuberance of form,shape,andcolorcharacterizeancestor(bis)poles,warshields,andcanoeprows.Drumsandhead-huntinghornsareconsideredtobesacredobjects,althoughonlysingingisviewedas'music."Musicservesasavehicle of possession,socialbonding,politi-caloratory,therapy,culturaltransmission,andrecreation.Medicine.Mostcurersalsoarereligiouspractitioners.Theyemployherbalremedies(includingtobacco),sorcery,andmagic.Theintroduction of WesternmedicinehasbeensystematicallypromotedbymissionariesbutonlyerraticallypromotedbytheIndonesiangovernment.EarlierDutchpro-gramsweredeemedsuperior.DeathandAfterlife.Virtuallyallsicknessanddeathisat-tributedtospiritualinterventionorcosmicimbalance.Suchimbalanceleadstovulnerability.Upondeath,familyandclosefriendsgrieveopenlyandintensivelyforseveralhours,flingingthemselvesdownandrollinginthemud of theriver-bank.Mudisbelievedtomaskthescent of thelivingfromthecapriciousspirit of thedead.Thebodytraditionallywasboundinpandanusleaves,placedonaplatform,andlefttodecay.Relativesretrievedcertainbones;theskull of one'smotheroftenwaswornonastringaroundtheneckorusedasapillow.Thespirits of thedeadentersafan,"theotherside."MostAsmatnowrelyuponburial,withsomedeathsaccom-paniedbyChristianfunerals.SeealsoMimikaBibliographyAmelsvoort,V.F.P.M.(1964).Culture,StoneAge,andModernMedicine.Assen,TheNetherlands:VanGorcum.VanArsdale,Kathleen0.(1981).MusicandCulture of theBismamAsmat of NewGuinea:aPreliminaryInvestigation.Hastings,Nebr.:CrosierPress,AsmatMuseum.VanArsdale,PeterW.,andCarolLRadetsky(198 3-1 984)."LifeandDeathinNewGuinea."Omega14:15 5-1 69.Voorhoeve,C.L.(1965).TheFlamingoBayDialect of theAsmatLanguage.TheHague:MartinusNijhoff.PETERVANARSDALEANDKATHLEENVANARSDALEBanaroETHNONYMS:Banar,BanaraTheBanaroareagroupnumberingabout 2, 500locatedalongthemiddlecourse of theKeramRiver,atributaryoftheSepikRiverinMadangandEastSepikprovinces,PapuaNewGuinea.BanaroisaPapuanlanguageisolatebelongingtotheSepik-RamuPhylum.TheBanaroaretodayconcentratedintwovillages.Formerly,theylivedinfourvillages,twoonei-therside of theKeram.Eachvillageconsists of fromthreetosixhamlets,whichinturnhave ... Belau 25 yearlywindshiftfromwesterlymonsoonsinthesummertoeasterlytradesinthewinterisinterruptedonlybytyphoons,whichperiodicallydestroyhomes,harbors,andfarms.Demography.Thepopulationin1988wasapproximately14,000,abouthalf of whomliveontheisland of Koror.Esti-mates of precontactpopulationrangefrom 20 ,000to40,000.FromthelateeighteenthcenturyonBelauansweresubjecttodecimationbyintroduceddiseasesandbytheintensification of warfarecausedbyimportedfirearms.TheJapanesebeganamassivecolonialresettlementprograminthe1930s,resultinginaforeignpopulation of over 24 ,000inKororby1940.Since World WarIIthelocalpopulationhasrisendramati-cally,andmanyBelauanshavemovedtoGuam,Hawaii,andCalifornia.linguisticAffiliation.Belauan,anAustronesianlan-guage,isspokenuniformlythroughoutthearchipelago;onlyminordifferencesinaccentandidiomaticexpressionsindi-cateaspeaker'shomevillage.MostBelauansovertheage of fiftyarealsofluentinJapanese,andthoseyoungerthanfiftyspeakEnglish.BelauanisreferredtoasaNonnuclearMicro-nesianlanguage,sinceithasclosergeneticaffinitywithlan-guagesspokenineasternIndonesia,Taiwan,andthePhilip-pinesthanwiththosespokenintherest of Micronesia.Thelanguageisnotedforitscomplexsystem of verbalinflections,thepresence of aphonemicglottalstop,andanarchaicset of lexicalitemsfoundinchantsandmyths.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThearchipelagowasdiscoveredmorethan 2, 000yearsagobyAustronesianvoyagerssailingfrominsularSoutheastAsia.Theseearlysettlersoccupiedbothlow-lingislands,wherefishingwastheprimarysubsistenceactivity,andhighvol-canicandlimestoneislands,whereextensivetarocultivationwaspossible.PerhapsaslateasthetwelfthcenturyA .D. ,theis-landersconstructedmonumentalterracedearthworksandbuiltinlandvillagesonelaboratestonefoundations.ThereisastrongpossibilitythatpriortoEuropeancontactBelauhadinteractionwiththeChinese,whoseshipscouldhavebeenthesource of theceramicandglassbeadsstillfunctioningasexchangevaluables.SirFrancisDrakevisitedbrieflyin1579;extensiverelationsbetweenBelauandtheWestbeganin1783whentheEastIndiaCompanypacketAntelopewreckedonthereef.Theislandshavebeensubjecttosuccessiveclaimsbycolonialpowers:Spain(188 5-1 899),Germany(189 9-1 914),andJapan(191 4-1 944).In1947Belaube-camepart of theTrustTerritory of thePacificIslands,aUnitedNations'strategictrusteeship"undertheadministra-tion of theUnitedStates.Constitutionalself-governmentwasproclaimedin1981whentheRepublic of Belauseateditsfirstgovernment,whiletheislandscontinuedtobesubjecttothetrusteeship.Afterdecades of bitterfactionalandlegaldis-putes,BelauiscurrentlynegotiatingaCompact of FreeAsso-ciationwiththeUnitedStates.Thefirstpresident of Belau,HaruoRemeliik,wasassassinatedin1985;thesecondpresi-dent,LazarusSahii,died of gunshotwoundsin1988.SettlementsTherearetwotypes of settlements,relatively'rural"villageslocatedonBabeldaob,Ngcheangel,Beliliou,andNgeeur,andtherelatively'urban"town of Koror.Startinginthenine-teenthcentury,Belauansabandonedtheirinlandvillagesandbuiltnewsettlementsclosertocoastalharborsandalluvialstreams.Kororwasthecenterfornineteenth-centurycolonialtradingoperations,waslatertheheadquarters of theJapanese-mandatedPacificislands,andispresentlythehome of mostgovernmentoffices,schools,retailshops,restaurants,andtouristfacilities.ManyBelauansmaintaindualresi-dencesinKororandintheirhomevillages,andsomeevencommutebymotorboatonadailybasis.Formerly,villagesconsisted of residentialandmeetinghousesconstructed of doselyjoinedlumber,withthatchedroofs,andelevatedbarmboofloors;today,tinroofsandconcreteblockfoundationsarefavoredinnewconstruction.InmanyplacesonBabel-daobonecanstilldetectthetypicalvillagelayout,withmeet-inghouseslocatedonacentralpavedsquare,canoehousesandmen'sclubhousesstandingneartheshoreorriver,andresidentialhousesfanningoutalongelevatedstonewalkways.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialAcDivities.Fishandtarohavelongbeenthestaplefoods of Belau.Fishingbyspeargun,line,handnet,andtrapiscarriedoutinthecoastalla,goons;high-poweredspeedboatsareusedfortrawlingoutsidethereef.ThecatchispooledbylocalcooperativeassociationsforretailsaleinKoror.Inpreparationforfuneralsandfesti-vals,menworkthelagoonwithhugenets.Womentakeprideintarocultivationon'dry"uplandslopesandin'wet"irri-gatedswamps;thebackbreakinglaborrequiredhasledmanyyoungerwomentosubstitutecassavaandimportedrice.Youngmenraisepigsforslaughteratceremonialevents.In-creasinglyvastamounts of importedcommercialgoodsarere.placinglocallyproduceditems.InKororthegovernmentisthelargestemployer,andlittlelocallyownedindustryhasflourished.BelauiscompletelydependentuponU.S.govern-mentfundsanduponpaymentsfromothercountriesforac-cesstoBeau'smarine,strategic,andrecreationalresources.IndustrialArts.Skillssuchaswoodcarving,meeting-houseconstruction,andtortoiseshell-ornamentproductionarebecomingrare;basketweaving,however,iswidelyprac-ticedbywomen.Mostable-bodiedmenareexpertfishermen,andindividualswinrenownbydevelopingspecializedtech-niquesandbypossessingexpertknowledge of tidesandspawningcydes.Youngpeoplestrivetoobtainadvancededu-cationalandbusinesstrainingatstatesideschools.Inthevil-lages,wageearnersincludeschoolteachers,nurses,magis-trates,landregistrars,andreligiousofficials.Trade.Interdistricttradeinthetraditionalcontextin-volvednotonlydailynecessitiessuchaslampoil,pottery,woodenimplements,palmsyrup,andcanoesailsbutalsospe-cializedprestigegoodssuchasturmericpowder,tortoiseshellornaments,women'sshirts,red-ocherdye,anddugongbrace-lets.Inthenineteenthcentury,Europeansettlersestablishedtradingcentersforthecommercialextraction of trepang,pearlshell,andcopra.Now,a...

... alargelyfutileattempttoestablishtheirinnocence.ReligiousPractitioners.Spiritpeoplearecontactedbymalespiritmediumsinall-nightspiritseancesheldonaver-ageonceeveryelevendays.Thespiritmediumsitsquietlyinadarkenedlonghouseandself-inducesatrance.Hisownspiritdepartsandisreplacedbybeautifulspiritwomenwhochantinhighfalsettovoices.Theirsongsareechoedlinebylinebyachorus of menwhositaroundthespiritmedium.Duringtheseance,spiritsperformspirit -world curesforsickGebusiand'havestrongdefactoauthorityinmakingsorcerypronounce-ments.Spiritmediumsshouldbeneutralpartiesinanysor-ceryattributionandhavenospecialauthorityexceptviathespirit world inseances.Theyarenotremuneratedfortheirservices,whichareconsideredacivicduty.Ceremonies.Theharmonyandbeneficence of theGebusispirit world iscelebratedinanallnightdanceperformedatfeastsandotherimportantoccasions.Theelaborateandstandardizedcostume of themaledancer(s)bringstogetheriniconographicformthediversespirits of theupperandlowerworlds,symbolizingtheirunityandharmonyindance.Sociologicallyparallelistheovercoming of realand/orritualantagonismbetweenvisitorsandhoststhroughfeasting,drinkingkava,dancing,andribaldmalecamaraderieduringthenight.Onoccasion,malehomosexualliaisonstakeplaceintheprivacy of thebushoutsidethelonghouse.Gebusibe-lieveboysmustbeorallyinseminatedtoobtainmalelifeforceandattainadulthood.Inseminationcontinuesduringadoles-cenceandculminatesinthemaleinitiation(wakawala,or'childbecomesbig")betweenages17and 23 .Initiationislargelybenign.Initiatesreceivecostumepartsandothergiftsfromdiverseinitiationsponsorsandreciprocatewithmajorfoodgifts.Novicesareultimatelydressedinbeautifulredbird -of- paradise(spirit-woman)costumesandarethefocus of severaldays of feastingandceremonyattendedbymostGebusi.Arts.Gebusimakefineinitiationarrows,armbands,andstringbags,andtheydesignelaboratedanceandinitiationcostumes.Medicine.Curingisdoneprimarilyviathespirit world; thereislittleintervention of aphysicalnature.DeathandAfterlife.Adivinatoryoutcomeindicatingguilt of asorcerysuspectvalidatesthespirits'indictmentandforeshadowsexecutionandcannibalism of thesuspect,whosespiritreincarnatesthereafterasadangerouswildpig.Untilrecently,bodies of personskilledassorcererswerebutcheredandcookedwithsagoandgreensinafeastingovenandcannibalizedfully,exceptfortheintestines,whichwerediscarded.Thecookedbodywasdistributedandeatenwidelythroughoutthecommunity,excludingcloserelativesandclassificatoryagnates of thedeceased.OtherGebusiarenotcannibalizedandupondeathreincarnateinbird,animal,andfishformsappropriatetotheirageandsex.Afuneralfeastisheldwhendeathresultsfromsicknessoraccident.SeealsoKaluliBibliographyKnauft,BruceM.(1985).GoodCompanyandViolence:Sor-ceryandSocialActioninaLowlandNewGuineaSociety.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.Knauft,BruceM.(1985).'RitualFormandPermutationinNewGuinea."AmericanEthnologist 12: 321 -3 40.Knauft,BruceM.(1986)."TextandSocialPractice:Narra-tive'Longing'andBisexualityamongtheGebusi of NewGuinea."Ethos4 :25 2 -2 8 1.Knauft,BruceM.(1987).'ReconsideringViolenceinSimpleHumanSocieties:HomicideamongtheGebusi of NewGuinea."CurrentAnthropology 28 :45 7-5 00.Knauft,BruceM.(1989)."Imagery,Pronouncement,andtheAesthetics of ReceptioninGebusiSpiritMediumship."InTheReligiousImaginationinNewGuinea,editedbyGilbertHerdtandMicheleStephen,6 7-9 8.NewBrunswick,N.J.:RutgersUniversityPress.BRUCEKNAUFr70Gahuku-Gamaconsisted of awoman,herunmarrieddaughters,andyoungsons.Aman'scowives,betweenwhomrelationswerealmostinvariablyhostile,werehousedseparately.Whilehusbandsandwivesoccasionallyworkedtogetheringardens,sexualsegregationwasextensive.Nowadays,however,marriedcou-plesincreasinglyshareresidences,withthenuclearfamilyformingthetypicalhousehold.Inheritance.Landclaims of thedeceasedrevertedtoothermembers of thelineageorclan,andmovablepropertytypi-callywasclaimedbysurvivingmalerelatives.Socialization.Childrenhavealwaysbeenatthecenter of adultattentioninGahukuculture,butmentraditionallyhadlittletodowithmalechildrenuntiltheymovedintothemen'shouse.Thus,earlychildrearingwasleftalmostexclu-sivelyin ... thehands of womenandoldersiblings.Beginningataboutage5,malesunderwentaseries of initiationceremo-nies,graduallybeingplacedundertheauthorityandsupervi-sion of theadultmalecommunity.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Beyondthevillage,thetribewasthelargestsocialgrouping,encompassing30 0-1 ,000people.Comprised of twoormoreclans,itwasnamed(e.g.,'Gahuku"or'Gama");itclaimedacommonterritory;anditsmalemembers,supposingacommonorigin of somekind,werejoinedinfriendship,allowingnowarfarewithinthetribeandactingasaunitincarryingoutinitiationceremoniesandpigfestivals.Sometimespairs of tribesjoinedinallianceforwarfarepurposes;alltribesstoodinpermanentfriendoren-emyrelationshipswithotherlikeunits.PoliticalOrganization.Withinthelineage,authoritywaslinkedtoseniorityandpubliclyheldbymales,whowerere-gardedasthecustodians of customaryloreandknowledge.Beyondtheboundaries of kingroups,anindividualmightbe-come"amanwithaname,"renownedforhisaggressiveten-denciesandskillinwarfare,balancedwithdiplomacy.Suchbig-menoftenhadoutstandingoratoricalabilitiesandservedasleaders.Because"character"wasbelievedtobeinheritedfromone'sfather,asonwasexpectedtosucceedhisfatheras"amanwithaname,"butsuccessionwasnotautomatic.WithEuropeancontact,villageofficialswereappointedbytheAustralianadministration,andtheseofficialshavenowbeenreplacedwithelectedmembers of theprovincialgovernment.SocialControLShowingdisrespectforelders,lack of re-gardforagemates,failurestosupportfellowclanmembersormeetotherobligationsamongkin,breakingrules of exogamy,incest,andadulterywithinthesubdanorclanweregroundsforpublicshamingorphysicalaggression,whichwasapredis-position of bothsexes.Moots,withbig-mentakingmajorroles,aimedatpeacefulresolutionthroughconsensus.Conflict.Whilephysicalviolenceandfeuding(hina)coulderuptwithingroupsaslargeasthetribe,thiswascon,sideredasonlyatemporarysolutiontodifferences;eventuallythedisputewastoberesolvedpeacefullythroughcompensa-tionorceremonialreconciliation.Truewarfare(rova),seenasapermanentstate of existencebetweentribesandendemicuntilitwasproscribedin1950bytheAustralianadministra-tion,couldbeconsideredadominantorientation of Gahukuculture.Battlesandraids,triggeredbyunresolveddisputesoverlandorsorceryaccusations,wereconductedeachdryseason,withtheobjectives of destroyingsettlementsandgar-dens,killingasmany of theenemygroupaspossible,andforcingthesurvivorstoseekrefugewithalliedclansortribes.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief.Traditionally,Gahukupossessednosystematiccosmology.Theybelievedinnogods,andfewde-monsorothermalignantspiritsinhabitedtheir world. Ontheotherhand,animpersonalsupernaturalforcewastappedthroughritual,especiallythroughthedeployment of sacredflutesthat,whenblown,unitedmenwitheachotherandtheirancestors,endowingthemwithpowers of growthandfertility.WhileLutheranmissionarieshavesettledintheareasincethe1930s,theirprogressinconvertingtheGahukutoChristianitywasslowuntilrecentyears.ReligiousPractitioners.Noformalpriesthoodexisted,withmajorrolesinritualsandceremoniesallocatedsimplytoelderswhowereviewedasrepositories of therequisiteknowledge.Ceremonies.Annually,duringthedryseason,maleinitia-tionceremonies ... of relativelyeasyac-cesstonewanddesiredWesterngoods,aswellasareactiontothebreakdown of thetraditionalsociopoliticalandsocio-economicsystems,contributedtothedevelopment of the"MasingaRule"movement(oftentranslatedas"MarchingRule,"butthereisevidencethatmasingameans"brother-hood"inone of Guadalcanal'sdialects).Thisoriginallywasamillenariancultpremisedontheideathatthroughappropri-atebeliefandthecorrectritualpracticethegoodsandlargessexperiencedduringthewaryearscouldsomedaybemadetoreturn.Itbecame,infact,avehiclebywhichtoseek,andby1978tosecure,theindependence of theSolomonIslandsfromBritishcolonialrule.SettlementsKaokaspeakersoccupyfiveautonomousvillages,four of whicharelocatedonthecoast;thefifthisafewmilesinland.Eachvillageismadeup of anumber of hamletsconsisting of acluster of fourtotenhouseholds,eachwithitsowndwellingandassociatedgardens,andintraditionaltimestherewouldalsobethreeshrines,eachdedicatedtospiritbeings.Thereisonlyonebuildingstyle,regardless of thepurpose of thestruc-ture:ahigh-peaked,windowless,thatched-roofaffair,withwallsmade of splitsaplingslashedtogetherwithstrongvinesandanchoredtosoliduprightbeams.Smallstonesandlargershinglefromthebeacharespreadtomaketheflooring.Door-waysareelevatedfromgroundlevel,tokeepvillagepigsfromgainingentry.Eachshrineisdecoratedwiththeskulls of an-cestorsandacarvedpalisade of representations of spiritsissetbeforetheentrance.Because of thelocalclimateandthenature of buildingmaterials,astructureisunlikelytolastmorethanfiveyearsbeforehavingtoberebuilt.EconomyubsstenceandConmerdalActivities.Thepeople of Guadalcanalareslash-and-burnhorticulturalistswhoseprin-cipalcropsareyams,taro,sweetpotatoes,andbananas.Al-thougheveryhead of householdwillraiseaherd of pigs,forcoastalpeoplesthebulk of theday-to-dayproteinintakeissuppliedbyseafood:fishfromtheopensea,aswellascrusta-ceansandshellfishgatheredfromthereefs.Bonitoisagreatdelicacy,butitisunavailableduringtheseason of themon-soonswhenthewindsaretoodangerouslyhighfortheca-noes.Theconsumption of porkisreservedforimportantoc-casionssuchasweddingsorfunerals.Fishingisdonefromplankcanoesorfromtheshore.Whiletherearewildpigsontheisland,huntingisnotoftenindulgedinandcontributesverylittletothehouseholddiet.IndustrialArts.Houseconstructionisthemosttime-consuming of necessarytasks,anditisusuallydonebyaparty of kinsmen;itisnotthework of specialists.Canoebuilding,however,isaspecializedskill,andonlyafewmeninthevil-lageareheldtobefullycapable of it.Thecanoebuilderwilllendhisskillsfreelytofellowclansmen,butheexpectscom-pensationforhisworkintheform of strings of shellmoneyfromanyonenotsorelated.Mostothertoolsusedinday-to-daylivingthataremadelocallyarerelativelysimple:fishinglines,diggingsticks,andthelike.Otheritemsoncemanufac-turedlocally,suchasknives,axes,articles of clothing,andhouseholdutensils,havebeenreplacedbystore-boughtitems of Westernmanufacture.Division of Labor.Menclearandpreparegardensandbuildfences,houses,andcanoes;theyalsofishbothfromtheshoreandatsea.Womengathershellfishandcrustaceansfromthereefsanddomost of theday-to-daytending of thegardens(weeding,harvesting).Plantingisacooperativeef-fortbetweenmenandwomen.Whatlittlehuntingthatoc-cursisdoneentirelybythosefewmenconsideredparticularlyadeptatit.Domesticchoresaretheprovince of women,thoughmanytasks,includingtendingsmallchildren,isoftenpassedalongtoolderdaughters.Interislandtradingexpedi-tionsweretraditionallycarriedoutbygroups of men of thevillage,butwiththeenforcement of colonialinterdictionsagainstraiding,suchtradenolongerrequiresthelargedefen-sivefleets of thepast.Trade.Whileeachhouseholdislargelycapable of securinganadequatesubsistence,therewastradebetweencoastalvil-lagesandpeople of theinterior,aswellasoverseastradewithotherislandsinthevicinity-inparticularwithLangalangaLagoon,onthewestcoast of Malaita,andwithpeople of SanCristobalIslandtothesoutheast.Langalangawasthesource of theshellmoneyusedasacurrencyintradeandforceremo-nialpurposessuchasthepayment of brideprice.Intradeforthesestrings of shelldisks,people of Guadalcanalprovidedsurpluspigsandvegetables.SanCristobalwasaprincipalsource of porpoiseteeth,alsousedascurrencyandinceremo-nialexchange,andGuadalcanalprovidedtobaccoinreturn.Tradewiththeinteriorparts of GuadalcanalIslandinvolved 82 GnauSocialControl.Asystem of taboos,many of themdietary,providestheframeworkforappropriatebehavior.Infractionsmaybepunishedbytheimposition of fines,asinthecase of adultery.Somefear of retributivesorceryalsocontributestosocialcontrol,albeitinanegativesense:awoman'sbrotheristhoughttohavetheritualandmagicalpowernecessarytoin-fluencethehealth-indeed,thelife -of herchildren,andhemightwithholdthatpowershouldthehusband'slineagefailtofulfillitsobligationstothechildorrefusetocooperatewiththewife'skin.Conflict.SeriousconflictsoftenarosebetweenvillagespriortoWesterncontact,andfightingwasconsideredtobeahighlyprestigiousactivity.Exceptfortheprestigeconferredbysuccessinwar,thereseemstohavebeenlittleotherrealbasisforintervillagehostilities:gardenlandandaccesstogamewereplentifulandtherewaslittleelsebyway of interval.lagerelationsthatmighthavegivenrisetofriction.Gnaudidnotrecruitalliesthroughouttheregionforwarfare;rather,fightingwasconductedonastrictlyvillage-against-villagebasis.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief.SpecificlocationswithinGnauterritoryareeachassociatedwithadescent-groupfounder,whoisthoughttohaveleftbehindtheritualknowledgeandpracti-callorenecessarytoproperliving.Theactivities of thesefoundingpersonagesandtheknowledgetheyleftbehindarerecountedinmythsandsongs,whichalsorefertoawidevar-ety of spirits.Thesespiritsareofteninvokedingardenritualandtheirinfluenceisthoughttobenecessarytothesuccess of acrop.ReligiousPractitioners.Allmenlearnrituallorethrough-outtheprocess of theirsocialization.Themother'sbrotheristheritualspecialistcalledinformost of aboy'sinitiations,andeveryadultmalehasgardenmagictoperform.Theabilitytocauseadeaththroughmagicappearstohavebeenspecifi-callylimited;throughthismeansamanisbelievedabletokillhissister'sson.Ceremonies.Villagewideceremoniesaccompanyimpor-tantlife-cycleeventsaswellasmajorundertakingssuchastheerection of anewmen'shouse.Suchoccasionswillinvolvefeasting,song,anddance. Of particularimportanceintradi-tionalGnaulifewastheTambin,themajormaleinitiationriteheldbytheboy'smother'sbrotherandsupportedthroughpayments of wealthandtheprovision of afeastbythefather'slineage.Aparallelriteisheldforgirlsuponattainingpuberty.IntheTambin,anumber of boyswhohavereachedpubertygointoseclusiontogether,duringwhichtimetheyarebledandalsoreceivebloodtakenfromtheirmothers'brothers.Thisbleeding,causedbycuttingthemouthandthepenis,iscentraltoGnaumaleritualandisconsideredtobeabsolutelyessentialforaman'sdevelopment.Itappearstohavenodi-rectparallelintheritualforfemales.Arts.Gnaumaterialcultureappearstobeutilitarianforthemostpart,butornamentalitems of shellandfeathersaremade.Gnausongsareelaborateexpressions of localmythol-ogy.Singingtotheaccompaniment of slitdrumsandritualdanceformimportantelements of anyGnauceremony.Medicine.Illnessisthoughttobelargelytheresult of vio-lations of taboos.Curesarebelievedtobeeffectedthroughtheobservance of dietarytaboos,theuse of herbs,andbloodletting.DeathandAfterlife.Traditionally,whenanindividualdiedtheGnaulaidthecorpseoutonaplatformwhereitwassmokedried;todayintermentispracticed.Thespirits of thedeadarethoughttowatchovertheirdescendantsandmayappeartospeaktotheirsurvivorsindreams.Theirassistanceissoughtthroughspellsandritual.SeealsoWapeBiblographyLewis,Gilbert(1975).Knowledge of illnessinaSepilkSociety:AStudy of theGnau,NewGuinea.London:AthlonePress.Lewis,Gilbert(1980).Day of ShiningRed:AnEssayonUn-derstandingRitual.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.NANCYGRA1rONGogodalaETHNONYMS:Girara,Gogodara,KabidOrientationIdentification.TheGogodalaliveintheWesternProvince of PapuaNewGuinea.Earliernamesforthemwerebasedonmisunderstandings of atermfor'language"or'speech"(girara)orthename of asmallcreek,"Kabiri."ThebasisforthenameGogodalaisnotknown.Location.AfewGogodalavillagesarefoundonthenorthbank of theFlyRiver,butmostarelocatedalongtheAramiaRiver,amajortributary of theBamu.Theregion,atapproxi-mately8°to8°15'Sand1 42 30'to143°15'E,islargelyone of flat,swampyfloodplainwithnumerousmeanderingwater-courses;alternatingmixedwoodlandandgrasslandarepunc-tuatedwithlowhillocksandridgeswheresettlementsareplaced.Duringthewetseason(December-May)about75percent of theannualrainfall of 21 6centimetersoccursandmost of theareaturnsintoavastsea,withcanoesastheonlymeans of mobilityamongthehillocksthatformislandsinit.Birdlifeandwildgame(includingwallabies,cassowaries,andwildpigs,withsomedeerfoundnowadays)areabundant,asaremosquitoes.Demography.Populationestimateshavechangedsome-whatsincesignificantEuropeancontactbeganaftertheturn of thetwentiethcentury,withalow of 5,000proposedin1916andabout7,000Gogodalaspeakerscurrentlyrecognized.linguisticAffiliation.GogodalaisaNon-Austronesianlanguage,theonlyothermember of itsfamilybeingAri-Waruna,whichisunderstoodbutnotspokenbyGogodala.Linkageswithpeoples of theFlyRiverareindicatedbythejoining of GogodalawithSukiasaseparatestockintheGoodenoughIsland87localendogamy,andabout85percent of marriagesarebe-tweenpartnersbelongingtothesamevillage.Marriageissig-naledbythebrideandgroomsharingtheirfirstmealintheboy'sparentalhouse.Thebridelivestherewhileherhus-band'skinworkherhardtotestherendurance;meanwhilethegroomperformsarduousbride-serviceforhisaffines.Ex-changes of game,fish,andcookedfoodlegitimatethemar-riagesoonafterwards,butbride-pricepayments (of apig,afewshellvaluables,andasum of money)arenowadaysde-layedformonthsorevenyears.Theyareeventuallygiventothebride'sunumafordistribution-ifthemarriagesurvivedthestressfulearlyyears.Aboutoneinthreemarriagesendsindivorce:theusualcomplaintsare of neglect,laziness,orinfi-delity.Ifweanedthechildrenremainwiththeirfather,fortheybelongtohisgroup.Remarriageissimple,thoughanewhusbandmustrepaythefirsthusbandhisbride-price.Widowremarriageisamoredelicateaffair,andthenewhusbandmustmakegenerousgiftstothedeadhusband'skintoallayanysuspicion of complicityinhisdeath.Monogamyisthenorm,butafewinstances of polygynyoccurinmostcommu-nitiesdespiteeightyyears of missionarydisapproval of thepractice.DomesticUnit.Thehousehold-thebasiceconomicandcommensalunit-isusuallycomposed of amarriedcoupleandtheirchildren,includinganytheyarefostering.Adoles-cents,widows,andwidowersmayoccupysmallhouses of theirown,thoughtheyusuallyjoinotherhouseholdstoworkandeat.Inheritance.Allproperty(includingmagicandclanpara.phernalia)isinheritedpatrilineally.Certainstatusessuchasexchangepartnershipsandtraditionalenemiesarealsoinher-itedpatrilineally,asareafather'sexchangedebtsandcredits.Aneldestsonnormallyinheritshisfather'slandandtreesanditems of wealthnotdisbursedasdeathpayments.Thispatrimonyshouldbedividedamonghissiblingsaccordingtoneed.Ritualproperty(magicalknowledgeinparticular)ismorejealouslyguardedandlesslikelytobesharedequallyamongbrothers.Ifamaniswithoutcloseagnaticheirshemaychoosetotransmithismagic(aswellashislandorotherproperty)tohissister'ssons,thoughthisisapttocausecon-tentioninthefollowinggeneration.Womencanownland,trees,pigs,andsomeritualproperty,thoughtheircontrolordisposal of themisusuallysubjecttotheapproval of theirclosestmaleagnates.AsinmostMelanesiansocieties,thedispersal of personalwealthatdeathpreventstheaccumula-tion of inheritedwealthwhichcouldbeconvertedintorankorclass.Socialization.Infantsarebreast-fedondemandandweanedfairlyabruptlyatabouttwoyears.Childrenarefre-quentlyhandledbyparents,grandparents,andoldersiblings.Themother'sbrotherisalsoimportantinachild'supbring-ing,andmakesregulargifts of foodwiththeexpectation of beingrepaid(incashearningsorbride-wealth)whenthechildreachesmaturity.Thechildren of ahamletformplaygroups of peers.Fromanearlyagetheyaccompanytheirpar-entstothegardenswheretheyareencouragedtomaketoygardens.Althoughparentsareindulgenttheyreadilystriketheirdisobedientchildren,withanopenhandorwhatevertheyhappentobeholding.Childrenaretaughtearlytocon-troltheirappetites,thoughtheyarepermitted,andevenen.couraged,tochewbetelnutsassoonasthisdesirearises.Tra-ditionallytherewasnoformalinitiation of boysorgirls,thoughnowadaysschoolitselfservestoweakenachild'sbondingtoitsparents.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Thetypicalvillagecommunitycom-prisesseverallocalpatriciansoccupyingoneormoreadjacenthamletsandconsisting of anumber of genealogicallyrankedpatrilineages.Clansarelinkedbymarriageandexchangepartnerships;theremaybefurthercrosscuttingtiesbasedontraditionalenemyrelationships.Thevillageisalsodividedintoceremonial,nonexogamousmoieties,whichformthebasis of areciprocalfeastingcycle,thoughnowadayssuchfes-tivalstendtobepromotedpurelyasmemorialsfordeadleaders.PoliticalOrganiation.Large-scalefeastingisintrinsicallycompetitiveandinthepostcontacteraithasassumedpoliti-calfunctionshithertoassociatedwithlocalwarfareandre-vengecannibalism.Aramifyingsystem of pigandvegetablefooddebtslooselyintegratestheneighboringcommunitiesthatattendoneanother'sfeastsandexchanges.LeadershiponGoodenoughtakesseveralforms.Warriorleaderswereprominenttraditionallyandsometimesbecametyrannicaldespots.Attheclanandhamletlevel,leadersareideallythemostseniormen of theirgroups,buttherearemanyoppor-tunitiesforyoungersonstoachieveprominenceiftheyareproductivegardeners,capableorganizers,andgoodorators.Competitivefoodexchanges,whetherheldbetweenwholevillagesorbetweencontendingclanswithinavillage,areanimportantpoliticalinstitution,onethathasbeenelaboratedgreatlysincepacificationandtheavailability of steeltools.Despitetheegalitarianethos of Goodenoughsociety,therearehints of hierarchyinmanycommunities;e.g.,theposses-sion of ritualmeans of prosperity(andconversely,thecoer-civethreat of famine)makestheleaders of certainclansunu-suallypowerful.Inheavilymissionizedcommunities,how-ever,suchritualvillage"guardians'donotexist,andvillageleaderstheretendalsotobechurchleaders.SocialControl.Traditionallytheredress of wrongswasamatter of self-helpbykingroups.Islandersarestillreluctanttoappealtoexternalauthorities,anditisthelocalgovern-mentcouncillor'stasktoattemptthesettlement of disputesatthevillagelevel.Traditionalsanctionsremaininuse;mostnotablearepublicharangue,ridicule,ostracism,andrevengesorcery.Amongthemostimportantandeffectivesanctionsisfood-giving-to-shame,whichinthepostcontacterahasservedasadramaticmode of conflictresolution.Itdisplaysmanyfeatures of traditionalwarfare;hencetheidiom,'fight-ingwithfood."Conflict.Inthenineteenthcenturysmall-scalewarfareandcannibalismwereendemiconGoodenough.Becausetheultimateindignitytoanenemywastoeathimorher,anesca-latingrevengecyclecouldensuefromasingleact of cannibal-ism.Notalltheclans of acommunitywereenemies of alltheclans of aneighboringcommunity,andrelations of allianceandhostilitycouldcrosscutdistrictboundaries.Theverysizeandcompactness of modemcommunitiesexacerbateminorconflicts,makingGoodenoughpeopleseemfractiousandhy-persensitivetoslight.Foodandwomenremainthesources of Gainj71Read,KennethE.(1954).&apos ;Cultures of theCentralHigh-lands,NewGuinea."SouthwesternJournal of Anthropology10: 1-4 3.Read,KennethE.(1965).TheHighValley.NewYork-CharlesScribner'sSons.Rev.ed.1980.NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress.Read,KennethE.(1986).ReturntotheHighValley:ComingFullCircle.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.TERENCEE.HAYSGamjETHNONYMS:AiomePygmies,Gants,GanzOrientationIdenificatin.Gainjisthenameforapproximately1,500peoplewhodistinguishthemselvesfromtheirculturallysim-ilarneighborsonthebasis of languageandterritorialaffiliation.Location.TheGainjliveintheTakwiValley of theWest-emSchraderRangeinPapuaNewGuinea'sMadangProv-ince.Onthenorthernmostfringe of thecentralhighlands,thevalleycoversapproximately55squarekilometers,cen-teredat144°40'Eand5'14'S.Theareareceivesalmost500centimeters of rainannually,withtheheaviestrainfalloccur.ringfromDecembertoApril.Themeandailytemperature, 22 -2 4 °C,varieslittleacrossseasons.Demography.The1,500Gainjliveinapproximatelytwentywidelydispersedlocalgroups,whichvaryinsizefromabout30to 20 0individuals.Localgroupsareephemeral,withahalf-life of abouttwogenerations;acontinuousprocess of fissionandfusionmaintainsthetotalnumber of groupsatafairlyconstantlevel.Inrecentyears,thepopulationgrowthratehasnotbeensignificantlydifferentfromzero,exceptforabriefperiod of growthfollowingthefirstmajorinfluenzaep-idemicin1969.Populationsizeappearstobemaintainedbylowfertilityanddensity-dependentmortality.Lifeexpectancyatbirthis 29 .0yearsforfemalesand 32. 4yearsformales;in-fantmortalityisabout165per1,000livebirths,withaslightlyhigherrateforfemalesthanformales.inguistcAffiliation.GainjisclassifiedwithKalamandKobonintheKalamFamilyof...