Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 11 OCEANIA ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD CULTURES David Levinson Editor in Chief North America Oceania South Asia Europe and the Middle East East and Southeast Asia Soviet Union and China South America Middle America and the Caribbean Africa Bibliography The Encyclopedia of World Cultures was prepared under the auspices and with the support of the Human Relations Area Files at Yale University. HRAF, the foremost international research organization in the field of cultural anthro- pology, is a not-for-profit consortium of twenty-three sponsoring members and 300 participating member institutions in twenty-five countries. The HRAF archive, established in 1949, contains nearly one million pages of information on the cultures of the world. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume II OCEANIA Terence E. Hays Volume Editor G.K. Hall & Company NEW YORK MEASUREMENT CONVERSIONS When You Know Multiply By To Find LENGTH inches 2.54 c s fet 30 centimeters yards 0.9 meers mils 1.6 kilometrs meters 0.04 Inches centimaters 0.4 inches meters 3.3 feet mners 1.1 yards kilormers 0.6 mles AREA square feet 0.09 square meters square yards 0.8 square meters square miles 2.6 square kilorneers acres 0.4 hectares hectares 2.5 acres square meters 1.2 square yards square kilometers OA square miles TEMPERATURE IC - (F - 32) x .555 -F - (C x 1.8) + 32 i 1991 by the Human Relations Area Files, Inc. First published in 1991 by G.K. Hall & Co. 1633 Broadway, New York, NY 10019,6785 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the publisher. 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 Libnry of Congress Catalog in-Publication Data (Revised for vol. 2) Encyclopedia of world cultures. Includes bibliographical references and index. Filmography: p. Contents: v. 1. North America / Timothy 1. O'Leary, David Levinson, volume editors. v.2. Oceania / Terence E. Hays, volume ed. 1. Ethnology-North America-Encyclopedias. 1. Levinson, David. 1947- GN307.E53 1991 306'.097 90-49123 CIP ISBN 0-8161-1808.6 (v. 1) ISBN 0-8161-1809-4 (v. 2) The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials. ANSI Z39.48-1984. i). MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Contents Project Staff vi Contributors vii Preface xvii Introduction xxiii Maps 1. Oceania xxxviii 2. Australia xxdxi 3. New Guinea xl 4. Melanesia xli 5. Micronesia xlii 6. Polynesia xliii Cultures of Oceania I Glossary 397 Filmography 403 Ethnonym Index 407 Project Staff Editorial Board Research Christopher Latham Nancy Gratton Linda A. Bennett Memphis State University Europe Fernando Cimara Barbachano Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, Mexico City Middle America and the Caribbean Editorial and Production Eva Kitsos Abraham Maramba Victoria Crocco Elizabeth Holthaus Ara Salibian John Amburg Nancy Priest Norma J. Diamond University of Michigan China Paul Friedrich University of Chicago Soviet Union Cartography Robert Sullivan Rhode Island College Terence E. Hays Rhode Island College Oceania Paul Hockings University of Illinois at Chicago South and Southeast Asia Robert V. Kemper Southern Methodist University Middle America and the Caribbean Kazuko Matsuzawa National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka East Asia John H. Middleton Yale University Africa Timothy J. O'Leary Human Relations Area Files North America Amal Rassam Queens College and the Graduate Center of the City University of New York Middle East Johannes Wilbert University of California at Los Angeles South America vi Contributors Steven M. Albert Lak Philadelphia Geriatric Center Philadelphia, Pennsylvania United States William H. Alkire Woleai Department of Anthropology University of Victoria Victoria, British Columbia Canada Thomas Bargatzky Samoa Institut fur Valkerkunde und Afrikanistik Universitit MiInchen Munich Germany John Barker Main Department of Anthropology and Sociology University of British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia Canada Kathleen Barlow MuriJ& Department of Sociology and Anthropology Gustavus Adolphus College Saint Peter, Minnesota United States Robert Borofsky Puspw Department of Anthropology Hawaii Loa College Kaneohe, Oahu, Hawaii United States Ross Bowden Ktuoma Department of Sociology La Trobe University Bundoora, Victoria Australia Vii viii Contributors David J. Boyd Department of Anthropology University of California, Davis Davis, California United States Paula Brown Department of Anthropology State University of New York at Stony Brook Stony Brook, New York United States Boazi; Kiwai Mark Busse Papua New Guinea National Museum Boroko, National Capital District Papua New Guinea James G. Carrier Department of Anthropology University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia United States Laurence M. Carucci Department of Sociology Montana State University Bozeman, Montana United States MarshaU Islands Laklcai; Sengseng Ann Chowning Department of Anthropology Victoria University of Wellington Wellington New Zealand Brenda J. Clay Department of Anthropology University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky United States John Connell Department of Geography University of Sydney Sydney Australia Mandak Sisvai Usimo Leslie Conton Fairhaven College Western Washington University Bellingham, Washington United States Marjorie Tuainekore Crocombe University of the South Pacific Suva Fiji Ron Crocombe University of the South Pacific Suva Fiji Fore Chimbu Manus Cook Islands Cook Islands 4-ofnlTWULOTS William H. Davenport Santa Cna University Museum of Archaeology/Anthropology University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania United States William W. Donner Ontong Java Department of Anthropology Kutztown State University Kutztown, Pennsylvania United States A. L. Epstein TolWi Department of Social Anthropology University of Sussex Brighton, Sussex England Ellen E. Facey Nguna Department of Sociology and Anthropology Mount Allison University Sackville, New Brunswick Canada Richard Feinberg Anuta Department of Sociology and Anthropology Kent State University Kent, Ohio United States Edwin N. Ferdon, Jr. Tahiti Arizona State Museum University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona United States Raymond Firth Tikopia London England James G. Flanagan Wovan Department of Sociology and Anthropology University of Southern Mississippi Hattiesburg, Mississippi United States Karl J. Franklin Kewa Summer Institute of Linguistics Ukarumpa via Lae Papua New Guinea Deborah Gewertz Chambri Department of Anthropology-Sociology Amherst College Amherst, Massachusetts United States Michael Goldsmith Tuvalu Department of Politics University of Waikato Hamilton New Zealand ix x Contributors Jane C. Goodale Tian Department of Anthropology Bryn Mawr College Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania United States Ward H. Goodenough Tnak Department of Anthropology University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania United States Richard A. Gould Ngatjara Department of Anthropology Brown University Providence, Rhode Island United States Murray Groves Motu Department of Sociology University of Hong Kong Hong Kong C. R. Hallpike Tauadc Department of Anthropology McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario Canada David Hanlon Pohknpi Department of History University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii United States F. Allan Hanson Rapa Department of Anthropology University of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas United States Thomas G. Harding Sio Department of Anthropology University of California, Santa Barbara Santa Barbara, California United States Brigitta Hauser-Schiublin Abelam; Iatinul Institute of Ethnology University of Basel Basel Switzerland Terence E. Hays Gaiuku-Gama; Garia; Gogodala; Tairora; Tor Department of Anthropology Rhode Island College Providence, Rhode Island United States [...]... into the ways of life of the indigenous peoples in the area of the world they will be visiting Format of the Encyclopedia The encyclopedia comprises ten volumes, ordered by geographical regions ofthe world The order of publication is not meant to represent any sort of priority Volumes 1 through 9 contain a total of about fifteen hundred summaries along with maps, glossaries, and indexes of alternate... news every day and young people who are growing up in this complex cultural world For all of these people-which means all of us-there is a pressing need for information on the cultures of the world This encyclopedia provides this information in two ways First, its descriptions of the traditional ways of life of the world' s cultures can serve as a baseline against which cultural change can be measured... tenth and final volume contains cumulative lists of the cultures of the world, their alternate names, and a bibliography of selected publications pertaining to those groups North America covers the cultures of Canada, Greenland, and the United States of America Oceania covers the cultures of Australia, New Zealand, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia South Asia covers the cultures of Afghanistan,... thirty-three tiny islands with a total land area of only 690 square kilometers, but claiming 3. 5-5 million square kilometers of the sea The Republic of Nauru, an independent state and member of the British Commonwealth since 1968, has only about 21 square kilometers of land, but includes 320 ,000 square kilometers of ocean Most of its population of 8,600 in 1984 resided in or near the capital city of Yaren... usually have firsthand research-based knowledge of the cultures they write about In many cases they are the major expert or one ofthe leading experts on the culture, and some are themselves members of the cultures As experts, they are able to provide accurate, up-to-date information This is crucial for many parts of the world where indigenous cultures may be overlooked by official information seekers... This project began in 1987 with the goal of assembling a basic reference source that provides accurate, dear, and concise descriptions of the cultures of the world We wanted to be as comprehensive and authoritative as possible: comprehensive, by providing descriptions of all the cultures of each region of the world or by describing a representative sample of cultures for regions where full coverage... covers the cultures of Central America, Mexico, and the Caribbean islands Africa covers the cultures of Madagascar and sub-Saharan Africa Format of the Volumes Each volume contains this preface, an introductory essay by the volume editor, the cultural summaries ranging from a few lines to several pages each, maps pinpointing the location of the cultures, a filmography, an ethnonym index of alternate... majority of the tens of thousands of islands of Oceania are in the southwestern quadrant of the Pacific But this is still a very large area, and it includes some island groups that will not be considered in this volume Japan, the Philippines, and most of Indonesia are covered in a later volume of this encyclopedia that deals with East and Southeast Asia Here we will be concerned with the island continent of. .. providing accurate descriptions of the cultures for both the past and the present The publication of the Encyclopedia of World Cultures in the last decade of the twentieth century is especially timely The political, economic, and social changes of the past fifty years have produced a world more complex and fluid than at any time in human history Three sweeping transformations ofthe worldwide cultural landscape... kilometers is greater than that of all of the world' s land areas combined; however, even when Aus tralia is included, the Pacific contains only about 9 million square kilometers of dry land The rest consists of more than half of the world' s volume offree water, with an average depth of over 4,000 meters and reaching depths over 10,600 meters in the Mariana Trench, just south of Guam From the Bering Strait . Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 11 OCEANIA ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD CULTURES David Levinson Editor in Chief North America Oceania South Asia Europe and the Middle East East and Southeast Asia Soviet Union and China South America Middle America and the Caribbean Africa Bibliography The Encyclopedia of World Cultures was prepared under the auspices and with the support of the Human Relations Area Files at Yale University. HRAF, the foremost international research organization in the field of cultural anthro- pology, is a not-for-profit consortium of twenty-three sponsoring members and 300 participating member institutions in twenty-five countries. The HRAF archive, established in 1949, contains nearly one million pages of information on the cultures of the world. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume II OCEANIA Terence E. Hays Volume Editor G.K. Hall & Company NEW YORK MEASUREMENT CONVERSIONS When You Know Multiply By To Find LENGTH inches 2. 54 c s fet 30 centimeters yards 0.9 meers mils 1.6 kilometrs meters 0.04 Inches centimaters 0.4 inches meters 3.3 feet mners 1.1 yards kilormers 0.6 mles AREA square feet 0.09 square meters square yards 0.8 square meters square miles 2. 6 square kilorneers acres 0.4 hectares hectares 2. 5 acres square meters 1 .2 square yards square kilometers OA square miles TEMPERATURE IC - (F - 32) x .555 -F - (C x 1.8) + 32 i 1991 by the Human Relations Area Files, Inc. First published in 1991 by G.K. Hall & Co. 1633 Broadway, New York, NY 10019,6785 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the publisher. 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 Libnry of Congress Catalog in-Publication Data (Revised for vol. 2) Encyclopedia of world cultures. Includes bibliographical references and index. Filmography: p. Contents: v. 1. North America / Timothy 1. O'Leary, David Levinson, volume editors. v .2. Oceania / Terence E. Hays, volume ed. 1. Ethnology-North America-Encyclopedias. 1. Levinson, David. 194 7- GN307.E53 1991 306'.097 9 0-4 9 123 CIP ISBN 0-8 16 1-1 808.6 (v. 1) ISBN 0-8 16 1-1 80 9-4 (v. 2) The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials. ANSI Z39.4 8-1 984. i). MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Contents Project Staff vi Contributors vii Preface xvii Introduction xxiii Maps 1. Oceania xxxviii 2. Australia xxdxi 3. New Guinea xl 4. Melanesia xli 5. Micronesia xlii 6. Polynesia xliii Cultures of Oceania I Glossary 397 Filmography 403 Ethnonym Index 407 Project Staff Editorial Board Research Christopher Latham Nancy Gratton Linda A. Bennett Memphis State University Europe Fernando Cimara Barbachano Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, Mexico City Middle America and the Caribbean Editorial and Production Eva Kitsos Abraham Maramba Victoria Crocco Elizabeth Holthaus Ara Salibian John Amburg Nancy Priest Norma J. Diamond University of Michigan China Paul Friedrich University of Chicago Soviet Union Cartography Robert Sullivan Rhode Island College Terence E. Hays Rhode Island College Oceania Paul Hockings University of Illinois at Chicago South and Southeast Asia Robert V. Kemper Southern Methodist University Middle America and the Caribbean Kazuko Matsuzawa National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka East Asia John H. Middleton Yale University Africa Timothy J. O'Leary Human Relations Area Files North America Amal Rassam Queens College and the Graduate Center of the City University of New York Middle East Johannes Wilbert University of California at Los Angeles South America vi Contributors Steven M. Albert Lak Philadelphia Geriatric Center Philadelphia, Pennsylvania United States William H. Alkire Woleai Department of Anthropology University of Victoria Victoria, British Columbia Canada Thomas Bargatzky Samoa Institut fur Valkerkunde und Afrikanistik Universitit MiInchen Munich Germany John Barker Main Department of Anthropology and Sociology University of British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia Canada Kathleen Barlow MuriJ& Department of Sociology and Anthropology Gustavus Adolphus College Saint Peter, Minnesota United States Robert Borofsky Puspw Department of Anthropology Hawaii Loa College Kaneohe, Oahu, Hawaii United States Ross Bowden Ktuoma Department of Sociology La Trobe University Bundoora, Victoria Australia Vii viii Contributors David J. Boyd Department of Anthropology University of California, Davis Davis, California United States Paula Brown Department of Anthropology State University of New York at Stony Brook Stony Brook, New York United States Boazi; Kiwai Mark Busse Papua New Guinea National Museum Boroko, National Capital District Papua New Guinea James G. Carrier Department of Anthropology University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia United States Laurence M. Carucci Department of Sociology Montana State University Bozeman, Montana United States MarshaU Islands Laklcai; Sengseng Ann Chowning Department of Anthropology Victoria University of Wellington Wellington New Zealand Brenda J. Clay Department of Anthropology University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky United States John Connell Department of Geography University of Sydney Sydney Australia Mandak Sisvai Usimo Leslie Conton Fairhaven College Western Washington University Bellingham, Washington United States Marjorie Tuainekore Crocombe University of the South Pacific Suva Fiji Ron Crocombe University of the South Pacific Suva Fiji Fore Chimbu Manus Cook Islands Cook Islands 4-ofnlTWULOTS William H. Davenport Santa Cna University Museum of Archaeology/Anthropology University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania United States William W. Donner Ontong Java Department of Anthropology Kutztown State University Kutztown, Pennsylvania United States A. L. Epstein TolWi Department of Social Anthropology University of Sussex Brighton, Sussex England Ellen E. Facey Nguna Department of Sociology and Anthropology Mount Allison University Sackville, New Brunswick Canada Richard Feinberg Anuta Department of Sociology and Anthropology Kent State University Kent, Ohio United States Edwin N. Ferdon, Jr. Tahiti Arizona State Museum University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona United States Raymond Firth Tikopia London England James G. Flanagan Wovan Department of Sociology and Anthropology University of Southern Mississippi Hattiesburg, Mississippi United States Karl J. Franklin Kewa Summer Institute of Linguistics Ukarumpa via Lae Papua New Guinea Deborah Gewertz Chambri Department of Anthropology-Sociology Amherst College Amherst, Massachusetts United States Michael Goldsmith Tuvalu Department of Politics University of Waikato Hamilton New Zealand ix x Contributors Jane C. Goodale Tian Department of Anthropology Bryn Mawr College Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania United States Ward H. Goodenough Tnak Department of Anthropology University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania United States Richard A. Gould Ngatjara Department of Anthropology Brown University Providence, Rhode Island United States Murray Groves Motu Department of Sociology University of Hong Kong Hong Kong C. R. Hallpike Tauadc Department of Anthropology McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario Canada David Hanlon Pohknpi Department of History University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii United States F. Allan Hanson Rapa Department of Anthropology University of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas United States Thomas G. Harding Sio Department of Anthropology University of California, Santa Barbara Santa Barbara, California United States Brigitta Hauser-Schiublin Abelam; Iatinul Institute of Ethnology University of Basel Basel Switzerland Terence E. Hays Gaiuku-Gama; Garia; Gogodala; Tairora; Tor Department of Anthropology Rhode Island College Providence, Rhode Island United States Contributors xi Karl G. Heider Dani Department of Anthropology University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina United States Gilbert Herdt Sambis Committee on Human Development University of Chicago Chicago, Illinois United States Antony Hooper Tokelau Department of Anthropology University of Auckland Auckland New Zealand Alan Howard Rotuma Department of Anthropology University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii United States Judith Huntsman Tokelau Department of Anthropology University of Auckland Auckland New Zealand Patricia L. Johnson Gainj Department of Anthropology Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania United States Margaret Jolly Pentecost Department of Anthropology Macquarie University North Ryde, New South Wales Australia Dan Jorgensen Telefolmin Department of Anthropology University of Western Ontario London, Ontario Canada Miriam Kahn Wamira Department of Anthropology University of Washington Seattle, Washington United States Roger Keesing Malafta Department of Anthropology McGill University Montreal, Quebec Canada xii Contributors Bruce M. Knauft Department of Anthropology Emory University Atlanta, Georgia United States Bemd Lambert Department of Anthropology Cornell University Ithaca, New York United States Joan C. Larcom Agency for International Development Washington, D.C. United States Rena Lederman Department of Anthropology Princeton University Princeton, New Jersey United States William A. Lessa Department of Anthropology University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, California United States David Levinson Human Relations Area Files New Haven, Connecticut United States Michael Lieber Department of Anthropology University of Illinois at Chicago Chicago, Illinois United States John Liep Institute of Anthropology University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark Lamont Lindstrom Department of Anthropology University of Tulsa Tulsa, Oklahoma United States Sherwood G. Lingenfelter Biola University La Mirada, California United States Jocelyn Linnekin Department of Anthropology University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii United States Kabingamarangi Rossel Island Tanna Yap Hawaiians Gebusi Kiribati Malekula Mendi Ulithi Easter Island; Tasmanians Nancy C. Lutkehaus Department of Anthropology University of Southern California Los Angeles, California United States Nancy McDowell Department of Anthropology Franklin and Marshall College Lancaster, Pennsylvania United States Kenneth McElhanon Asbury Theological Seminary Wilmore, Kentucky United States William H. McKellin Department of Anthropology and Sociology University of British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia Canada David F. Martin Department of Prehistory and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Australia Mervyn Meggitt Department of Anthropology Queens College Flushing, New York United States William E. Mitchell Department of Anthropology University of Vermont Burlington, Vermont United States George E. B. Morren, Jr. Department of Human Ecology Cook College, Rutgers University New Brunswick, New Jersey United States John Morton Department of Sociology La Trobe University Bundoora, Victoria Australia Mark S. Mosko Department of Anthropology Hartwick College Oneonta, New York United States Mundugunor Selepet; Wantoat MafMun Wik Mungkan Mae Enga Wape Miyanmin Aranda Mekeo Manam Contributors xiii xiv Contributors Steven Nachman Department of Sociology, Anthropology, Social Work Edinboro University of Pennsylvania Edinboro, Pennsylvania United States Philip L Newman Department of Anthropology University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, California United States Eugene Ogan Department of Anthropology University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota United States Richard J. Parmentier Department of Anthropology Brandeis University Waltham, Massachussetts United States James G. Peoples Department of Sociology and Anthropology Ohio Wesleyan University Delaware, Ohio United States Nicolas Peterson Department of Prehistory and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Australia Nancy J. Pollock Department of Anthropology Victoria University of Wellington Wellington New Zealand Jan Pouwer Rhenen The Netherlands Karl Rambo Norman, Oklahoma United States Margaret Rodman Department of Anthropology McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario Canada William Rodman Department of Anthropology McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario Canada Kurtachi; Nasioi Belau Kosrae Warlpiri Futuna; Nauru Mimika Chimbu Ambae Ambae Nissan Gururumba Contributors x Paul Roscoe Department of Anthropology University of Maine Orono, Maine United States Mountain Arajesh; Tongareia; Yangau Bolken David Routledge University of the South Pacific Suva Fiji Richard Scaglion Department of Anthropology University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania United States Harold W. Scheffler Department of Anthropology Yale University New Haven, Connecticut United States Wulf Schiefenhovel Forschungsstelle fur Humanethologie Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Andechs Germany J. W. School Institute of Cultural Anthropology Free University Amsterdam The Netherlands Andrew Strathem Department of Anthropology University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania United States Nicholas Thomas Department of Prehistory and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Australia Robert Tonkinson Department of Anthropology University of Western Australia Nedlands, Perth, Western Australia Australia Charles F. Urbanowicz Department of Anthropology California State University, Chico Chico, California United States Kathleen Van Arsdale Englewood, Colorado United States Keral4' Orokolo; Tangu Choiswd Island EBo MuYs Melpa Marquesas Isands Mardujavra Tonga Ama xvi Contributors Peter Van Arsdale Graduate School of International Studies University of Denver Denver, Colorado United States J. Van Baal Doom The Netherlands Roy Wagner Department of Anthropology University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia United States Marind-anim Daribi Annette B. Weiner Department of Anthropology New York University New York, New York United States James F. Weiner Department of Social Anthropology Manchester University Manchester England Robert L. Welsch Department of Anthropology Field Museum of Natural History Chicago, Illinois United States Nancy M. Williams Department of Anthropology and Sociology University of Queensland Saint Lucia, Queensland Australia Donna Winslow Department d'anthropologie University de Montreal Montreal, Quebec Canada Trobriand Islands Foi Ningerum Murngin Ape James W. Wood Department of Anthropology Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania United States Michael Young Department of Anthropology Research School of Pacific Studies Australian National University Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Australia Marty Zelenietz Dartmouth, Nova Scotia Canada Dobu; Goodenough Island Kilenge Asn Preface This project began in 1987 with the goal of assembling a basic reference source that provides accurate, dear, and concise de- scriptions of the cultures of the world. We wanted to be as comprehensive and authoritative as possible: comprehensive, by providing descriptions of all the cultures of each region of the world or by describing a representative sample of cultures for regions where full coverage is impossible, and authori- tative by providing accurate descriptions of the cultures for both the past and the present. The publication of the Encyclopedia of World Cultures in the last decade of the twentieth century is especially timely. The political, economic, and social changes of the past fifty years have produced a world more complex and fluid than at any time in human history. Three sweeping transformations of the worldwide cultural landscape are especially significant First is what some social scientists are calling the 'New Diaspora"-the dispersal of cultural groups to new locations across the world. This dispersal affects all nations and takes a wide variety of forms: in East African nations, the formation of new towns inhabited by people from dozens of different ethnic groups; in Micronesia and Polynesia, the movement of islanders to cities in New Zealand and the United States; in North America, the replacement by Asians and Latin Amer- cans of Europeans as the most numerous immigrants; in Eu- rope, the increased reliance on workers from the Middle East and North Africa; and so on. Second, and related to this dispersal, is the internal divi. sion of what were once single, unified cultural groups into two or more relatively distinct groups. This pattern of internal di- vision is most dramatic among indigenous or third or fourth world cultures whose traditional ways of life have been altered by contact with the outside world. Underlying this division are both the population dispersion mentioned above and sus- tained contact with the economically developed world. The result is that groups who at one time saw themselves and were seen by others as single cultural groups have been trans- formed into two or more distinct groups. Thus, in many cul- tural groups, we find deep and probably permanent divisions between those who live in the country and those who live in cities, those who follow the traditional religion and those who have converted to Christianity, those who live inland and those who live on the seacoast, and those who live by means of a subsistence economy and those now enmeshed in a cash economy. The third important transformation of the worldwide cultural landscape is the revival of ethnic nationalism, with many peoples claiming and fighting for political freedom and territorial integrity on the basis of ethnic solidarity and ethnic-based claims to their traditional homeland. Although most attention has focused recently on ethnic nationalism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, the trend is nonethe- less a worldwide phenomenon involving, for example, Amer- can Indian cultures in North and South America, the Basques in Spain and France, the Tamil and Sinhalese in Sri Lanka, and the Tutsi and Hutu in Burundi, among others. To be informed citizens of our rapidly changing multicul- tural world we must understand the ways of life of people from cultures different from our own. 'We" is used here in the broadest sense, to include not just scholars who study the cul- tures of the world and businesspeople and government offi- cials who work in the world community but also the average citizen who reads or hears about multicultural events in the news every day and young people who are growing up in this complex cultural world. For all of these people-which means all of us-there is a pressing need for information on the cultures of the world. This encyclopedia provides this in- formation in two ways. First, its descriptions of the traditional ways of life of the world& apos;s cultures can serve as a baseline against which cultural change can be measured and under- stood. Second, it acquaints the reader with the contemporary ways of life throughout the world. We are able to provide this information largely through the efforts of the volume editors and the nearly one thousand contributors who wrote the cultural summaries that are the heart of the book. The contributors are social scientists (an- thropologists, sociologists, historians, and geographers) as well as educators, government officials, and missionaries who usually have firsthand research-based knowledge of the cul- tures they write about. In many cases they are the major ex- pert or one of the leading experts on the culture, and some are themselves members of the cultures. As experts, they are able to provide accurate, up-to-date information. This is crucial for many parts of the world where indigenous cultures may be overlooked by official information seekers such as govern- ment census takers. These experts have often lived among the people they write about, conducting participant-observations with them and speaking their language. Thus they are able. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 11 OCEANIA ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD CULTURES David Levinson Editor in Chief North America Oceania South Asia Europe and the Middle East East and Southeast Asia Soviet Union and China South America Middle America and the Caribbean Africa Bibliography The Encyclopedia of World Cultures was prepared under the auspices and with the support of the Human Relations Area Files at Yale University. HRAF, the foremost international research organization in the field of cultural anthro- pology, is a not-for-profit consortium of twenty-three sponsoring members and 300 participating member institutions in twenty-five countries. The HRAF archive, established in 1949, contains nearly one million pages of information on the cultures of the world. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume II OCEANIA Terence E. Hays Volume Editor G.K. Hall & Company NEW YORK MEASUREMENT CONVERSIONS When You Know Multiply By To Find LENGTH inches 2. 54 c s fet 30 centimeters yards 0.9 meers mils 1.6 kilometrs meters 0.04 Inches centimaters 0.4 inches meters 3.3 feet mners 1.1 yards kilormers 0.6 mles AREA square feet 0.09 square meters square yards 0.8 square meters square miles 2. 6 square kilorneers acres 0.4 hectares hectares 2. 5 acres square meters 1 .2 square yards square kilometers OA square miles TEMPERATURE IC - (F - 32) x .555 -F - (C x 1.8) + 32 i 1991 by the Human Relations Area Files, Inc. First published in 1991 by G.K. Hall & Co. 1633 Broadway, New York, NY 10019,6785 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the publisher. 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 Libnry of Congress Catalog in-Publication Data (Revised for vol. 2) Encyclopedia of world cultures. Includes bibliographical references and index. Filmography: p. Contents: v. 1. North America / Timothy 1. O'Leary, David Levinson, volume editors. v .2. Oceania / Terence E. Hays, volume ed. 1. Ethnology-North America-Encyclopedias. 1. Levinson, David. 194 7- GN307.E53 1991 306'.097 9 0-4 9 123 CIP ISBN 0-8 16 1-1 808.6 (v. 1) ISBN 0-8 16 1-1 80 9-4 (v. 2) The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials. ANSI Z39.4 8-1 984. i). MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Contents Project Staff vi Contributors vii Preface xvii Introduction xxiii Maps 1. Oceania xxxviii 2. Australia xxdxi 3. New Guinea xl 4. Melanesia xli 5. Micronesia xlii 6. Polynesia xliii Cultures of Oceania I Glossary 397 Filmography 403 Ethnonym Index 407 Project Staff Editorial Board Research Christopher Latham Nancy Gratton Linda A. Bennett Memphis State University Europe Fernando Cimara Barbachano Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, Mexico City Middle America and the Caribbean Editorial and Production Eva Kitsos Abraham Maramba Victoria Crocco Elizabeth Holthaus Ara Salibian John Amburg Nancy Priest Norma J. Diamond University of Michigan China Paul Friedrich University of Chicago Soviet Union Cartography Robert Sullivan Rhode Island College Terence E. Hays Rhode Island College Oceania Paul Hockings University of Illinois at Chicago South and Southeast Asia Robert V. Kemper Southern Methodist University Middle America and the Caribbean Kazuko Matsuzawa National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka East Asia John H. Middleton Yale University Africa Timothy J. O'Leary Human Relations Area Files North America Amal Rassam Queens College and the Graduate Center of the City University of New York Middle East Johannes Wilbert University of California at Los Angeles South America vi Contributors Steven M. Albert Lak Philadelphia Geriatric Center Philadelphia, Pennsylvania United States William H. Alkire Woleai Department of Anthropology University of Victoria Victoria, British Columbia Canada Thomas Bargatzky Samoa Institut fur Valkerkunde und Afrikanistik Universitit MiInchen Munich Germany John Barker Main Department of Anthropology and Sociology University of British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia Canada Kathleen Barlow MuriJ& Department of Sociology and Anthropology Gustavus Adolphus College Saint Peter, Minnesota United States Robert Borofsky Puspw Department of Anthropology Hawaii Loa College Kaneohe, Oahu, Hawaii United States Ross Bowden Ktuoma Department of Sociology La Trobe University Bundoora, Victoria Australia Vii viii Contributors David J. Boyd Department of Anthropology University of California, Davis Davis, California United States Paula Brown Department of Anthropology State University of New York at Stony Brook Stony Brook, New York United States Boazi; Kiwai Mark Busse Papua New Guinea National Museum Boroko, National Capital District Papua New Guinea James G. Carrier Department of Anthropology University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia United States Laurence M. Carucci Department of Sociology Montana State University Bozeman, Montana United States MarshaU Islands Laklcai; Sengseng Ann Chowning Department of Anthropology Victoria University of Wellington Wellington New Zealand Brenda J. Clay Department of Anthropology University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky United States John Connell Department of Geography University of Sydney Sydney Australia Mandak Sisvai Usimo Leslie Conton Fairhaven College Western Washington University Bellingham, Washington United States Marjorie Tuainekore Crocombe University of the South Pacific Suva Fiji Ron Crocombe University of the South Pacific Suva Fiji Fore Chimbu Manus Cook Islands Cook Islands 4-ofnlTWULOTS William H. Davenport Santa Cna University Museum of Archaeology/Anthropology University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania United States William W. Donner Ontong Java Department of Anthropology Kutztown State University Kutztown, Pennsylvania United States A. L. Epstein TolWi Department of Social Anthropology University of Sussex Brighton, Sussex England Ellen E. Facey Nguna Department of Sociology and Anthropology Mount Allison University Sackville, New Brunswick Canada Richard Feinberg Anuta Department of Sociology and Anthropology Kent State University Kent, Ohio United States Edwin N. Ferdon, Jr. Tahiti Arizona State Museum University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona United States Raymond Firth Tikopia London England James G. Flanagan Wovan Department of Sociology and Anthropology University of Southern Mississippi Hattiesburg, Mississippi United States Karl J. Franklin Kewa Summer Institute of Linguistics Ukarumpa via Lae Papua New Guinea Deborah Gewertz Chambri Department of Anthropology-Sociology Amherst College Amherst, Massachusetts United States Michael Goldsmith Tuvalu Department of Politics University of Waikato Hamilton New Zealand ix x Contributors Jane C. Goodale Tian Department of Anthropology Bryn Mawr College Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania United States Ward H. Goodenough Tnak Department of Anthropology University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania United States Richard A. Gould Ngatjara Department of Anthropology Brown University Providence, Rhode Island United States Murray Groves Motu Department of Sociology University of Hong Kong Hong Kong C. R. Hallpike Tauadc Department of Anthropology McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario Canada David Hanlon Pohknpi Department of History University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii United States F. Allan Hanson Rapa Department of Anthropology University of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas United States Thomas G. Harding Sio Department of Anthropology University of California, Santa Barbara Santa Barbara, California United States Brigitta Hauser-Schiublin Abelam; Iatinul Institute of Ethnology University of Basel Basel Switzerland Terence E. Hays Gaiuku-Gama; Garia; Gogodala; Tairora; Tor Department of Anthropology Rhode Island College Providence, Rhode Island United States Contributors xi Karl G. Heider Dani Department of Anthropology University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina United States Gilbert Herdt Sambis Committee on Human Development University of Chicago Chicago, Illinois United States Antony Hooper Tokelau Department of Anthropology University of Auckland Auckland New Zealand Alan Howard Rotuma Department of Anthropology University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii United States Judith Huntsman Tokelau Department of Anthropology University of Auckland Auckland New Zealand Patricia L. Johnson Gainj Department of Anthropology Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania United States Margaret Jolly Pentecost Department of Anthropology Macquarie University North Ryde, New South Wales Australia Dan Jorgensen Telefolmin Department of Anthropology University of Western Ontario London, Ontario Canada Miriam Kahn Wamira Department of Anthropology University of Washington Seattle, Washington United States Roger Keesing Malafta Department of Anthropology McGill University Montreal, Quebec Canada xii Contributors Bruce M. Knauft Department of Anthropology Emory University Atlanta, Georgia United States Bemd Lambert Department of Anthropology Cornell University Ithaca, New York United States Joan C. Larcom Agency for International Development Washington, D.C. United States Rena Lederman Department of Anthropology Princeton University Princeton, New Jersey United States William A. Lessa Department of Anthropology University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, California United States David Levinson Human Relations Area Files New Haven, Connecticut United States Michael Lieber Department of Anthropology University of Illinois at Chicago Chicago, Illinois United States John Liep Institute of Anthropology University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark Lamont Lindstrom Department of Anthropology University of Tulsa Tulsa, Oklahoma United States Sherwood G. Lingenfelter Biola University La Mirada, California United States Jocelyn Linnekin Department of Anthropology University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii United States Kabingamarangi Rossel Island Tanna Yap Hawaiians Gebusi Kiribati Malekula Mendi Ulithi Easter Island; Tasmanians Nancy C. Lutkehaus Department of Anthropology University of Southern California Los Angeles, California United States Nancy McDowell Department of Anthropology Franklin and Marshall College Lancaster, Pennsylvania United States Kenneth McElhanon Asbury Theological Seminary Wilmore, Kentucky United States William H. McKellin Department of Anthropology and Sociology University of British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia Canada David F. Martin Department of Prehistory and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Australia Mervyn Meggitt Department of Anthropology Queens College Flushing, New York United States William E. Mitchell Department of Anthropology University of Vermont Burlington, Vermont United States George E. B. Morren, Jr. Department of Human Ecology Cook College, Rutgers University New Brunswick, New Jersey United States John Morton Department of Sociology La Trobe University Bundoora, Victoria Australia Mark S. Mosko Department of Anthropology Hartwick College Oneonta, New York United States Mundugunor Selepet; Wantoat MafMun Wik Mungkan Mae Enga Wape Miyanmin Aranda Mekeo Manam Contributors xiii xiv Contributors Steven Nachman Department of Sociology, Anthropology, Social Work Edinboro University of Pennsylvania Edinboro, Pennsylvania United States Philip L Newman Department of Anthropology University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, California United States Eugene Ogan Department of Anthropology University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota United States Richard J. Parmentier Department of Anthropology Brandeis University Waltham, Massachussetts United States James G. Peoples Department of Sociology and Anthropology Ohio Wesleyan University Delaware, Ohio United States Nicolas Peterson Department of Prehistory and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Australia Nancy J. Pollock Department of Anthropology Victoria University of Wellington Wellington New Zealand Jan Pouwer Rhenen The Netherlands Karl Rambo Norman, Oklahoma United States Margaret Rodman Department of Anthropology McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario Canada William Rodman Department of Anthropology McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario Canada Kurtachi; Nasioi Belau Kosrae Warlpiri Futuna; Nauru Mimika Chimbu Ambae Ambae Nissan Gururumba Contributors x Paul Roscoe Department of Anthropology University of Maine Orono, Maine United States Mountain Arajesh; Tongareia; Yangau Bolken David Routledge University of the South Pacific Suva Fiji Richard Scaglion Department of Anthropology University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania United States Harold W. Scheffler Department of Anthropology Yale University New Haven, Connecticut United States Wulf Schiefenhovel Forschungsstelle fur Humanethologie Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Andechs Germany J. W. School Institute of Cultural Anthropology Free University Amsterdam The Netherlands Andrew Strathem Department of Anthropology University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania United States Nicholas Thomas Department of Prehistory and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Australia Robert Tonkinson Department of Anthropology University of Western Australia Nedlands, Perth, Western Australia Australia Charles F. Urbanowicz Department of Anthropology California State University, Chico Chico, California United States Kathleen Van Arsdale Englewood, Colorado United States Keral4' Orokolo; Tangu Choiswd Island EBo MuYs Melpa Marquesas Isands Mardujavra Tonga Ama xvi Contributors Peter Van Arsdale Graduate School of International Studies University of Denver Denver, Colorado United States J. Van Baal Doom The Netherlands Roy Wagner Department of Anthropology University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia United States Marind-anim Daribi Annette B. Weiner Department of Anthropology New York University New York, New York United States James F. Weiner Department of Social Anthropology Manchester University Manchester England Robert L. Welsch Department of Anthropology Field Museum of Natural History Chicago, Illinois United States Nancy M. Williams Department of Anthropology and Sociology University of Queensland Saint Lucia, Queensland Australia Donna Winslow Department d'anthropologie University de Montreal Montreal, Quebec Canada Trobriand Islands Foi Ningerum Murngin Ape James W. Wood Department of Anthropology Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania United States Michael Young Department of Anthropology Research School of Pacific Studies Australian National University Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Australia Marty Zelenietz Dartmouth, Nova Scotia Canada Dobu; Goodenough Island Kilenge Asn Preface This project began in 1987 with the goal of assembling a basic reference source that provides accurate, dear, and concise de- scriptions of the cultures of the world. We wanted to be as comprehensive and authoritative as possible: comprehensive, by providing descriptions of all the cultures of each region of the world or by describing a representative sample of cultures for regions where full coverage is impossible, and authori- tative by providing accurate descriptions of the cultures for both the past and the present. The publication of the Encyclopedia of World Cultures in the last decade of the twentieth century is especially timely. The political, economic, and social changes of the past fifty years have produced a world more complex and fluid than at any time in human history. Three sweeping transformations of the worldwide cultural landscape are especially significant First is what some social scientists are calling the 'New Diaspora"-the dispersal of cultural groups to new locations across the world. This dispersal affects all nations and takes a wide variety of forms: in East African nations, the formation of new towns inhabited by people from dozens of different ethnic groups; in Micronesia and Polynesia, the movement of islanders to cities in New Zealand and the United States; in North America, the replacement by Asians and Latin Amer- cans of Europeans as the most numerous immigrants; in Eu- rope, the increased reliance on workers from the Middle East and North Africa; and so on. Second, and related to this dispersal, is the internal divi. sion of what were once single, unified cultural groups into two or more relatively distinct groups. This pattern of internal di- vision is most dramatic among indigenous or third or fourth world cultures whose traditional ways of life have been altered by contact with the outside world. Underlying this division are both the population dispersion mentioned above and sus- tained contact with the economically developed world. The result is that groups who at one time saw themselves and were seen by others as single cultural groups have been trans- formed into two or more distinct groups. Thus, in many cul- tural groups, we find deep and probably permanent divisions between those who live in the country and those who live in cities, those who follow the traditional religion and those who have converted to Christianity, those who live inland and those who live on the seacoast, and those who live by means of a subsistence economy and those now enmeshed in a cash economy. The third important transformation of the worldwide cultural landscape is the revival of ethnic nationalism, with many peoples claiming and fighting for political freedom and territorial integrity on the basis of ethnic solidarity and ethnic-based claims to their traditional homeland. Although most attention has focused recently on ethnic nationalism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, the trend is nonethe- less a worldwide phenomenon involving, for example, Amer- can Indian cultures in North and South America, the Basques in Spain and France, the Tamil and Sinhalese in Sri Lanka, and the Tutsi and Hutu in Burundi, among others. To be informed citizens of our rapidly changing multicul- tural world we must understand the ways of life of people from cultures different from our own. 'We" is used here in the broadest sense, to include not just scholars who study the cul- tures of the world and businesspeople and government offi- cials who work in the world community but also the average citizen who reads or hears about multicultural events in the news every day and young people who are growing up in this complex cultural world. For all of these people-which means all of us-there is a pressing need for information on the cultures of the world. This encyclopedia provides this in- formation in two ways. First, its descriptions of the traditional ways of life of the world& apos;s cultures can serve as a baseline against which cultural change can be measured and under- stood. Second, it acquaints the reader with the contemporary ways of life throughout the world. We are able to provide this information largely through the efforts of the volume editors and the nearly one thousand contributors who wrote the cultural summaries that are the heart of the book. The contributors are social scientists (an- thropologists, sociologists, historians, and geographers) as well as educators, government officials, and missionaries who usually have firsthand research-based knowledge of the cul- tures they write about. In many cases they are the major ex- pert or one of the leading experts on the culture, and some are themselves members of the cultures. As experts, they are able to provide accurate, up-to-date information. This is crucial for many parts of the world where indigenous cultures may be overlooked by official information seekers such as govern- ment census takers. These experts have often lived among the people they write about, conducting participant-observations with them and speaking their language. Thus they are able. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 11 OCEANIA ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD CULTURES David Levinson Editor in Chief North America Oceania South Asia Europe and the Middle East East and Southeast Asia Soviet Union and China South America Middle America and the Caribbean Africa Bibliography The Encyclopedia of World Cultures was prepared under the auspices and with the support of the Human Relations Area Files at Yale University. HRAF, the foremost international research organization in the field of cultural anthro- pology, is a not-for-profit consortium of twenty-three sponsoring members and 300 participating member institutions in twenty-five countries. The HRAF archive, established in 1949, contains nearly one million pages of information on the cultures of the world. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume II OCEANIA Terence E. Hays Volume Editor G.K. Hall & Company NEW YORK MEASUREMENT CONVERSIONS When You Know Multiply By To Find LENGTH inches 2. 54 c s fet 30 centimeters yards 0.9 meers mils 1.6 kilometrs meters 0.04 Inches centimaters 0.4 inches meters 3.3 feet mners 1.1 yards kilormers 0.6 mles AREA square feet 0.09 square meters square yards 0.8 square meters square miles 2. 6 square kilorneers acres 0.4 hectares hectares 2. 5 acres square meters 1 .2 square yards square kilometers OA square miles TEMPERATURE IC - (F - 32) x .555 -F - (C x 1.8) + 32 i 1991 by the Human Relations Area Files, Inc. First published in 1991 by G.K. Hall & Co. 1633 Broadway, New York, NY 10019,6785 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the publisher. 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 Libnry of Congress Catalog in-Publication Data (Revised for vol. 2) Encyclopedia of world cultures. Includes bibliographical references and index. Filmography: p. Contents: v. 1. North America / Timothy 1. O'Leary, David Levinson, volume editors. v .2. Oceania / Terence E. Hays, volume ed. 1. Ethnology-North America-Encyclopedias. 1. Levinson, David. 194 7- GN307.E53 1991 306'.097 9 0-4 9 123 CIP ISBN 0-8 16 1-1 808.6 (v. 1) ISBN 0-8 16 1-1 80 9-4 (v. 2) The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials. ANSI Z39.4 8-1 984. i). MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Contents Project Staff vi Contributors vii Preface xvii Introduction xxiii Maps 1. Oceania xxxviii 2. Australia xxdxi 3. New Guinea xl 4. Melanesia xli 5. Micronesia xlii 6. Polynesia xliii Cultures of Oceania I Glossary 397 Filmography 403 Ethnonym Index 407 Project Staff Editorial Board Research Christopher Latham Nancy Gratton Linda A. Bennett Memphis State University Europe Fernando Cimara Barbachano Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, Mexico City Middle America and the Caribbean Editorial and Production Eva Kitsos Abraham Maramba Victoria Crocco Elizabeth Holthaus Ara Salibian John Amburg Nancy Priest Norma J. Diamond University of Michigan China Paul Friedrich University of Chicago Soviet Union Cartography Robert Sullivan Rhode Island College Terence E. Hays Rhode Island College Oceania Paul Hockings University of Illinois at Chicago South and Southeast Asia Robert V. Kemper Southern Methodist University Middle America and the Caribbean Kazuko Matsuzawa National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka East Asia John H. Middleton Yale University Africa Timothy J. O'Leary Human Relations Area Files North America Amal Rassam Queens College and the Graduate Center of the City University of New York Middle East Johannes Wilbert University of California at Los Angeles South America vi Contributors Steven M. Albert Lak Philadelphia Geriatric Center Philadelphia, Pennsylvania United States William H. Alkire Woleai Department of Anthropology University of Victoria Victoria, British Columbia Canada Thomas Bargatzky Samoa Institut fur Valkerkunde und Afrikanistik Universitit MiInchen Munich Germany John Barker Main Department of Anthropology and Sociology University of British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia Canada Kathleen Barlow MuriJ& Department of Sociology and Anthropology Gustavus Adolphus College Saint Peter, Minnesota United States Robert Borofsky Puspw Department of Anthropology Hawaii Loa College Kaneohe, Oahu, Hawaii United States Ross Bowden Ktuoma Department of Sociology La Trobe University Bundoora, Victoria Australia Vii viii Contributors David J. Boyd Department of Anthropology University of California, Davis Davis, California United States Paula Brown Department of Anthropology State University of New York at Stony Brook Stony Brook, New York United States Boazi; Kiwai Mark Busse Papua New Guinea National Museum Boroko, National Capital District Papua New Guinea James G. Carrier Department of Anthropology University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia United States Laurence M. Carucci Department of Sociology Montana State University Bozeman, Montana United States MarshaU Islands Laklcai; Sengseng Ann Chowning Department of Anthropology Victoria University of Wellington Wellington New Zealand Brenda J. Clay Department of Anthropology University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky United States John Connell Department of Geography University of Sydney Sydney Australia Mandak Sisvai Usimo Leslie Conton Fairhaven College Western Washington University Bellingham, Washington United States Marjorie Tuainekore Crocombe University of the South Pacific Suva Fiji Ron Crocombe University of the South Pacific Suva Fiji Fore Chimbu Manus Cook Islands Cook Islands 4-ofnlTWULOTS William H. Davenport Santa Cna University Museum of Archaeology/Anthropology University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania United States William W. Donner Ontong Java Department of Anthropology Kutztown State University Kutztown, Pennsylvania United States A. L. Epstein TolWi Department of Social Anthropology University of Sussex Brighton, Sussex England Ellen E. Facey Nguna Department of Sociology and Anthropology Mount Allison University Sackville, New Brunswick Canada Richard Feinberg Anuta Department of Sociology and Anthropology Kent State University Kent, Ohio United States Edwin N. Ferdon, Jr. Tahiti Arizona State Museum University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona United States Raymond Firth Tikopia London England James G. Flanagan Wovan Department of Sociology and Anthropology University of Southern Mississippi Hattiesburg, Mississippi United States Karl J. Franklin Kewa Summer Institute of Linguistics Ukarumpa via Lae Papua New Guinea Deborah Gewertz Chambri Department of Anthropology-Sociology Amherst College Amherst, Massachusetts United States Michael Goldsmith Tuvalu Department of Politics University of Waikato Hamilton New Zealand ix x Contributors Jane C. Goodale Tian Department of Anthropology Bryn Mawr College Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania United States Ward H. Goodenough Tnak Department of Anthropology University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania United States Richard A. Gould Ngatjara Department of Anthropology Brown University Providence, Rhode Island United States Murray Groves Motu Department of Sociology University of Hong Kong Hong Kong C. R. Hallpike Tauadc Department of Anthropology McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario Canada David Hanlon Pohknpi Department of History University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii United States F. Allan Hanson Rapa Department of Anthropology University of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas United States Thomas G. Harding Sio Department of Anthropology University of California, Santa Barbara Santa Barbara, California United States Brigitta Hauser-Schiublin Abelam; Iatinul Institute of Ethnology University of Basel Basel Switzerland Terence E. Hays Gaiuku-Gama; Garia; Gogodala; Tairora; Tor Department of Anthropology Rhode Island College Providence, Rhode Island United States Contributors xi Karl G. Heider Dani Department of Anthropology University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina United States Gilbert Herdt Sambis Committee on Human Development University of Chicago Chicago, Illinois United States Antony Hooper Tokelau Department of Anthropology University of Auckland Auckland New Zealand Alan Howard Rotuma Department of Anthropology University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii United States Judith Huntsman Tokelau Department of Anthropology University of Auckland Auckland New Zealand Patricia L. Johnson Gainj Department of Anthropology Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania United States Margaret Jolly Pentecost Department of Anthropology Macquarie University North Ryde, New South Wales Australia Dan Jorgensen Telefolmin Department of Anthropology University of Western Ontario London, Ontario Canada Miriam Kahn Wamira Department of Anthropology University of Washington Seattle, Washington United States Roger Keesing Malafta Department of Anthropology McGill University Montreal, Quebec Canada xii Contributors Bruce M. Knauft Department of Anthropology Emory University Atlanta, Georgia United States Bemd Lambert Department of Anthropology Cornell University Ithaca, New York United States Joan C. Larcom Agency for International Development Washington, D.C. United States Rena Lederman Department of Anthropology Princeton University Princeton, New Jersey United States William A. Lessa Department of Anthropology University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, California United States David Levinson Human Relations Area Files New Haven, Connecticut United States Michael Lieber Department of Anthropology University of Illinois at Chicago Chicago, Illinois United States John Liep Institute of Anthropology University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark Lamont Lindstrom Department of Anthropology University of Tulsa Tulsa, Oklahoma United States Sherwood G. Lingenfelter Biola University La Mirada, California United States Jocelyn Linnekin Department of Anthropology University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii United States Kabingamarangi Rossel Island Tanna Yap Hawaiians Gebusi Kiribati Malekula Mendi Ulithi Easter Island; Tasmanians Nancy C. Lutkehaus Department of Anthropology University of Southern California Los Angeles, California United States Nancy McDowell Department of Anthropology Franklin and Marshall College Lancaster, Pennsylvania United States Kenneth McElhanon Asbury Theological Seminary Wilmore, Kentucky United States William H. McKellin Department of Anthropology and Sociology University of British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia Canada David F. Martin Department of Prehistory and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Australia Mervyn Meggitt Department of Anthropology Queens College Flushing, New York United States William E. Mitchell Department of Anthropology University of Vermont Burlington, Vermont United States George E. B. Morren, Jr. Department of Human Ecology Cook College, Rutgers University New Brunswick, New Jersey United States John Morton Department of Sociology La Trobe University Bundoora, Victoria Australia Mark S. Mosko Department of Anthropology Hartwick College Oneonta, New York United States Mundugunor Selepet; Wantoat MafMun Wik Mungkan Mae Enga Wape Miyanmin Aranda Mekeo Manam Contributors xiii xiv Contributors Steven Nachman Department of Sociology, Anthropology, Social Work Edinboro University of Pennsylvania Edinboro, Pennsylvania United States Philip L Newman Department of Anthropology University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, California United States Eugene Ogan Department of Anthropology University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota United States Richard J. Parmentier Department of Anthropology Brandeis University Waltham, Massachussetts United States James G. Peoples Department of Sociology and Anthropology Ohio Wesleyan University Delaware, Ohio United States Nicolas Peterson Department of Prehistory and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Australia Nancy J. Pollock Department of Anthropology Victoria University of Wellington Wellington New Zealand Jan Pouwer Rhenen The Netherlands Karl Rambo Norman, Oklahoma United States Margaret Rodman Department of Anthropology McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario Canada William Rodman Department of Anthropology McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario Canada Kurtachi; Nasioi Belau Kosrae Warlpiri Futuna; Nauru Mimika Chimbu Ambae Ambae Nissan Gururumba Contributors x Paul Roscoe Department of Anthropology University of Maine Orono, Maine United States Mountain Arajesh; Tongareia; Yangau Bolken David Routledge University of the South Pacific Suva Fiji Richard Scaglion Department of Anthropology University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania United States Harold W. Scheffler Department of Anthropology Yale University New Haven, Connecticut United States Wulf Schiefenhovel Forschungsstelle fur Humanethologie Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Andechs Germany J. W. School Institute of Cultural Anthropology Free University Amsterdam The Netherlands Andrew Strathem Department of Anthropology University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania United States Nicholas Thomas Department of Prehistory and Anthropology Australian National University Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Australia Robert Tonkinson Department of Anthropology University of Western Australia Nedlands, Perth, Western Australia Australia Charles F. Urbanowicz Department of Anthropology California State University, Chico Chico, California United States Kathleen Van Arsdale Englewood, Colorado United States Keral4' Orokolo; Tangu Choiswd Island EBo MuYs Melpa Marquesas Isands Mardujavra Tonga Ama xvi Contributors Peter Van Arsdale Graduate School of International Studies University of Denver Denver, Colorado United States J. Van Baal Doom The Netherlands Roy Wagner Department of Anthropology University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia United States Marind-anim Daribi Annette B. Weiner Department of Anthropology New York University New York, New York United States James F. Weiner Department of Social Anthropology Manchester University Manchester England Robert L. Welsch Department of Anthropology Field Museum of Natural History Chicago, Illinois United States Nancy M. Williams Department of Anthropology and Sociology University of Queensland Saint Lucia, Queensland Australia Donna Winslow Department d'anthropologie University de Montreal Montreal, Quebec Canada Trobriand Islands Foi Ningerum Murngin Ape James W. Wood Department of Anthropology Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania United States Michael Young Department of Anthropology Research School of Pacific Studies Australian National University Canberra, Australian Capital Territory Australia Marty Zelenietz Dartmouth, Nova Scotia Canada Dobu; Goodenough Island Kilenge Asn Preface This project began in 1987 with the goal of assembling a basic reference source that provides accurate, dear, and concise de- scriptions of the cultures of the world. We wanted to be as comprehensive and authoritative as possible: comprehensive, by providing descriptions of all the cultures of each region of the world or by describing a representative sample of cultures for regions where full coverage is impossible, and authori- tative by providing accurate descriptions of the cultures for both the past and the present. The publication of the Encyclopedia of World Cultures in the last decade of the twentieth century is especially timely. The political, economic, and social changes of the past fifty years have produced a world more complex and fluid than at any time in human history. Three sweeping transformations of the worldwide cultural landscape are especially significant First is what some social scientists are calling the 'New Diaspora"-the dispersal of cultural groups to new locations across the world. This dispersal affects all nations and takes a wide variety of forms: in East African nations, the formation of new towns inhabited by people from dozens of different ethnic groups; in Micronesia and Polynesia, the movement of islanders to cities in New Zealand and the United States; in North America, the replacement by Asians and Latin Amer- cans of Europeans as the most numerous immigrants; in Eu- rope, the increased reliance on workers from the Middle East and North Africa; and so on. Second, and related to this dispersal, is the internal divi. sion of what were once single, unified cultural groups into two or more relatively distinct groups. This pattern of internal di- vision is most dramatic among indigenous or third or fourth world cultures whose traditional ways of life have been altered by contact with the outside world. Underlying this division are both the population dispersion mentioned above and sus- tained contact with the economically developed world. The result is that groups who at one time saw themselves and were seen by others as single cultural groups have been trans- formed into two or more distinct groups. Thus, in many cul- tural groups, we find deep and probably permanent divisions between those who live in the country and those who live in cities, those who follow the traditional religion and those who have converted to Christianity, those who live inland and those who live on the seacoast, and those who live by means of a subsistence economy and those now enmeshed in a cash economy. The third important transformation of the worldwide cultural landscape is the revival of ethnic nationalism, with many peoples claiming and fighting for political freedom and territorial integrity on the basis of ethnic solidarity and ethnic-based claims to their traditional homeland. Although most attention has focused recently on ethnic nationalism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, the trend is nonethe- less a worldwide phenomenon involving, for example, Amer- can Indian cultures in North and South America, the Basques in Spain and France, the Tamil and Sinhalese in Sri Lanka, and the Tutsi and Hutu in Burundi, among others. To be informed citizens of our rapidly changing multicul- tural world we must understand the ways of life of people from cultures different from our own. 'We" is used here in the broadest sense, to include not just scholars who study the cul- tures of the world and businesspeople and government offi- cials who work in the world community but also the average citizen who reads or hears about multicultural events in the news every day and young people who are growing up in this complex cultural world. For all of these people-which means all of us-there is a pressing need for information on the cultures of the world. This encyclopedia provides this in- formation in two ways. First, its descriptions of the traditional ways of life of the world& apos;s cultures can serve as a baseline against which cultural change can be measured and under- stood. Second, it acquaints the reader with the contemporary ways of life throughout the world. We are able to provide this information largely through the efforts of the volume editors and the nearly one thousand contributors who wrote the cultural summaries that are the heart of the book. The contributors are social scientists (an- thropologists, sociologists, historians, and geographers) as well as educators, government officials, and missionaries who usually have firsthand research-based knowledge of the cul- tures they write about. In many cases they are the major ex- pert or one of the leading experts on the culture, and some are themselves members of the cultures. As experts, they are able to provide accurate, up-to-date information. This is crucial for many parts of the world where indigenous cultures may be overlooked by official information seekers such as govern- ment census takers. These experts have often lived among the people they write about, conducting participant-observations with them and speaking their language. Thus they are able