Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - P potx

... of India.Vol.9,pt.4,1.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Majumdar,D.N.(1972).HimalayanPolyandry:Structure,Functioning,andCultureChange,aField-Study of JaunsarBawar.NewYork: Asia PublishingHouse.Newell,WilliamH.(1967).Census of India,1961.Vol.20,HimachalPradesh,pt.5-B,TheGaddiandAffiliatedCastesintheWesternHimalayas,ReportonScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes.Delhi:Manager of Publications.Parry,Jonathan P. (1979).CasteandKinshipinKangra.Lon-don:RoutledgeandKeganPaul.234Peripateticsdeliverysystem,leavingsomeneedseitherunmetoronlypar-tiallymet.Theperipateticstrategyistoidentifysuchneedsandadapttothem.Specificgroupsareidentifiedwithpartic-ularoccupations.Thenumber of peripateticgroupsinIndiaisquitelarge.Abriefsurvey of two south Indianstatesin1967reported88differentperipateticgroupsascomparedto14groupsdiscoveredoverasix-monthperiodincertainparts of Pakistan.Otherstudieshavereported172groupsinnorth-ernKarnataka,40groupsinonenorthIndianvillage,and23ina south Indianvillage.Theexistence of suchalargenumber of peripateticgroupsandthevariety of rolestheyplaycanonlybeunder-stoodinthecontext of Indiansociety.IntraditionalIndia,goodsandserviceswereobtainedviathejajmanirelationship,weeklymarkets,periodicalfairs,pilgrimages,andperipatetics.Thus,peripateticswereonepart of thewidereconomicnetwork.Location.InIndia,peripateticsarefoundinalmostallparts of thecountry.Demography.AccordingtoaroughestimatemadebytheNomadicAssociation of India,thenumber of peripateticsinIndiawas6millionin1967,thoughthecategory of "nomad"wasnotspecificallydefined.Thisestimateaswellasothersmaybewildlyinaccurate,asnosystematiccount of peripa-teticshaseverbeenattempted.However,itcanbesafelyas-sumedthattheperipateticsconstitutealargegroupinIndia.linguisticAffiliation.Thenativelanguage of peripateticsisusuallythelanguagespokenintheir'homevillage"or"camp,"thoughmostspeakanumber of languagesanddia-lects.Forinstance,aperipateticgroupwithAndhraPradeshasits"homevillage"willspeakadialect of TeluguasitsnativetonguebutmayalsobeconversantinKannada,Marathi,andHindi.TheGaduliaLohar,aperipateticgroup of black-smiths,inadditiontospeakingdifferentdialects of Rajas-thaniandHindi,speakasecretlanguage of theirown.Thisistypical of manyperipatetics.HistoryandCulturalRelationsPeripateticgroupshavebeenpart of Indiancivilizationforhundreds of years.Evidence of peripateticartisansandenter-tainershavebeenfoundfortheearlyVedicperiod.BythelateVedicperiod(circa100 0-7 00B.C.)theRigVedareferstoanumber of specializedtraders,artisans,entertainers,profes-sionalacrobats,fortune-tellers,fluteplayers,dancers,jug-glers,snakecharmers,etc.TamilliteraturefromthefirstthroughsixthcenturyA.D.hasreferencestowanderingmusi-cians,dancers,fortune-tellers,andbeggars.Italsosuggeststhatsome of theperipateticsperformeddifficulttaskssuchasundertakinggoodwillmissionsfromonekingtoanotherorhelpingreconcilerivalkingsorbrothers.Incensuses,districtgazetteers,andotherdispatcheswrittenduringtheBritishpe-riod,thenomadicpopulationswereoftenreferredtoaspas-toralists,gypsies,orcriminals.Thissituationhasnowchangedsomewhat,althoughtheknowledgethatthesettledpeople of Indiahaveaboutperipateticsisstillminimal.Thereareseveralreasonsforthis,includingthesettledpeople'stypi-calsuspicion of allthosewhoaremobile,thenomads'efforttomaintainanambiguousposturewithreferencetothelargersocialsystem,andtheirattempttocultivateamystiqueaboutthemselves.Theperipateticgroupsareethnicallydiverseandmain-taintheiridentitieswithinthemilieu of Indiansociety.Eachperipateticgrouphasconsiderableautonomytoregulateitsownaffairs.Peripateticsadoptthestyle,dialect,andmediuminperformance of theirservicesandsupply of goodsthatbestappealtotheimagination of thepeople of theregiontheyserve.Forthemselves,peripateticsmakeconsciouseffortstoadoptappropriateregionalcustomsandbeliefs.Theyalsoclaimavagueandambiguouspositioninthevarna/jatiframe-work of theHinducastesociety.Withintheirowncasteclus-terstheymaintainadiffusedhierarchybasedontheconcept of purityandpollution,andtheyalsomaintainsomedegree of exclusiverightstotheiroccupations.Forexample,whileonegroup of genealogistsandbardsservesonlysomemiddle-levelcastes,othergroupsserveonlythelowestcastes.Thereby,theyreaffirmthehierarchicalstructure of thecastesystembutalsoenableeventhelowestcastetohaveaplaceinthesystem.Myth,language,ritual,kinship,andspecificoccu-pationsareusedtolegitimizeagroup'spositioninthecastehierarchyandtoensureitsperipateticniche.Casteendogamyandtheircastepanchayats(councils)playapivotalrole.Peo-plemaywanderfarandwideyettheyremainconnectedwiththeirspecificcastenorms.Inliterature,peripateticshavebeendescribedastravelingspecialistswhoprovideculturalvarietythatisotherwiselackinginIndianvillages,aspopularreligiousinstructors,ascommunicants of culture,andasthosewhocarrytheculture of theGreatTradition of Indiancivilizationtothelocalpeople.SettlementsSomeperipateticstravelduringonlypart of theyearandthenreturntotheir"homevillage,"whileotherstravelthroughouttheyear.Betweenthesetwoextremesanumber of variationsarepossible.In'homevillages"someliveinhousestypical of theregion,while ... otherscontinuetotakeshelterintheirbullockcarts,underclothorreedtents,oroutintheopenundertheskyastheydowhileonthemove.Sometakeshelterontemplepremisesaswell.Generally,peripateticsintensifytheirmovementsduringtheharvestseasonbecausetheywanttoobtaingrainaspaymentfortheirgoodsandservices.Theyalsobelievethatfarmersaremoregenerousatthistime of year.Duringtherainyseason,theleanseasonforperipatetics,theytendtoremainintheir"homevillages."Thetimeisusedforsettlingdisputes,negotiatingmarriagealliances,andplan-ningforthenextworkseason.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Peripateticsem-ployavariety of economicstrategies.Theygenerallyhaveoneormoreoccupationsforwhichtheyarewellknownandmayuseafewadditionalskillstosupplementtheirincome.Forex-ample,hunting,trapping,andfishingperipateticgroupsmayalsoindulgeinpettytrade,craftmaking,andbegging.Thear-tisancategoryincludesgroupssuchas:makers of baskets,broomsticks,palmmats,irontools,andneedles;stone.workers;andrepairers of householdutensilsandfarmtools.Themendicantcategoryincludesavariety of groups,suchasthosewhosingdevotionalsongs,chantincantations,beginthename of aspecificdeity,wearspecialmakeupandstandatpublicplacesintheposture of penanceorassadhus,ordis-playadeity.Several of thesegroupsbegonlyfromthemem-Peripatetics235bers of specificcastes.AccordingtoHindubeliefasadhudoesnothavetoworkforhislivelihood.Hecanlivebybiksha(religiousbegging).Seeingamendicantatone'sdoorstepinthemorningisconsideredauspicious.Givingalmsisachari-tableactbutreceivingalmsisequallymeritorious.Acrobats,magicians,musicians,snakecharmers,displayers of tricksbyanimalslikemonkeys,bears,etc.,puppeteers,storytellers,mimes,andthosewhoweardifferentmakeupallalsohaveseveralothersubsidiaryoccupations.Some of themmaytradeinanimals,fixshoesonbullockandhorsehoofs,orpolishcattlehorns.Somewomenmayindulgeinprostitution,serv-ingmembers of specificcastes.Thereareseveralothergroupswhohavedevelopedavariety of skillsincludingtattooers,ge-nealogists,fortune-tellers,buffalo-hairshavers,etc.Peddlersandtradersalsoformalargegroup.However,iftheirexploita-tion of aparticularresourcenichebecomeslessprofitableduetonewtechnologyorcompetition,theyswitchtoanewactiv-ityorsettledown.Inshort,forperipatetics,thehumanre-sourcebaseisubiquitousandexploitablewithaninfiniteva-riety of strategies.JosephC.Berlandhascalledit"themostpredictableandreliable of allthenichesinthe world today"(1983).Peripateticsareabletoavoidcompetitionfromthesed-entarypopulationorcompletelyeliminateitthroughtheirchoice of work,lowoverhead,variety of strategies,flexibleworkgroups,family-basedenterprises,potentialforchange of location,andabilitytoliveonlittleincome.Thesedentaryproviderisfurtherrestrictedbythecaste-basedrestrictions.Althoughtheperipateticnicheapparentlyisinexhaustibleandreliable,peripateticsaregenerallypoor.Theyarecontin-uouslyunderpressureastheiroccupationsaretakenoverbymodernindustryandthenumber of placeswheretheycancampdiminishes.Iffewerpeoplewerebeingforcedout of villages,thenumber of peripateticswouldbemuchlessthanitis.Trade.Someperipateticgroupstradeincattle.Suchgroupsintensifytheiractivitiesatthebeginning of theagri-culturalseason,whenthedemandforcattleishigh.Theytradeatweeklymarketsandfairs,wheretheycanalsoso-cializewithrelativesandfriends.Someperipateticgroupshavebeenabletofindnewavenues of trade.Forinstance,agroup of GaduliaLoharhavestartedtradinginscrapiron.Someotherperipateticgroupshavestartedproducingdecora-tiveitemssuchaschandeliers,papier-micUe,etc.,andnowpeddlethemincities.Division of Labor.Peripateticenterprisesarefamily-based.Iffemalesdonotparticipateinthemainoccupation of thegrouptheydosomeadditionalworktoenhancethein-come of thehousehold.However,domestictaskssuchascooking,fetchingwater,lookingafterinfants,etc.arefemalejobs.LandTenure.Onlyafewperipateticgroupsownland.Suchpeoplemoveout of theirvillagesonlywhenthelandisfallowortheyhavebeenabletoleaseit.Thegovernmenthasmadeanattempttosettlesomeperipateticgroupsbygivingthemhousesandland.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyKinship.Themostimportantkinshipgroupafterthehouseholdistheextendedfamily,whichmaytravelandcamptogetherforapart of theyearorfortheentireyear.Descentistracedpatrilineallythroughacommonancestor.Members of thelineagehavecertainresponsibilitiesandobligationsthatareexpressedduringlife-cycleritualsandparticularlyincrisissituations.Some of thegroupshavebands,withmembershipdeterminedbypatrilineal,matrilineal,andaffinalkintiesandbyfriendship.Marriage.Thereareawidevariety of rulesregardingmar-riage.Whilemost of thegroupsbasedincentralandsouthernIndiawouldalloworprefer'cross-cousinandevenuncle-niecemarriage,groupsinthenorth,west,andeastprohibitsuchmarriages.Theageatmarriageisgenerallylow.Postmaritalresidenceisalwayswiththeparents of ... IranandIndiaaswellasAfghanistan.Members of histriberuledamoretruncatedAf-ghanistanuntil1973.BritishinvolvementinPathanareaswasaconsequence of effortstoprotectthewesternborders of theirIndianempireandcheckthesouthernadvance of theRussians.In1879,followingtheSecondAnglo-AfghanWar,theAfghangovernmentconcededcontrol of allthepassesintoIndiatotheBritishandin1893theDurandLinewases-tablished,delineatingthespheres of responsibility of thetwogovernments.ItisnowtheinternationalborderdividingthePathanbetweentwonation-states.SettlementsWhilesomePathanarenomadicandothersurban,themajor-itydwellinvillages of 2to400families.Frequentlythevil-lagesclusteraroundalargertownandarealwayslocatedwithconcernfortheavailability of waterandfordefense.Settle-mentpatternsreflectlineagepoliticswithdominantlineagesholdingthechoiceorstrategiclands.Genealogicalclosenessdeterminesagroup'slocationrelativetothem.Nomadicgroupsareprimarilycattleherderswhomovewiththeseasonstofollowpasture.Theyfollowsetroutesandhavetraditionalcampingsites.Likethevillages,campsarestructuredaroundthetents of theseniorlineages.Housesaregenerallycon-structed of mudorsun-driedmudbrickscoveredwithmudplaster.Theonlyvaluableparts of thehousearethedoorsandthewoodbeamsthatsupportaflatroof of matscoveredwithmudandtwigs.Insmallvillageshouseholdsconsist of high-walledcompoundsfrequentlyresemblingfortresses,completewithtowersonthecomers.Aclearandstrictde-marcationisobservedbetweentheareas(hujra)wherethepublicmayenterandbeentertainedandthefamily'slivingspace.Womenaresecludedfromtheformer(accordingtotheIslamiccustom of purdah)andanimalsandgrainstoresarekeptinthelatter.Inthetraditionalstylenomadictentsarewovenfromblackgoat'shairandsupportedbypostsorarchedpolesandguyropes.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Agriculture,pri-marilygrainfarming,andanimalhusbandryarethemostim.portantactivitiesinthePathaneconomy.Thepractice of ag-ricultureislargelylimitedbytheroughterrainandaridcli-matetorivervalleys;elsewhere,itdependsonthescantrain-fall.Themostimportantcropiswheat,followedbybarleyandmaize.Cultivationisdoneprimarilybyhandorwithanimals,though,wherepossible,mechanizationistakingplace.Tradi-tionalirrigationtechniquessuchaskareezes,aseries of wellsconnectedbyanundergroundtunnel,areinmanycasesbeingreplacedbytubewells.Otherimportantagriculturalproductsarefreshanddriedorchardfruits,nuts,vegetables,opium,andhashish.Inadditiontoraisingstock,nomadsaswellassomefarmersengageintradeandmoneylending.Thepres-ence of theborderdividingPathanterritoryintotwocoun-triesalsomakessmugglingalucrativepursuit.Domesticatedanimalsincludebothfat-tailedandshort-tailedsheep,goats,cattle,waterbuffalo,chickens,camels,donkeys,andhorses.IndustrialArts.Manyindustrialactivitiessuchascarpen-try,bricklaying,andshoemakingaredonebypart-timePashtunspecialistswhoalsofarm.However,inmanyareasnon-Pathanoccupationalgroupscarryouttheseactivities,aswellasotherssuchasweaving,blacksmithing,andgoldsmith-ing.Anexceptionisthemanufacture of guns;incertainareas,notablyDarraAdamKhel south of Peshawar,Pathansproducegunsinsmallfactories.Trade.VillagesinPathanareashaveuntilrecentlybeenlargelyself-sufficient.TraditionallytradeandevenfarmingwereactivitieslookeddownuponbyPathanswhosawraid-ing,smuggling,andpoliticsashonorablepursuits.Inareaswheresuchattitudespersist,tradeiscarriedoutbynon-Pathan(frequentlyHindu)shopkeepersandpeddlersorthroughbarterwithnomads.Despitethesetraditions,inlargetownsandurbanareasPathanshaveearnedreputationsassuccessfultradersandbusinessmen.Division of Labor.Thestrictobservance of purdahresultsinamarkeddivision of laborbetweenthesexes.Althoughruralwomenmayparticipateintheharvesting of crops,theyremainprimarilyinsidethecompoundwheretheyareex-pectedtodothetraditionalhometasks of rearingchildren,maintainingthehouse,cooking,etc.Indeed,purdahisfre-quentlyobservedtosuchanextentthatwomenarenotal-lowedtogooutinpublictodotheshopping;thus,theshop-pingisalldonebymen.Purdahislessstrictlyobservedbynomadicgroups.LandTenure.Inthearid,low-yieldregionsthesmalllandholdingsareself-cultivatedbythemalik(pettychieforhouseholdelder)andhissons.Inareas of greaterproductiv-ity,wherekhans(villageortribalchiefs)ownlargertracts,tenantsdothework.Tenantsreceiveabout20percent of theproductiftheyonlysupplylaborandhigherpercentagesiftheysupplyimplementsordraftanimals.Untilearlythiscen-turyintheSwatandMardanvalleystheequality of thePathanclanswasunderlinedbythecustom of weshbywhichtheyperiodicallyredistributedlandbetweenthemselves.Thisinvolvedphysicallyshiftinghouseholdsandbelongingstootherparts of thevalleys.ExcesspopulationfromPathanareashastraditionallylefttheareatoserveasmercenariesinthearmies of India,toworkastenantsonthelands of othersor,morecurrently,toactaslaborersorentrepreneursinthecities of PakistanorthePersianGulfstates.230Parsiclaimedconductor of theIsraelPhilharmonic,NewYorkPhil-harmonic,andotherorchestras.ThecomposerKaikhosruShapurjiSorabji(189 2-1 991)mayalsobementioned,ifonlybecausehis500-pagepianocomposition,SymphonicVaria-tions,whichtakessixhourstoperform,holdsthedistinction of beingthelongestclassicalcompositionknown.Medicine.ThereisnodistinctParsimedicalsystem.DeathandAfterlife.ParsisexposetheirdeadtovulturesonTowers of Silence(dokhma),althoughifapersondieswherenosuchtowerexists,thenburialorcremationisprac-ticed.Usuallybuiltonahilltop,thedokhmaisaroundstoneorbrickstructureabout15metershighandperhaps100me-tersacross,withaninternalplatformonwhichsitthreeranks of stoneslabs,forthebodies of men,women,andchildren,slopingdowntowardacentraldrywell.Thebearersplaceabodythereandwithinanhourorsovulturesreduceittobones.Somedayslaterthecorpsebearersreturnandthrowthebonesdownthecentralwell.Ithassandandcharcoalinit,thepurpose of thecharcoalbeingtoprotecttheearthfromthepollution of death.Zoroastriansbelieveintheimmortality of thesoul.Itremainsaroundthedeadbodyforthreedays,dur-ingwhichtimeceremoniesareperformedforthedead.Atthebeginning of thethirdnightthesoulwillbejudgedbythespir-itualjudgeMitraattheChinvatBridgebetweenthis world andthenext.Ifone'sgoodactionsoutweighone'sevilactionsonewillproceedtoHeaven;iftheyareequallyweightedonewillproceedtoaplacelikePurgatory;andifonehasbeenanevilpersononewillbecastdownintoHell.Attheend of timeZoroastriansbelievethattherewillbeaLastJudgmentmedi-atedbyafutureSavior,leadingtotheTransfiguration of theDead,whowillberesurrectedinbodiescladinglory.Thees-chatologicalfaith of thisdoctrineisonecomponent of Zoroastrianismthathasexercisedawidespreadanddeepinflu-enceonother world religions.SeealsoGujuratiBibliographyGnoli,Gherardo(1986)."Zoroastrianism."InTheEncyclo-pedia of Religion,editedbyMirceaEliade.Vol.15,57 9-5 91.NewYork:Macmillan.Kulke,Eckehard(1974).TheParseesinIndia:AMinorityasAgent of SocialChange.Munich:WeltforumVerlag.Modi,JivanjiJamshedji(1922a)."Parsis."InTheTribesandCastes of Bombay,editedbyR.E.Enthoven.Vol.3,17 7- 221.Bombay:GovernmentCentralPress.Reprint.1975.Delhi:CosmoPublications.Modi,JivanjiJamshedji(1922b).TheReligiousCeremoniesandCustoms of theParsees.Bombay:BritishIndiaPress.2nded.1937.Bombay:J.B.Karani'sSons.Reprint.1986.Bom-bay:SocietyforthePromotion of ZoroastrianReligiousKnowledgeandEducation.W.D.MERCHANTPathanETHNONYMS:Afghan,Pashtun,Pukhtun,RohillaOrientationIdentification.ThePathaninhabitsouthernandeasternAfghanistanandwesternPakistan.TheirlanguageisPushto(Pashto)and,exceptforasmallminority,theyareSunniMuslims.Pathandynastiesconstitutedand,untilrecently,havecontrolledthetribalkingdom of Afghanistan,anddur-ingsomeperiodsPathanorAfghanmonarchsestablishedtheirruleontheIndianplains.Location.ThePathaninhabitanarearoughlyboundedbyKabulinthenortheastandHeratinthenorthwest.ItextendsasfareastastheIndusRiverandinthe south anapproximateboundarycanbedrawnfromSibithroughQuettatoQanda-har.PathantribesliketheMohmand,Wazirs,Sulemankhel,andAchakzaisactuallystraddletheinternationalborder.Thetopography of theareaisprimarilymountainous,consisting of apart of theAlpine-HimalayanmountainrangeincentralAfghanistanandtheSulaimanrangeinPakistan.TotheeastPathanterritoryextendsontotheIndusPlainandinthe south ontotheIranianPlateau.Theclimate of Afghanistanissemiaridwithcoldwintersanddrysummers.TheeasternPathanareasareaffectedbythehumidityandrain of theIn-dianmonsoons.InadditionPathanliveinandcontributetosociallifeincertainareas of IndiansuchasRampur(Rohilla)andcitieslikeBombay.Demography.The1984population of Pushtospeakerswasapproximately20million.Thisincludes11millionnativetoPakistanand9millionoriginatinginAfghanistan.Because of thecivilwarthathaspersistedinAfghanistansince1979,roughly2millionPathanshaveleftforPakistanasrefugees.ThePathanconstitutedfrom50to60percent of thepopula-tion of prewarAfghanistan.Asthelargestandmostinfluen-tialethnicgroup,thePathanhavedominatedthesocietyandpolitics of thatcountryforthepast200years.Otherimpor-tantethnicminoritiesinAfghanistanincludetheHazaras,Tajiks,andUzbeks.Sincetheseparation of BangladeshfromPakistan,thePathanconstitutePakistan'ssecond-largestethnicgroup.AccordingtoPakistan's1981census13per-cent of thenation'shouseholdsarePushto-speaking.Pun-jabismakeupthemajority of Pakistan'spopulation;otherim.portantlinguisticgroupsareSindhis,Baluchis,andUrduspeakers.LinguisticAffiliation.PushtoisintheIranianBranch of theIndo-EuropeanLanguageFamily.Thetwoprincipaldia-lects,whichdifferinpronunciation,areSouthwesternorQandahariPushtoandNortheasternorPeshawariPukhto.MostPathansinAfghanistanspeakDari,adialect of FarsiorPersian,...

... landforcultivation.ShiftingagriculturethattheBhilspracticedwasendedbygovernmentmeasuresthatbroughtpressuretosettlepermanentlyandfarmthelandsallocatedtothem.Landholdingsrangefrom1.2to6hectareswithfruitandnontimbertreesconsideredaspart of thepropertyiftheowner'sfatherhadharvestrightstothem.Timbertreesaretheproperty of thestate.PropertytaxesarepaidtothegovernmentannuallyandtheBhilsrarelyfallbehindinthesepayments,forfear of offendingthegoddess of earthandbringingmisfortuneupontheircrops.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Withineach3 2- to4 0- kilometerradius,thelimits of atribalanddialectalboundary,theBhilaredividedintoataks(clans),patrilinealexogamousdescentgroups.Clansareledbychiefswhohaveparamountpowerinmattersconcerningtheclanorcaste.Theseclansmaybesegmented,witheachportiondistributedamongsimi-lardivisions of otherclansoverawidearea.Aprocess of fis-sionappearstobequiteactivelyinvolved,resultingindisper-sion of thepolysegmentaryclans.Clanshipappearstohavepracticallynoregionalorcorporatefunction.Thestructuralimportance of clanshipislimited,apparently,toservingasguidelinesfordeterminingtheextent of exogamyas ... herfathertothat of herhusband.Mar-riageismonogamousandisexpectedtobeforlife.Adulterywastraditionallypunishablebythedeath of bothpartiesin-volved.Marriagetoanon-Baluchiisrigidlyproscribed.Post-maritalresidenceispatrilocal.Inheritance.Allheritablepropertypassesfromfathertosons.Socialization.Baluchmayar,or"theBaluchiWay,"istheguidingprinciple of properconductfortheBaluchipeople.Itisasort of honorcode,entailingtheextension of hospitality,mercy,refuge,andhonestytoone'sfellows,anditisreaf-firmedintheoraltraditions of Baluchisongandpoetry.Chil-drenlearnproperbehaviorthroughobservingtheireldersandthroughbeingsubjecttotauntandgossipshouldtheybehavebadly.SociopoliticalOrganizationBaluchsocietyisorganizedbothintokin-basedclansandterritoriallydefinedtribes.Onecouldclaimaroughcorre-spondencebetweentheclanandthesocialhierarchyasdis-tinctfromthetribeandthemorespecificallypoliticalsphere,butthiscorrespondenceisnotabsolute.TheBaluchipeopleareanamalgam of manylargeunits,orchieftaincies,eachone of whichisitselfcomposed of anestedset of smalleror-ganizationalunits.Fromlargesttosmallest,theseconstituentunitscanbestbeunderstoodasclans,clansections,andsub-sections-withsmallersegments of thislastdivisionbeingthelevelthatmostcloselycorrespondstoactualsettlementunits.Ateachlevel of thishierarchy,leadershipisinthehands of amaleelder.Attheleastcomprehensivelevel,suchleadershipisaslikelytobeachievedasinherited,butovertimeauthorityatthemoreinclusivelevelshasdevolvedtotheelders of whathavebecomehereditary"chieflyclans"(Sar-darkel).Bythefifteenthcentury,theSardarkelformedtheor-ganizationalfoci of alooselyunderstoodfeudalsystem,whichhaddevelopedintoaset of semiautonomoussovereignprin-cipalitiesbytheeighteenthcentury.Duringtheimperialpe-riod,theSardarkelservedasmediatorsbetweenBritishandlocalinterests,losingagreatdeal of theiroriginalautonomyintheprocess.However,asaresult of theirparticipationinsecuringtheinterests of therulingpower,muchlandandwealthaccruedtothesegroups,establishinganewandmorepurelyeconomicbasisfortheirleadershiprole,aswellasal-lowingthemtodevelopsomething of amonopolyoveraccesstothelargerpoliticalsystemswithinwhichtheBaluchipeo-plenowfoundthemselves.Asa"stateless"people,theBaluchipoliticalpresenceistodaysomewhatattenuated.Inthe1970sand1980s,anumber of groupssprangupinthename of Baluchinationalism,buttheiractivitieshavebeenlargely of aguerrillanatureand,asyet,theyhavebeenunabletosecureinternationalsupportfortheircause.SocialControl.AlthoughMuslim,theBaluchidonotin-vokeSharia(Islamiclaw)todealwithsocialtransgressions.Rather,secularauthorityisvestedinthetraditionaltriballeaders(Sardars)andconductedaccordingtoRawaj,whichisbasedontheprinciples of Baluchmayar.Theultimatetradi-tionalsanctionwasprovidedbythemechanism of thebloodfeud,invokedbytheclantoavengethewrongfuldeath of one of itsmembers.Capitalpunishmentwasalsotraditionallyap-pliedincases of adulteryorthetheft of clanproperty.Refusaltocomplywiththesociallyprescribednorms of hospitalityispunishablebyfinesimposedbythelocalelders.Pardonformanysocialinfractionscanbeobtainedbytheintercession of femalerepresentatives of theoffender'sfamily.In ... hemustlearntoreadtheclassicalArabiclanguage)caneventuallybecometheworshipleader(mullahorimam) of alocalmosqueifsochosenbythecongregation.Furtherstudy of theQuranand of Muslimlaw(thesharia)mayqualifyamantobeareligiousleaderwithawiderfollowing,greaterstature,andsometimessignificantpoliticalinfluence.Bengali29Roland,Joan(1989).JewsinBritishIndia.Waltham,Mass.:BrandeisUniversityPress.Strizower,Schifra(1971)."VerbalInteractionamongtheBeneIsrael."InternationalJournal of theSociology of Language13:7 1-8 5.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1988)."TheInfluence of CasteIdeologyinIsrael."InCulturalTransition,editedbyM.Gottesman,15 0- 161.Jerusalem:MagnesPress.SHALVAJ.WEILBengaliETHNONYMS:Bangali,Bangladeshi(formerlyBengalee,Baboo)OrientationIdentification.TheBengalipeoplespeaktheBengali(Bangla)languageandliveintheBengalregion of theIndiansubcontinentlocatedinnortheastern South Asia, andmostfolloweithertheHinduortheMuslimfaith.TheBengalre.gionisdividedpoliticallybetweenthenation of BangladeshandtheIndianstate of WestBengal.BengalisthemselvesrefertotheirregionasBangladesh,meaningsimply'theBen-galihomeland,"atermadoptedbythepeople of easternBengalwhentheywonsovereignindependenceforthenation of Bangladeshin1971.ThenativeethnictermforthemselvesisBangli -of which"Bengali"isananglicization.However,Bengaliswhoarecitizens of BangladeshwillalsomostreadilycallthemselvesBangladeshi.Location.Lyingatthenorth of theBay of Bengalandroughlybetween22"and26°Nand86°and93°E,theBengalregionconsistslargely of avastalluvial,deltaicplain,builtupbytheGangesRiverandwateredalsobytheBrahma-putraRiversystemoriginatingintheeasternHimalayaMountains.Asinmuch of South Asia, monsoonwindsbringarainyseasonthatcanlastfromApriltomid-November.Bengal'stotalareaisapproximately233,000squarekilo-meters, of whichabout38percent(justunder89,000squarekilometers)isinIndia,theremaining62percent(144,000squarekilometers)constitutingthenation of Bangladesh.Demography.Accordingtothelastavailable(1981)cen-suses,India'sWestBengalcontainedsome47millionpeople(35percent)andBangladesh86millionpeople(65percent)claimingtobeprimaryspeakers of theBengalilanguage,withthetotal of around133millionconstitutingthe"cope"ethnicBengalipopulation.Tothistotalmustbeaddedatleastan-other7millionBengalispeakerslivinginadjacentornearbystates of India-Assam,3million;Bihar,2million;Tripura,1.4million;Orissa,378,000;Meghalaya,120,000;andNaga-land,27,000-formingakind of "Bengalidiaspora"that,al-thoughconcentratedinnortheastern South Asia, isactuallyworldwide,withlargenumbers of Bengalislivingasimmi-grantsintheUnitedStates,UnitedKingdom,andCanada.Insum,Bengaliscomprisedapopulation of about140mil-lionin1981,onewhichcanbeexpectedtohavegrownbyatleast25percentbythetimedatafrom1991censusesbe-comesavailable.Bengalispeakersmakeup85percent of thepopulation of WestBengal,whichotherwiseishometoanadditional9millionnon-Bengalipeople.Most of thesearefromotherparts of India,livinginthemetropolis of Calcutta,thestatecapital,buttherearesignificantnumbers of non-Bengalipeoplelocallyclassedas'tribals"inruralWestBengalaswell.Bangladeshisfarmorehomogeneous;allbut1percent of itspeopleidentifythemselvesasBengali.Most of theremaining900,000consist of non-Bengaliethnicgroupsalsolocallydesignatedas"tribal,"andthemajority of thesearespeakers of Tibeto-Burmanandotherminoritylanguages,oftenlivinginborderareas of thecountry.Somespeakers of dialects of Hindi-UrduremaininBangladeshaswell.OverallpopulationdensitiesinWestBengalwererecordedat615peoplepersquarekilometerin1981,rangingfrom466insomeruralareasto56,462inurbanlocalities(especiallyCal-cutta).InBangladeshoveralldensitiesreached624personspersquarekilometerby1981,risingto2,179intheurbanareas(especiallyDhaka,thenation'scapital),butalsoregis-teringaquitehigh693personspersquarekilometerinpart of thecountryside.LinguisticAffiliation.Likemost of thelanguages of northern South Asia, BengalibelongstotheIndo-Iranian(sometimesalsocalledIndo-Aryan)Branch of theIndo-EuropeanFamily.DescendedfromancientSanskrit,Bengalicontainsforty-sevensounds:elevenvowels,twenty-fivecon-sonants,foursemivowels,andseven"breathsounds"(includ-ingsibilantsandaspirates).Itsscript,alsoSanskrit-derived,containsfifty-sevenlettersymbols.TheBengalilanguageisassociatedwithalongliterarytradition,prideinwhichisamajorfactorinBengaliethnicandnationalidentity.ABen-gali,RabindranathTagore,wasthefirstAsiantoreceivetheNobelPrizeforliterature(in1913).Theliterarylanguagewithwhicheducatedspeakersarefamiliaris,however,quitedistinctfromtheurbanandruralspeech of thelesswelledu-cated.Theeasterndialects of Bengali,notablythosespokenintheSylhetandChittagongdistricts of Bangladesh,differquitenoticeablyfromthoseheardinWestBengal.HistoryandCulturalRelationsBengalismentionedasadistinctregion of South Asia insome of theearliestHindutexts,andthroughoutthefirstmil-lenniumAD.itwasgovernedbyasuccession of BuddhistandHindurulers.Islamicarmiesarrivedintheregioninthelatetwelfthandearlythirteenthcenturies,andgradualMuslimconquest-culminatinginMughalruleafter1576-setthestageforwidespreadconversion of thelocalpopulationtoIslam,especiallyineasternBengal.Notlongthereafter,Euro-peancontactwith,andcompetitionforpoweron,theIndiansubcontinentbegan,andtheBritishperiod of India'shistoryisusuallydatedfromEngland'stakeover of theadministra-tion of Bengalin1757.Lastinguntil1947,BritishrulehadaprofoundimpactonBengalicultureandsociety,especiallywiththeintroduction of Englishasthemedium of highered-ucationafter1835.HindusrespondedmorerapidlythandidMuslimstoopportunitiesprovidedbyEnglisheducation,and56Burushoherhusbanddivorceher.Childrenremainwiththemother(untiltheyreachtheage of 10)ifadivorceisgranted.Duringthistime,thehusbandisrequiredtoprovidechildsupport.Widowsmustwaitthreemonthsandsevendaysafterthedeath of aspousebeforeremarrying.Thewaitforawidoweristwomonthsandsevendays.Polygynyisnotprohibited.DomesticUnit.Smallextendedfamilies(theprocreatedfamily of oneindividualintheseniorgenerationandthose of atleasttwointhenextgeneration)withlimitedpolygynyarethenorm.Inheritance.Thefather of afamilyownsall of thefamilyproperty.Hemaychoosetodividehispropertyamonghisoff-springbeforehisdeathoritmaybedividedafterhedies.Uponhisdeath,hisestateisdividedequallyamonghissons.Sonsmaychoosetoworkanylandinheritedtogether(i.e.,asagroup)ortheymaydivideitamongthemselves.Sonsbysec-ondwivesinheritagrandson'sshare.Theyoungestsoninher-itsthefamilydwelling.Provisionisusuallymadesothattheeldestsoninheritsthebestland.Adaughterisnotpermittedtoinheritproperty.Shemaybeallowedtheuse of certainpropertyduringherlifetime.Unmarrieddaughtersmustbecaredfor(includingtheprovision of adowry)bytheestate of adeceasedfather.Apricottrees(andtheirproduce)areoftenwilledtodaughters.Socialization.Thesocialization of childrenisaresponsi-bilitysharedbybothparents,withthebulk of itbeingas-sumedbythemother.Siblingsalsoshareinthistask.In1934,apublicschoolsystemwasdonatedandputintoplacebytheAgaKhan,thusplacingpart of theburdenforchildrearingonteachers.SociopoliticalOrganizationBurushosocietycontainsfiveclasses:theThamo(royalfam-ily);theUyongko/Akabirting(thosewhomayoccupyoffices of state);theBar/Bare/Sis(landcultivators);theShadarsho(servants);andtheBaldakuyo/Tsilgalasho(bearers of bur-densfortheThamoandUyongko).TheBericho(Indianblacksmithsandmusicians),whomaintaintheirowncus-tomsandspeaktheirownlanguage(Kumaki),arealsoanim-portantpart of Burushosocialstructure.AgeandgenderstratificationdonotobtainamongtheBurusho.Thehead of stateisthemir,whoseauthorityinallmat-tersisabsolute.Heisassistedinthedispatch of hisdutiesbyagrandvizier.Mirsareresponsibleforthedistribution of jus-ticeaswellasthemaintenance of localcustomsandtribalfes-tivals.Avillagearbob(chief)andchowkidar(sergeantatarms)areappointedforeachvillage.Khalifasareappointedbythemirtopresideatimportantoccasionsinthelife of theindividualandthecommunity.IthasbeennotedthatatonetimeretainerstocertainvillagerswerepaidbytheBritishgov-emmentforoccasionalservicesandthatcertainofficialswithinavillagewerechargedwiththecare of visitors.Thethreat of deportation(forthepurpose of engaginginpublicservicetothemirorforthecompletion of publicworks)andtheimposition of finesaretheprimarymeans of maintainingsocialcontrol.ExternalrelationsbetweentheBurushoandotherpeopleshavebeenstable.Intervillageri-valryischannelednonviolentlyintopolomatches.Althoughtheattitudes of theBurushotowardtheirneighborsinNagirarelessthanfriendly,armedconflictisfarfromnormal.BothHunzaandNagirsupportedthemilitaryactionthatledtotheannexation of theregiontoPakistan.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefsandPractices.TheBurushohavebeenMuslimformorethan300years.Theyareadherents of theIs-mailisect(headedbytheAgaKhan)andhavemadesuchmodificationsinreligiousbeliefandpracticeastorenderthissystem of Islamicbeliefpracticablewithintheirsocialanden-vironmentalsetting.NosystematizedeschatologicalsystemexistsamongtheBurusho.Itisgenerallybelievedthatatsomepointinthefuturethelivingandthedeadwillbere-united.Bitaiyo(maleandfemaleprognosticators)foretellthefuturebyinhalingthesmoke of burningjunipertwigs.NoprofessionalpriesthoodexistsamongtheBurusho.Themirappointsseveralliteratemenaskhalifastoofficiateatburials,weddings,andnamingceremonies.Theseindividualsdonotperformthesedutiesonafull-timebasis.Religiousceremonyplayslittlepartinthedailylife of theBurusho.Ritualprayerandfastingarepracticedbysome.Whilelittleisknown of pre-Islamicreligiouspractices,itisbelievedthatatonetimesacrificewasofferedtotheboyo(divinitiesthoughttooccupyaplaceabovethefortatHini).Thecommunalweddingcere-monyheldon21Decemberisalsoanimportantpart of theBurushoritualcycle.Arts.Embroideryandwoodcarvingmaybenotedasexam-ples of Burushovisualart.Dancingandmusic(bothbeingimportantcomponents of Burushoceremoniallife)areat-tested.Thesamecanbesaid of dramaticart,performancesbeingsponsoredoncertainspecialoccasions.Burushooralliteraturecontainsfolklore(indigenousandborrowed),anec-dotes,andsongs.Medicine.Avariety of naturalsubstances(roots,herbs,andberries)isusedformedicinalpurposes.Accesstoscientificmed-icineisalsoavailable.ThebeliefisstillheldbysomeBurushothatsupernaturalsplayamajorroleinthecause of humanill-ness.Indigenousmedicalpractitionersarelacking.BibliographyClark,J.(1963)."HunzaintheHimalayas:StoriedShangri-LaUndergoesScrutiny."NaturalHistory72:3 8-4 5.Lorimer,DavidL.(193 5-1 938).TheBurushaskiLanguage.3vols.InstituttetforSammenlignendeKulturforskning,SerieB:Skifter,29, 1-3 .Oslo:H.Aschehoug&Co.(W.Nygaard):Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress.Lorimer,E.0.(1938)."TheBurusho of Hunza."Antiquity12: 5-1 5.Lorimer,E.0.(1939).LanguageHuntingintheKarakoram.London:GeorgeAllen&Unwin.O'Leary,TimothyJ.(1965)."BurushoCulturalSummary."NewHaven,Conn.:HumanRelationsAreaFiles.Tobe,JohnH.(1960).AdventuresinaLand of Paradise.Emmaus,Pa.:RodaleBooks.HUGHRPAGE,JRBengali31Trade.Asnotedabove,periodiclocalmarketsdottheBengalcountryside,andtheseinturnarelinkedtoperma-nent,dailymarketsinlargerprovincialtownsandultimatelytomajorurbancommercialcenters.Manypeasantsengageinpettymarketingtosupplementtheirprimaryoccupation,butlarge-scaleaccumulationandtransportation of majorcrops,especiallyriceandjute,andartisanproductsaretypicallycar-riedoutbywholesalerswhomovefrommarkettomarket.Aselsewherein South Asia, someHinducastegroupsspecializeincertainkinds of tradeandcommercialtransactions(e.g.,thoserelatedtogoldandotherjewelryorspecificconsump-tionitemsotherthanrice).BecauseBengalpossessesalaby-rinthinenetwork of rivers,providingboattransportationtoandbetweenriversidecentersisamajoractivityformany.Commerceisoverwhelminglymale-dominated,sinceadultwomenareusuallyrequiredtolimittheiractivitiestotheirhomesteadsandimmediatesurroundingsandthusarenotpermittedtoengageinsignificanttradingactivity.Division of Labor.Thedivision of laborbybothgenderandoccupationalspecializationishighlymarkedthroughout South Asia, includingBengal,particularlysointheruralareas.Regardless of aruralfamily'soccupationalspecialty,menengageinactivitiesthattakeplaceoutsidethehome,whilewomenarelimitedtothosethatcanbeperformedwithinitsconfines.Thus,forexample,inrice-farmingfami-liesmenperformalltheworkinthefields-plowing,plant-ing,weeding,andharvesting-andoncethecropisbroughtintothehomesteadwomentakeupthetasks of threshing,drying,andhuskingthecrop.Asimilarkind of intra-(versusextra-)homesteaddivision of laborbygenderoccursinfami-lieswithnonagriculturaloccupationalspecializations.Notsurprisingly,domesticandchild-rearingtasksfallwithinthewomen'sdomainaswell.Thedegreetowhichwomenareper-mittedtoworkoutsidethehomeis,however,relatedtotheeconomicandsocialstatus of thefamily.Apoororlandlessfarmer'swifemayspendpart of herdayprocessingagricul-turalgoodsinawealthierhousehold,forexample,tosupple-mentherfamily'smeagerincome,andamongthelower-rankedservicecastes(seebelow)thetabooonwomenworkingoutsidethehomeisconsiderablylessstrict.In...

... asbybanyans,pipals,bananas,andpapayas.SubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themajorcropsondrylandterracesaremaize,accountingforhalf of thehar-vest,wheat,anddryrice.Withtheexception of asmallamount of maize,theirrigatedterracesareplantedtorice.OvertheyearstheMagarshavealsomadeuse of buckwheat,hulledbarley,mustard,potatoes,sugarcane,bananas,arumlilies,radishes,sesame,lentils,beans,pumpkins,cucumbers,carrots,cauliflowers,cabbages,onions,tomatoes,yams,chil-ies,andtobacco.Inadditiontherearemanykinds of fruitandtreeswithleavessuitableforfodder,twoplantsprovidingleavesusefulasplates,andthreeplantsusedforfencing.All of BanyanHill'stillage,dryorirrigated,iswithinahalf-hour'swalkfromanyhouse.Thesameistrue of placeswheretherearetreesforfirewoodandgrassforcuttinghayorthatch.Waterforirrigationanddomesticuseisspring-fedandplentiful.Thecattlepopulationincludesbuffalo,cowsandcalves,andbullocks.Therearealsogoats,pigs,andhorses,andafewfamileskeepbeehivesandchickens.Buffaloarestall-fedandareseldomtakenfromtheirshedexcepttobebred.ThesayinginBanyanHillthat"everyonegetsenoughtofillhisbelly"doesnotmeanthateveryfamilyobtainsenoughgrainfromitsownlandtomeetevenitsminimumneeds.Itmeansratherthatifthefamilydoesnothaveasufficientlylargegrainincome,itcanmakeupthedeficitbyborrowingorbysendingoneormorefamilymemberstoworkashiredla-borers.Inthe1960s,onlyseven of BanyanHill'sfamilieshadtillagesolargeandproductivethatitprovidedasalablesur-plus.Thisproblemstillexiststoday.Familieswhoarenotamongthefortunatefewwithadequatelandhavetopurchaseorborrowgraininamountsvaryingfromwhatisrequiredtosupportanadultforayeartotheverylittleneededtofeedaguestonceremonialoccasions.Evenhouseholdsthatarecomparativelywell-offbecausetheyhavedrylandholdingsthataremorethanadequatemaylackpaddylandandthere-forehavetobuyrice.Mostpeopleprefertoselljewelryratherthansuffertheignominy of servingricelessmealstoguests.Themajority of thefamiliesalsoneedanincomegreaterthantheirlandcanproducesothattheycanbuytheservices of Munda183MarriageandFamilyMarriage.ApartfromtheAsur,Kora,Mahali,andpossi-blyTuri,allMundagroupshavepositivemarriagerules.AmongtheKoraputgroupstheprescribedcategoryinmar-riageisthebilateralcrosscousin(usuallyexcludingfirstcous-ins),butfarthernorththeprescribedcategoryismoreusuallytranslatableasa"sibling'sspouse'ssibling";oftentheindige-noustermalsocoversreferentsbelongingtothegenealogicallevels of thegrandparentsorgrandchildren(thoughtheynonethelessmaybe of roughlythesameageasEgo).Prefer-encesforasibling'sspouse'ssiblingusuallygowithadelay of onetothreegenerationsinrenewingalliancesbetweenthesamealliancegroups.Inmostcases(butexcludingtheHoandsomeSantal),spouseexchangeisoverallsymmetricratherthanasymmetric.Alliancegroupsarenormallyagnati-callydefinedbutmaybevillagesratherthandescentgroups.Indeed,because of theagnaticidentity of mostvillages,vil-lageexogamyisnormallyrequired,andnegotiations,celebra-tions,andprestationsfrequentlyinvolvethewholevillage,notjusttheprincipalsandtheirimmediatefamilies.Bride-price,notdowry,isthenorm.Howmuchchoice of partnertheprincipalsareallowedvariesfromtribetotribe:sometribeshaveyouthdormitoriesforbothsexes,thoughthesedonotnecessarilytakechoiceout of thehands of theparents(e.g.,notamongtheJuang).Therearenumeroustypes of weddingceremony,somesimpler,othersmore'Hindu."Resi-denceisnormallyvirilocal,thoughalltribesallowapooryouthtoliveuxorilocallywith(andeventuallyinheritfrom)hissonlessfather-in-law.Monogamyisthenorm,thoughthereissomepolygyny,especiallysororal(wife'sclassificatoryyoungerbutnoteldersister).Juniorlevirate,ortheinheri-tance of aman'swidowbyhisclassificatoryyounger(notelder)brother,isacommonlyrecognizedandinsometribesvirtuallymandatorypractice.Divorceandtheremarriage of divorcedandwidowedpeoplearenormallyallowed,eventhough,likethelevirate,thesearedistinctlylow-statusprac-ticesinIndiagenerally.DomesticUnit.Bothnuclearandextendedorjointfami-liesarefound,thoughasinglefamilyoftenoscillatesbetweenthedifferentforms,asnewmembersarebornandoldonesdie,orasquarrelssplitthemup.Forthehunting-and-gatheringBirhor,thetanda(band)istheunit.Inheritance.Irrigatedland,userightsregardingswiddens,thefamilyhome,fruittrees,andmostmovablesareinheritedinthedirectpatrilinealline.Theeldestsonreceivesthemost,thoughnotnormallyeverything,asthenewhead of thefam-ily(hemayberesponsibleforthewelfare,marriageexpenses,etc., of hisyoungersiblings,forexample).Insomecases,thesonswhohaveremainedathomearefavored(theyoungestsonsamongtheSoraandsomeSantal,forinstance).Inde-fault of sons,theclosestcollateralagnateoranuxorilocallylivingson-in-law(theghar-jawae-seeabove)inherits.Thereissomematrilinealinheritance of femaleclothesandorna-ments,butwomencannotinheritland,becausetheymarryout of theclan.Socialization.Infantsarebroughtupbytheirparentswiththehelp of eldersiblings,butitistheformerwhoaremainlyresponsibleforsocialization.Otheropportunitiesarepro-videdbychildrenwatchingandeventuallyhelpingwiththedailywork,andtheeldersplaytheirpartbytellingmythsandotherfolktalesonritualandotheroccasions.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Wehavealreadyseenthatmanytribesareinternallydividedbecause of someritualfaultordisagreementovercustom,etc.TheBirhor,Korwa,andsomeAsurdistinguishsettledgroupsfromnomads.Mosttribesdis-tinguishlandowningclansfromtenantclanswithuserightsonly,thoughsincetheclansinvolvedvarywiththevillage,thisdoesnotentailatribewideclasssystem.Santalclansareunusualinbeingrituallyranked,andthereissomehypergamybetweenthem.Inalltribes,villageofficerscommandamarkeddegree of respect,thoughthisrarelyleadstoaclasssystemortohypergamybetweenthemandtheordinaryvil-lagers(theSoraareanexceptioninthisregard).Kinshipre-mainsthebasis of socialorganization,andthereareanumber of ritualizedfriendshipsforbothmenandwomen,betweenvillagesandeventribes,thatareassimilatedtoit.Althoughalltribesdistinguishaffinesfromagnates(i.e.,marriageablefromnonmarriageablepersons),thesearerelativedesigna-tionsonly:despitethesystem of affinalalliance,therearenosociocentriccategories of thesortassociatedwithdualorgan-izationorfour-sectionsystems of someAustralianAboriginalpeoples.TheJuangandpossiblyothertribeshaveasystem of generationmoietiesinwhichEgo'sgenerationislinkedwiththose of hisgrandparentsandgrandchildreninoppositiontothesetformedbythose of hisparentsandchildren.Thisim-pingesonbothstereotypedbehaviorandmarriagechoices:jokingisonlyallowedwithmembers of one'sownmoiety,whichisalsothatfromwhichone'sspousemustcome(andeventhentherearenumerousexceptionsinbothregards),whileavoidanceorrespectinbehaviorandavoidance of mar-riageandsexualrelationsisenjoinedtowardmembers of theoppositemoiety.PoliticalOrganization.TheelectedgovernmentgrampanchayatwasintroducedinthisregionsoonafterIndepen-dencein1947,butitoftenhastocompetewiththetradi-tionalvillageassemblyorpanchayat.Thisconsists of theheadman,otherofficials,andtypicallyhouseholdheadsatleast,ifnotallmalesinthevillage.Itisunusualbutnotun-known(e.g.,amongtheSantal)forwomentoparticipateindecisionmaking,thoughtheyareoftencalledtogiveevi-denceindisputes.Theheadmanshipandotheroffices(as-sistantheadman,messenger,etc.)aremostlyhereditaryinthemaleline,thoughtheremaybeanelectiveelementinthechoice,andtheeldestsoncanalwaysbereplacedifbelievedtobeunsuitable.Villageheadmenarenomorethanfirstamongequals,fortheyhavetoconsultthepanchayatonallimportantmattersandareremovableformisconductorin-competence.InChotaNagpur,thoughnotKoraput,villagesareoftengroupedintofederations(oftencalledpirh),whichmayhaveoriginatedasregionalclancouncils,especiallysincetheirmainconcernisbreaches of therule of clanexogamy.Thereisscarcelyanyinstitutionalexpression of tribalunitytoday(thoughsometribeshadkingdomsoratleasttribalas-sembliesinthepast),andtribalidentityisnowonlyamatter of languageorperhapsacommonoriginmyth.SovereigntyandmostauthoritynowliewiththeIndiangovernment.180MogulappearedinIndia.Insodoinghewasfollowingafamilytradi.tion.Hisancestors,ChenghizKhanandTimurtheLame,hadbothinvadedIndia,theformerinthethirteenthandthelatterinthefourteenthcentury.Neither of theseinvasionshadanylastingeffects,thoughBaburdeclaredthattheprin.cipalobject of hisinvasionwastorecoverthelostpossessions of hisfamily.Babur'srulestartedin152 6-1 530.ItshortlyfelltoHumayun(153 0-1 540),wholostcontroltoanAfghanchieftain,SherShah(153 9-1 545).HissonAkbar(155 6- 1605)foughttheAfghanchallengeatPanipat(1556)andextendedtheempiretoincludealllandbetweenAfghanistanandtheDeccan.Akbar'stimewasaperiod of religiousfree-dom,inwhichapolicy of conciliationwaspursuedwiththeRajputstates.AlkbarwassucceededbyJehangir(160 5-1 627)andShahJehan(162 7-1 658).ItslastgreatemperorwasAu-rangzeb(165 8-1 707),whoextendedthelimits of theempirefarther south. TheempiredisintegratedunderMarathaandBritishpressure.Itslastemperor,BahadurShah11(183 7- 1857),wasexiledbytheBritishtoRangoonafterthe1857uprising.Thesplendorandstability of theMogulreignwereduetothesuccession of thosecapablerulers.Theyattemptedtobuildupanefficientadministrativesystem,andtheychosetheirprincipalofficerswithcareandonthebasis of merit.Anumber of factorswereresponsibleforwhatappearstohavebeenthesuddencollapse of theMogulauthorityafterthedeath of Aurangzeb,butonecausewaspredominant.TheMogulsmaintainedapowerfulempireforcenturiesandes-tablishedagovernmentandasocialorganizationimpressivebyAsiaticstandards,buttheywerenotabletokeeppacewiththerapid,almostcataclysmicchangesthatweretakingplaceinintellectualmatters,militaryorganization,instruments of offenseanddefense,andotherfactorsthatcontributetothestabilityandprosperity of astate.TheintellectualrevolutioninwesternEurope,thenewspiritandthenewdiscoveries,andthewidediffusion of knowledgeresultingfromtheintro-duction of printinghadreleasedforcesthatwereboundtore-sultinEuropeandomination.SeealsoMuslim;Pathan;Sayyid;SheikhBibliographyGascoigne,Bamber(1971).TheGreatMoghuls.NewYork:Harper&Row.Haig,Wolseley,andRichardBurn,eds.(1937).TheCam-bridgeHistory of India.Vol.4,TheMughulPeriod.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Hansen,Waldemar(1972).ThePeacockThrone:TheDrama of MogulIndia.NewYork:Holt,Rinehart&Winston.Majumdar,R.C.,J.N.Chaudhuri,andS.Chaudhuri,eds.(1984).TheMughulEmpire.TheHistoryandCulture of theIndianPeople,no.7.Bombay:BharatiyaVidyaBhavan.ALLIYAS.ELAHIMoor of SriLankaETHNONYMS:Marakkala,Musalman,Sonakar,SonarAconsensusonthenameforSriLankaMuslimshasnotbeenarrivedat.Theappellation"Moor"(fromthePortu-guese)isnotusedbythepopulationtoidentifythemselves.TheSinhaleseusetheterm"Muslim"or'Marakkala"afteraleadingMuslimfamilyname.SriLankaMuslimsoccasionallycallthemselves'Sonakar"or'Sonar,"thereforesettingthem-selvesapartfromtheMuslims of south India.TheUrduap-pellation"Musalman"isusedprincipallyaroundtheCo-lomboarea(theSriLankancapital).Ingovernmentpublicationsthedesignation"Tamil"impliesHinduorChris-tian;MuslimsarelistedasMoors.Themotivationispolitical,torepresentalargerproportion of SinhalesetoTamilspeak-ersinthepopulation.Muslimsrepresent7.36percent of thetotalpopulation of SriLanka(1989).SriLankaMuslimsrepresentanumber of differentethnicgroups,three of whicharerecognizedinthe1984governmentcensus:SriLankaMoors(1.1million);Malays(60,000);andIndianMoors,themajority of whomareethnicTamilsfromsouthernIndia(40,000).Tamilistheestablishedtongue of theSriLankaMoors.Inrecentyears,because of politicalconsiderations,manyhavelearnedtheSinhalalanguageandsomechildrenstudyitinschool.AhandfulspeakSinhalainthehillareasathome;however,Tamilremainsthelanguage of educationforthemajorityupthroughtheuniversitylevel.Allreligiousliteratureandser-monsaregiveninTamil.MalaysspeakMalayathome,al-thoughtheydonotwriteit,andtheyprefertoeducatetheirchildreninEnglish.Withtheexception of theBohras,whoareShiites,all of theothergroupsareSunniMuslims.SoonaftersettlinginIndia,MuslimArabsbeganarrivingintheeighthcentury.Accordingtolegend,theyestablishedthemselvesinBentottaandmarriedSinhalawomen.Bythetenthcentury,theywereapowerfulmerchantclass.Accord-ingtothehistorianIbnBattuta,inthethirteenthcentury,ColombowasaMuslimcity,while ... therights of thechiefs,theauthority of thevillagecounciloverthelandwasfinallyestablished.Itdistributeslandtoeachfamilyforswiddencultivationandforresidence.Inthetowns,plots of landforpermanentownershiparedistributedinresponsetoindividualapplication.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Therearetwooverallprinciplesthatgovernkinshippracticesastheyrelatetosocialorganiza-tion:(1)allfemalesmovingout of one'sownfamilythroughmarriagearecategorizedtogetherandtheirhusbandsalsostandasagroupinrelationtoEgo;(2)thefemaleswhocomeintotheagnategroup of Egoformagroup,andthereforemalerelatives of theincomingfemalegrouparedesignatedbythesameterm,withoutmakinganydistinction of generationandseniority,andalltheirspousesalsoformagroup.Allkinhelpintheconstruction of ahouse,assistinmarriageanddeathceremonies,andgettheirshare of abride-priceandthemeat of animalskilledduringamarriage.Descentispatrilineal.KinshipTerminology.Kinshipterminologyis of theOmahatype.Withinthecircle of closerkinthesystemworksaccordingtothebifurcate-mergingprinciple.Therearetwenty-twokinshipterms.Therange of thisterminologyislimitedtotwogenerationsaboveandtwogenerationsbelow.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Traditionallypolygamywasallowed,butmo-nogamyhasbeenstrictlyenforcedbythevariouschurches.Marriageisbycourtship,aninstitutionalizedpractice,withthechoices of boysandgirlsapprovedbytheparents.Premar.italsexiscommonthoughnotappreciated.Tribalendogamyisonlynormative;deviationsdooccur.Cross-cousinmarriageisallowedbutwithlessfavortowardmarriagewithafather'ssister'sdaughter.Payment of bride-priceatmarriageisacom-plicatedaffair.Incertainareasatraditionalpractice of shar-ingportions of killedanimalsatafeastamongtheagnaticaswellasaffinalkinisstillrigidlyfollowed.Followingmarriagethemarriedeldersonhashishousebuiltandlivesseparately.Theprocessgoesonuntiltheyoungestsonmarries,afterwhichhecontinuestoresidewithhisparents.Divorceiscom-mon,easy,andfavorabletotheman,anditcanbegrantedforalmostanyreason.Inalldivorcesoccurringbeforeawomanbearsachild,thebride-priceisreturnedtotheman.Adi-vorcedwomanusuallykeepsaninfantwithheruntilthereisademandforthechildfromtheman.DomesticUnit.Mizosdonotdistinguishbetweenhouse-holdandfamily.Thepeoplewholivetogetherunderoneroofandeatfromthesamehearthbelongtoonefamily.Theaver-agesize of afamilyisbetweensixandsevenpeople.Thenu-clearfamilyisthecommontype.Thevertico-horizontaltype of familytendstosplitintotwosections,thenuclearfamilyandthestemfamily.Thelife of thevertico-horizontaltype of familyistheshortest.ThisEgo-centeredcyclicchangeisauniquefeature.Usuallythefamilyconsists of aparent of themalehead of thefamily,themalehead,hisspouse,andhischildren.Inheritance.Mizospracticemaleultimogeniture:theyoungestsonremainswithhisparentstilldeathtobecometheheir.Allmovableandimmovablepropertybelongstoamale,exceptcertainpersonalarticles of femalesthatremainwomen'sproperty.Throughmatrifiliationawoman'sprop-ertyispassedtoherdaughter.Socialization.Childrengrowupwiththeirparentsandpa-ternalgrandparents.Noseriousdistinctionismadebetweenboysandgirlsduringearlychildhood.Femaleinfanticideendedmorethansixtyyearsago.Mizosputmuchemphasisonteachingthechildtodevelopasense of groupcooperationandChristianvalues.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Mizosocietyishierarchicallyorgan-izedonthebasis of age,sex,standard of living,andknowl-edge.Thosewhoworkinhighofficesinurbanandruralareasrankabovethosewhoworkintheswidden.Thosewhoareas-sociatedwiththeleadinglocalchurchareheldinhighesteem.PoliticalOrganization.MizoramisastateintheRepublic of India.Mizoramhasthreedistricts:Chhimtuipui,Lunglei,andAizawl.Inthelattertwo,Mizosociopoliticalactivitiesdominate.Eachvillagehasacouncilheadedbyapresident.158Magarmakingthereturnprocessionmoreconspicuous.Insuchcasesthereisatailortobeatadrumand,ascompanionsandfoodcarriersforthecouple,avirgingirlfromthebride'sline-ageandamanmarriedtoagirlfromthegroom'slineage.Thesetwocarrycurd,friedbread,beer,andrice-basedliquor.Furtherelaborationatthegroom'shouseincludestheuse of oneormoreBrahmanstoconductVedicrites.ManyBanyanHillmarriagesareremarriagesforbothspouses.Nosocialopprobriumisattachedtothewomanwhomarriesasecondtime(ari),nortothewomanwhomarriesforathird(sari),butonewhomarriesforafourthtimeisre-ferredtobyaterm(phundi)thatconnotessexuallooseness.Secondandthirdmarriagesentertherealm of politics.Beforesuchmarriagesarerecognizedaslegal,thedesertedhusbandhastobecompensated.Theamountisnegotiatedbythecou-ple'sheadmen.Adesertedhusbandwhosewifehasmarriedafourthtimecannotclaimcompensation.Toavoidtheexpense of amarriageceremonytheparents of avirgingirlsometimesarrangetohaveherabductedbyaboytheyapprove of asason-in-law."Captures"-marriagesthathavenotbeenarrangedbythegirl'sparents-alsooccur,butnotfrequently.Theabductorknowsthatthemarriageisnotlegalandthatifheisnotapproved of bythegirlandherparents,theyhavelegalrecourse.HusbandandWife.Inmanywaystherelationshipbe-tweenhusbandandwifeisbiasedinfavor of thehusband.Whenshemarries,awifeleaveshernatalhomeandmovestoherhusband's.Inmanydailysituationssheisexpectedtoshowherhusbanddeference.Forinstance,ifheislateinre-turninghome,shefeedsthechildrenbutherselfrefrainsfromeatinguntilhecomeshome.Inthemorningshegetsupbe-forehedoesandcarriesoutaritualthatimpliessheiswor-shipinghimasifhewereagod.Shepoursspeciallydrawnwaterregardedaspureoverone of hisbigtoesandintoone of herpalms,andthenshetouchesthewatertoherlips.Al-thoughintheseandmanyotherinstancesthewifehasasub-ordinaterole,somefactorsstrengthenthewife'spositioninrelationtoherhusbandandhisfamily.Forabriefperiodthenewlymarriedcouplelivewiththehusband'sparents,butsoontheyalmostalwaysmovetoahouse of theirown.Thisallbuterasesthepossibilityforacontinuingservantlikerela-tionshipwithanauthoritativemother-in-law.Anotherim-portantsupportforthewifeisthegift(pewa)herparentsusu-allypresenttoherwhenshemarries.Oftenitconsists of livestocksuchasgoats,cows,orbuffalo.Chickensarealsoacommonpewa.Wealthierparentssometimesgiveland,suchasapaddyfield.Whateverthegift,ahusbandhasnorighttoit:itprovidesawifewithanindependentsource of income,smallorlarge,anditmaybetransferredbyherinherwillorbeforeherdeathtowhomevershewishes.Furthersupportliesinthefactthatatmarriageawomanacquiresashare of herhusband'sproperty,tobehersifsheiswidowedoraban-doned.Thebirths of childrendiminishthesize of hershare,sinceatbirththeyalsoacquirerightstoaportion of thees-tate.Butsolongasshedoesnotremarry,awife'sshareishersuntilherdeath.Onlythendoesitreverttoherhusband'ses-tate.Itissignificanttoothatnatalhomes of mostwivesarenotmorethan8kilometersdistant.Wivesgohomeoften,andthetietoparentsandbrothersisfrequentlystrengthenedbyexchange of gifts.Awifesometimesreturnsfromafuneralforsomeoneinhernatallineagewithacoworacalftobeaddedtoherpewa.Twopathsareopentoawifewhoisnothappywithherhusband:shemayreturntohernatalhomeorrunawaywithanotherman.Veryoftenthefirstoptionisaprecursor of thesecond.Themajority of themarriagesaremonogamous,butcir-cumstancessometimesleadtopolygyny.Themostcommonreasonisdesireforasoninasonlessfirstmarriage.Gender-BasedDivision of Labor.Women'spositioninMagarsocietyisenhancedbytheessentialandmany-facetedparttheyplayinthedomesticeconomy.Aftermenplowthefields,womenbreakuptheclodswithmattocks.Theyplantandweed,carrywood,water,andmanure.Theycareforthefarmanimalsanddothemilking.Althougholderwomendonotclimbthetallesttreestocollectfodder,theydogatherheavyloads of leavesfromthebushesandlow-growingtrees.Fromtimetotimewomenworkheavymillstoextractoilfrommustardseed.Theyspendmuch of everydayprocessingfood.Intheveryearlymorningtheyoperatethegrindingstonesandhullingbeamsandwinnowawaythechaff.Theyalsospendhourssquattingbythefirepitdoingthecooking.Otherwork,suchasplowing,isstrictlyreservedformen,butmanytasksmaybedonebyeithermenorwomenandoftenaredonebybothtogether.Husbandsandwivesoftenjoiningroupfishing,andalthoughwomenmostlyoperatethehullingbeams,whenthereismuchhullingtobedone,menfrequentlyhelp.Menwithoutdaughtersdothecookingwhentheirwivesaremenstruating,andmenalsocookwhentravel-ingwithoutwomen.Socialization.Magarchildrenarebornintohomeswheretensionsbetweenadultsareusuallyminimalandchildrenaredesiredandliked.Itistruethattraditionallyaboywasmorewantedthanagirl,yetdaughtershavealwaysbeenhighlyre-gardedandtreatedwithmuchaffection.Unmarriedgirls of thefamilyandlineagehavehighritualvalue.Giftsgiventothemareconsideredtobelikegiftstogoddessesandare ... asbybanyans,pipals,bananas,andpapayas.SubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themajorcropsondrylandterracesaremaize,accountingforhalf of thehar-vest,wheat,anddryrice.Withtheexception of asmallamount of maize,theirrigatedterracesareplantedtorice.OvertheyearstheMagarshavealsomadeuse of buckwheat,hulledbarley,mustard,potatoes,sugarcane,bananas,arumlilies,radishes,sesame,lentils,beans,pumpkins,cucumbers,carrots,cauliflowers,cabbages,onions,tomatoes,yams,chil-ies,andtobacco.Inadditiontherearemanykinds of fruitandtreeswithleavessuitableforfodder,twoplantsprovidingleavesusefulasplates,andthreeplantsusedforfencing.All of BanyanHill'stillage,dryorirrigated,iswithinahalf-hour'swalkfromanyhouse.Thesameistrue of placeswheretherearetreesforfirewoodandgrassforcuttinghayorthatch.Waterforirrigationanddomesticuseisspring-fedandplentiful.Thecattlepopulationincludesbuffalo,cowsandcalves,andbullocks.Therearealsogoats,pigs,andhorses,andafewfamileskeepbeehivesandchickens.Buffaloarestall-fedandareseldomtakenfromtheirshedexcepttobebred.ThesayinginBanyanHillthat"everyonegetsenoughtofillhisbelly"doesnotmeanthateveryfamilyobtainsenoughgrainfromitsownlandtomeetevenitsminimumneeds.Itmeansratherthatifthefamilydoesnothaveasufficientlylargegrainincome,itcanmakeupthedeficitbyborrowingorbysendingoneormorefamilymemberstoworkashiredla-borers.Inthe1960s,onlyseven of BanyanHill'sfamilieshadtillagesolargeandproductivethatitprovidedasalablesur-plus.Thisproblemstillexiststoday.Familieswhoarenotamongthefortunatefewwithadequatelandhavetopurchaseorborrowgraininamountsvaryingfromwhatisrequiredtosupportanadultforayeartotheverylittleneededtofeedaguestonceremonialoccasions.Evenhouseholdsthatarecomparativelywell-offbecausetheyhavedrylandholdingsthataremorethanadequatemaylackpaddylandandthere-forehavetobuyrice.Mostpeopleprefertoselljewelryratherthansuffertheignominy of servingricelessmealstoguests.Themajority of thefamiliesalsoneedanincomegreaterthantheirlandcanproducesothattheycanbuytheservices of Munda183MarriageandFamilyMarriage.ApartfromtheAsur,Kora,Mahali,andpossi-blyTuri,allMundagroupshavepositivemarriagerules.AmongtheKoraputgroupstheprescribedcategoryinmar-riageisthebilateralcrosscousin(usuallyexcludingfirstcous-ins),butfarthernorththeprescribedcategoryismoreusuallytranslatableasa"sibling'sspouse'ssibling";oftentheindige-noustermalsocoversreferentsbelongingtothegenealogicallevels of thegrandparentsorgrandchildren(thoughtheynonethelessmaybe of roughlythesameageasEgo).Prefer-encesforasibling'sspouse'ssiblingusuallygowithadelay of onetothreegenerationsinrenewingalliancesbetweenthesamealliancegroups.Inmostcases(butexcludingtheHoandsomeSantal),spouseexchangeisoverallsymmetricratherthanasymmetric.Alliancegroupsarenormallyagnati-callydefinedbutmaybevillagesratherthandescentgroups.Indeed,because of theagnaticidentity of mostvillages,vil-lageexogamyisnormallyrequired,andnegotiations,celebra-tions,andprestationsfrequentlyinvolvethewholevillage,notjusttheprincipalsandtheirimmediatefamilies.Bride-price,notdowry,isthenorm.Howmuchchoice of partnertheprincipalsareallowedvariesfromtribetotribe:sometribeshaveyouthdormitoriesforbothsexes,thoughthesedonotnecessarilytakechoiceout of thehands of theparents(e.g.,notamongtheJuang).Therearenumeroustypes of weddingceremony,somesimpler,othersmore'Hindu."Resi-denceisnormallyvirilocal,thoughalltribesallowapooryouthtoliveuxorilocallywith(andeventuallyinheritfrom)hissonlessfather-in-law.Monogamyisthenorm,thoughthereissomepolygyny,especiallysororal(wife'sclassificatoryyoungerbutnoteldersister).Juniorlevirate,ortheinheri-tance of aman'swidowbyhisclassificatoryyounger(notelder)brother,isacommonlyrecognizedandinsometribesvirtuallymandatorypractice.Divorceandtheremarriage of divorcedandwidowedpeoplearenormallyallowed,eventhough,likethelevirate,thesearedistinctlylow-statusprac-ticesinIndiagenerally.DomesticUnit.Bothnuclearandextendedorjointfami-liesarefound,thoughasinglefamilyoftenoscillatesbetweenthedifferentforms,asnewmembersarebornandoldonesdie,orasquarrelssplitthemup.Forthehunting-and-gatheringBirhor,thetanda(band)istheunit.Inheritance.Irrigatedland,userightsregardingswiddens,thefamilyhome,fruittrees,andmostmovablesareinheritedinthedirectpatrilinealline.Theeldestsonreceivesthemost,thoughnotnormallyeverything,asthenewhead of thefam-ily(hemayberesponsibleforthewelfare,marriageexpenses,etc., of hisyoungersiblings,forexample).Insomecases,thesonswhohaveremainedathomearefavored(theyoungestsonsamongtheSoraandsomeSantal,forinstance).Inde-fault of sons,theclosestcollateralagnateoranuxorilocallylivingson-in-law(theghar-jawae-seeabove)inherits.Thereissomematrilinealinheritance of femaleclothesandorna-ments,butwomencannotinheritland,becausetheymarryout of theclan.Socialization.Infantsarebroughtupbytheirparentswiththehelp of eldersiblings,butitistheformerwhoaremainlyresponsibleforsocialization.Otheropportunitiesarepro-videdbychildrenwatchingandeventuallyhelpingwiththedailywork,andtheeldersplaytheirpartbytellingmythsandotherfolktalesonritualandotheroccasions.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Wehavealreadyseenthatmanytribesareinternallydividedbecause of someritualfaultordisagreementovercustom,etc.TheBirhor,Korwa,andsomeAsurdistinguishsettledgroupsfromnomads.Mosttribesdis-tinguishlandowningclansfromtenantclanswithuserightsonly,thoughsincetheclansinvolvedvarywiththevillage,thisdoesnotentailatribewideclasssystem.Santalclansareunusualinbeingrituallyranked,andthereissomehypergamybetweenthem.Inalltribes,villageofficerscommandamarkeddegree of respect,thoughthisrarelyleadstoaclasssystemortohypergamybetweenthemandtheordinaryvil-lagers(theSoraareanexceptioninthisregard).Kinshipre-mainsthebasis of socialorganization,andthereareanumber of ritualizedfriendshipsforbothmenandwomen,betweenvillagesandeventribes,thatareassimilatedtoit.Althoughalltribesdistinguishaffinesfromagnates(i.e.,marriageablefromnonmarriageablepersons),thesearerelativedesigna-tionsonly:despitethesystem of affinalalliance,therearenosociocentriccategories of thesortassociatedwithdualorgan-izationorfour-sectionsystems of someAustralianAboriginalpeoples.TheJuangandpossiblyothertribeshaveasystem of generationmoietiesinwhichEgo'sgenerationislinkedwiththose of hisgrandparentsandgrandchildreninoppositiontothesetformedbythose of hisparentsandchildren.Thisim-pingesonbothstereotypedbehaviorandmarriagechoices:jokingisonlyallowedwithmembers of one'sownmoiety,whichisalsothatfromwhichone'sspousemustcome(andeventhentherearenumerousexceptionsinbothregards),whileavoidanceorrespectinbehaviorandavoidance of mar-riageandsexualrelationsisenjoinedtowardmembers of theoppositemoiety.PoliticalOrganization.TheelectedgovernmentgrampanchayatwasintroducedinthisregionsoonafterIndepen-dencein1947,butitoftenhastocompetewiththetradi-tionalvillageassemblyorpanchayat.Thisconsists of theheadman,otherofficials,andtypicallyhouseholdheadsatleast,ifnotallmalesinthevillage.Itisunusualbutnotun-known(e.g.,amongtheSantal)forwomentoparticipateindecisionmaking,thoughtheyareoftencalledtogiveevi-denceindisputes.Theheadmanshipandotheroffices(as-sistantheadman,messenger,etc.)aremostlyhereditaryinthemaleline,thoughtheremaybeanelectiveelementinthechoice,andtheeldestsoncanalwaysbereplacedifbelievedtobeunsuitable.Villageheadmenarenomorethanfirstamongequals,fortheyhavetoconsultthepanchayatonallimportantmattersandareremovableformisconductorin-competence.InChotaNagpur,thoughnotKoraput,villagesareoftengroupedintofederations(oftencalledpirh),whichmayhaveoriginatedasregionalclancouncils,especiallysincetheirmainconcernisbreaches of therule of clanexogamy.Thereisscarcelyanyinstitutionalexpression of tribalunitytoday(thoughsometribeshadkingdomsoratleasttribalas-sembliesinthepast),andtribalidentityisnowonlyamatter of languageorperhapsacommonoriginmyth.SovereigntyandmostauthoritynowliewiththeIndiangovernment.180MogulappearedinIndia.Insodoinghewasfollowingafamilytradi.tion.Hisancestors,ChenghizKhanandTimurtheLame,hadbothinvadedIndia,theformerinthethirteenthandthelatterinthefourteenthcentury.Neither of theseinvasionshadanylastingeffects,thoughBaburdeclaredthattheprin.cipalobject of hisinvasionwastorecoverthelostpossessions of hisfamily.Babur'srulestartedin152 6-1 530.ItshortlyfelltoHumayun(153 0-1 540),wholostcontroltoanAfghanchieftain,SherShah(153 9-1 545).HissonAkbar(155 6- 1605)foughttheAfghanchallengeatPanipat(1556)andextendedtheempiretoincludealllandbetweenAfghanistanandtheDeccan.Akbar'stimewasaperiod of religiousfree-dom,inwhichapolicy of conciliationwaspursuedwiththeRajputstates.AlkbarwassucceededbyJehangir(160 5-1 627)andShahJehan(162 7-1 658).ItslastgreatemperorwasAu-rangzeb(165 8-1 707),whoextendedthelimits of theempirefarther south. TheempiredisintegratedunderMarathaandBritishpressure.Itslastemperor,BahadurShah11(183 7- 1857),wasexiledbytheBritishtoRangoonafterthe1857uprising.Thesplendorandstability of theMogulreignwereduetothesuccession of thosecapablerulers.Theyattemptedtobuildupanefficientadministrativesystem,andtheychosetheirprincipalofficerswithcareandonthebasis of merit.Anumber of factorswereresponsibleforwhatappearstohavebeenthesuddencollapse of theMogulauthorityafterthedeath of Aurangzeb,butonecausewaspredominant.TheMogulsmaintainedapowerfulempireforcenturiesandes-tablishedagovernmentandasocialorganizationimpressivebyAsiaticstandards,buttheywerenotabletokeeppacewiththerapid,almostcataclysmicchangesthatweretakingplaceinintellectualmatters,militaryorganization,instruments of offenseanddefense,andotherfactorsthatcontributetothestabilityandprosperity of astate.TheintellectualrevolutioninwesternEurope,thenewspiritandthenewdiscoveries,andthewidediffusion of knowledgeresultingfromtheintro-duction of printinghadreleasedforcesthatwereboundtore-sultinEuropeandomination.SeealsoMuslim;Pathan;Sayyid;SheikhBibliographyGascoigne,Bamber(1971).TheGreatMoghuls.NewYork:Harper&Row.Haig,Wolseley,andRichardBurn,eds.(1937).TheCam-bridgeHistory of India.Vol.4,TheMughulPeriod.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Hansen,Waldemar(1972).ThePeacockThrone:TheDrama of MogulIndia.NewYork:Holt,Rinehart&Winston.Majumdar,R.C.,J.N.Chaudhuri,andS.Chaudhuri,eds.(1984).TheMughulEmpire.TheHistoryandCulture of theIndianPeople,no.7.Bombay:BharatiyaVidyaBhavan.ALLIYAS.ELAHIMoor of SriLankaETHNONYMS:Marakkala,Musalman,Sonakar,SonarAconsensusonthenameforSriLankaMuslimshasnotbeenarrivedat.Theappellation"Moor"(fromthePortu-guese)isnotusedbythepopulationtoidentifythemselves.TheSinhaleseusetheterm"Muslim"or'Marakkala"afteraleadingMuslimfamilyname.SriLankaMuslimsoccasionallycallthemselves'Sonakar"or'Sonar,"thereforesettingthem-selvesapartfromtheMuslims of south India.TheUrduap-pellation"Musalman"isusedprincipallyaroundtheCo-lomboarea(theSriLankancapital).Ingovernmentpublicationsthedesignation"Tamil"impliesHinduorChris-tian;MuslimsarelistedasMoors.Themotivationispolitical,torepresentalargerproportion of SinhalesetoTamilspeak-ersinthepopulation.Muslimsrepresent7.36percent of thetotalpopulation of SriLanka(1989).SriLankaMuslimsrepresentanumber of differentethnicgroups,three of whicharerecognizedinthe1984governmentcensus:SriLankaMoors(1.1million);Malays(60,000);andIndianMoors,themajority of whomareethnicTamilsfromsouthernIndia(40,000).Tamilistheestablishedtongue of theSriLankaMoors.Inrecentyears,because of politicalconsiderations,manyhavelearnedtheSinhalalanguageandsomechildrenstudyitinschool.AhandfulspeakSinhalainthehillareasathome;however,Tamilremainsthelanguage of educationforthemajorityupthroughtheuniversitylevel.Allreligiousliteratureandser-monsaregiveninTamil.MalaysspeakMalayathome,al-thoughtheydonotwriteit,andtheyprefertoeducatetheirchildreninEnglish.Withtheexception of theBohras,whoareShiites,all of theothergroupsareSunniMuslims.SoonaftersettlinginIndia,MuslimArabsbeganarrivingintheeighthcentury.Accordingtolegend,theyestablishedthemselvesinBentottaandmarriedSinhalawomen.Bythetenthcentury,theywereapowerfulmerchantclass.Accord-ingtothehistorianIbnBattuta,inthethirteenthcentury,ColombowasaMuslimcity,while...

... peoplefrom cultures differentfromourown."We"isusedhereinthebroadestsense,toincludenotjustscholarswhostudythecul-tures of the world andbusinesspeopleandgovernmentoffi-cialswhoworkinthe world communitybutalsotheaveragecitizenwhoreadsorhearsaboutmulticulturaleventsinthenewseverydayandyoungpeoplewhoaregrowingupinthiscomplexcultural world. Forall of thesepeople-whichmeansall of us-thereisapressingneedforinformationonthe cultures of the world. This encyclopedia providesthisin-formationintwoways.First,itsdescriptions of thetraditionalways of life of the world& apos;s cultures canserveasabaselineagainstwhichculturalchangecanbemeasuredandunder-stood.Second,itacquaintsthereaderwiththecontemporaryways of lifethroughoutthe world. Weareabletoprovidethisinformationlargelythroughtheefforts of the volume editorsandthenearlyonethousandcontributorswhowrotetheculturalsummariesthataretheheart of thebook.Thecontributorsaresocialscientists(an-thropologists,sociologists,historians,andgeographers)aswellaseducators,governmentofficials,andmissionarieswhousuallyhavefirsthandresearch-basedknowledge of thecul-turestheywriteabout.Inmanycasestheyarethemajorex-pertorone of theleadingexpertsontheculture,andsomearethemselvesmembers of the cultures. Asexperts,theyareabletoprovideaccurate,up-to-dateinformation.Thisiscrucialformanyparts of the world whereindigenous cultures maybeoverlookedbyofficialinformationseekerssuchasgovern-mentcensustakers.Theseexpertshaveoftenlivedamongthepeopletheywriteabout,conductingparticipant-observationswiththemandspeakingtheirlanguage.Thustheyareabletoprovideintegrated,holisticdescriptions of the cultures, notjustalist of facts.Theirportraits of the cultures leavethereaderwitharealsense of whatitmeanstobea"Taos"ora"Rom"ora"Sicilian."ThosesummariesnotwrittenbyanexpertontheculturehaveusuallybeenwrittenbyaresearcherattheHumanRela-tionsAreaFiles,Inc.,workingfromprimarysourcematerials.TheHumanRelationsAreaFiles,aninternationaleduca-xiii...

... thevariousAborgroups)andexternal(i.e.,withneighboringpeoples)warfarewereeffectivelyelimi-natedaftertheinitiation of Britishrule.Conflictbetweenvil-lagesishandledbythebangocouncilandtheresolution of interbangoconflictistheresponsibility of thebogumbokang.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief&.Aborreligionischaracterizedbyabeliefinahost of spirits(uyu),bothbeneficentandmalevolent. Of these,theEpom(offspring of Robo,father of evilspirits)fig-ureprominently.Theyaretheadversaries of humanbeings(whoarebelievedtobetheoffspring of Robo'sprimordialbrother,Nibo)andaresaidtoinduceaccidents.Thesouls of thosewhohavenotbeenproperlyburiedorwhodiedunnat-uraldeathsbecomerams(evilspiritswhojointheEpomincombatagainsthumanity).Othernotableevilspiritsincludethenipong(spirit of awomanwhodiesduringpregnancy)andtheayinguyu(lowlandevilspiritswhoseassaultsaredirectedagainstmenandwomen of allages).Amongthemoreimpor-tantbenevolentspirits,BenjiBama(controller of humandes-tiny)mustbenoted,andeachnaturalforceisbelievedtopos-sessaspiritthatmustbeheldincheckthroughproperpersonalconductandtheperformance of certainrituals.Inaddition,theAborbelieveinseveraleternalbeings(e.g.,Seti,theearth,andMelo,thesky)whowereinexistencebeforecreationandareremovedfromtheaffairs of humanity.Thesebeingsbelongtoahigherorderthanthespirits,andtheyfig-ureprominentlyinAborcreationmyths.ReligiousPractitioners.TheAborhavetwocategories of religiouspractitioners:theepakmiri(diviner)andthenyibo(medicineman).Throughtheuse of incantations,herbs,div-ination,andspiritualdiscernment,theydeterminewhichspiritsareresponsiblefortheirmisfortuneandappeasethesemalevolentforcesthroughtheinvocation of afamiliarspirit.Thisspiritpossessesthebody of thepractitionerandassiststhesoul of theepakmiriornyiboinlocatingthespiritthatmustbeappeasedandinarrangingforasuitablepropitiatoryact of theindividualwhohasbeenafflicted.Thenyiboestab-lishescontactwiththe world of spiritsbyrecountingcreationstories,whiletheepakmiriutilizesdanceandsong.Nospe-cialsocialsignificanceisattachedtoeitheroffice,thoughtheepakmiriisallowedtowearspecialbeadsonceremonialoccasions.Ceremonies.Ceremonialactivityaccompaniesthemajoreventsinthehumanlifecycleandisalsoassociatedwithaf-fairs of state,thelife of themoshupandrasheng,subsistenceactivities,warfare,andhealthcare.Songanddanceare of greatimportanceontheseoccasions.Theepakmiri,whoisalsotheguardian of tribalmyths,histories,genealogies,andothertraditionallore,isthecentralfigureduringtheseritualobservances.Arts.InadditiontothoseartifactsmanufacturedbytheAborsthathaveautilitarianorornamentalpurpose,tattoo-ingisalsopracticedbymanygroups.Abororalliteraturein-cludesanumber of myths,legends,folktales,traditionalbal-lads(abangs),religiousballads(ponungs),andpoliticalnarrations(abes).Therecentintroduction of writinghascon-tributedtoanincreaseinthisliterature.Whilemusicalcom-positionsarefewinnumber,danceisahighlydevelopedartformamongtheAbor.Medicine.IntraditionalAborthought,sicknessisbe-lievedtohaveitsbasisinthemalevolentactivity of forcesinthespirit world andtreatmentconsists of theministrations of theepakmiri.Itishisorherjobtoascertainfromthespirit world whichspirithasbeenoffendedandhowexpiationistobemade.DeathandAfterlife.Itisbelieved ... thatlifecontinuesbe-yondthegrave,inalandwhereeach of theuyushasitsindi-vidualabode.Whenonedies,hisorhersoulistakentothedomain of theuyuwhowasthecause of death.Anindividualenjoysthesamestatusandlife-stylethatheorshehadwhilealive.Forthisreasonthedeceasedisprovidedwithfood,drink,possessions,andothertoolsandprovisionstoensurecomfortintheafterlife.BibliographyChowdhury,J.N.(1971).AComparativeStudy of AdiReli-gion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Duff-Sutherland-Dunbar,G.(1905).AborandGalong.Memoirs of theRoyalAsiaticSociety of Bengal,5(extranumber).Calcutta.Ffirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1954)."ReligiousBeliefsandRitualPractices of theMinyongAbors of Assam,India."Anthropos49:58 8-6 04. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III SOUTH AsiA AnavilBrahman7AhirETHNONYMS:Gahra,Gaolan,Gaoli,Gerala,Goala,Golkar,Mahakul,RawatTheAhirareacaste of cowherds,milkers,andcattlebreederswidelydispersedacrosstheGangeticPlain,espe-ciallyinthemoreeasternlypart(Bihar,Bengal,andeasternMadhyaPradesh).TheAhiirmustnumberwelloveramilliontoday:theynumbered750,000in ... Thus,"Abor"suggestsonewhodoesnotsubmitallegiance(i.e.,onewhoishostile,barbarous,orsavage).ThealternativeviewconnectsthewordwithAbo,theprimordialmaninAbormythology.Thefinal-ristakentobesimilartofinal-rrintribaldesignationssuchasAorr,Simirr,andYim-chungrr,whichmeans"man."Inthe1960s,theAborbegancallingthemselvesAdisbecause of thenegativeconnotations of theirformername(seeAdiintheAppendix).Location.AborcommunitiesinIndiaareconcentratedonthebanks of theSiangandYamnerivers.Theirterritory,totalingsome20,000squarekilometers,hastheIndia-Tibetborderasitsnorthernboundary,Pasighatasitssouthernboundary,andGallongcountryandtheSiyomriverasitswesternboundary.Theregion'sgeographiccoordinatesare28°and29°N,by95°and96"E.Demography.Accordingtothe1971censustherewere4,733Abor.AUnitedBibleSocietiessurveysuggestsatotalAdi-speakingpopulation of 84,026in1982.LinguisticAffiliation.TheAborspeakAdi(alsocalledMiri,Abor,Arbor,orMishing),alanguage of theTibeto-BurmanStockbelongingtotheSino-TibetanPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheAborsimmigratedtotheirIndianhomelandfromthenorthcrossingtheHimalayasintotheAssamValley.Eventu-allytheyretreatedintothehighlandregionsthattheycur-rentlyoccupy.Thecause of thismigrationisunknown,al-thoughnaturalcausesandpoliticalupheavalhavebeensug.gestedaspossiblecatalysts.Itisalsonotknownwhethertheymigratedasasolidbodyatasinglepointinhistory,orinsmallersubgroupsoveraperiod of severalhundredyears.Be-tween1847and1862,theBritishgovernmenttriedunsuc-cessfullytoconquerall of Aborterritory.Followingthefailure of severalmilitaryendeavors,atreatywasreachedthatguar-anteedlimitedBritishhegemonyanduninhibitedtradeandcommunicationonthefrontier.Inspite of occasionaltreatyviolations,anuneasypeacewasmaintained.AfterthefinalBritishmilitaryactionagainsttheAbor(inresponsetothemurder of theassistantpoliticalofficerandacompanion)in1912,thehillsnorth of Assamweredividedintowestern,central,andeasternsectionsforadministrativepurposes.Thelast of thesewerecollectivelygiventhename of SadiyaFron-tierTract.In1948,theTirapFrontierTractwasdividedintotheMishmiHillsDistrictandtheAborHillsDistrict.Finally,in1954,thename of theAborHillsDistrictwaschangedtotheSiangFrontierDivision.Sincethistime,theAborhaveundergoneconsiderableacculturation,whichhasresultedinanumber of changesinthenature of villagelife,thelocaleconomy,socialstructure,andpoliticalorganization.SettlementsVillagesareusuallybuiltonhilltops(thoughintheplains,Abortendtofollowthelocalpractice of buildingvillagesonlevelland).Preferenceisgiventothoselocationsthataffordaccesstoariverbyaslopinginclineononesideandthepro-tection of averysteepdeclineontheotherside.Housesarebuiltonelevatedplatforms.Theyarearrangedinrowsex-tendingfromthetoptothebottom of thehill,andarecon-structedsothattherearside of thehousefacesthehillitself.Publicbuildingsinatypicalvillageincludethemoshup(bach-elors'dormitory),therasheng(singlefemales'dormitory),andgranaries.Inoldervillages,stonewallswithwoodenrein-forcementsarefound.Majorbuildingmaterialsarebamboo,wood,thatchinggrass,andcane.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themajorsub-sistenceactivitiesarehunting,fishing,gathering,agriculture,andbarter of surpluscropsforbasicnecessitiesandluxuries.Slash-and-burn(orjhum)agricultureisthenorm.Forestandundergrowtharecut,dried,andburned,afterwhichseedsareplanted.Soilfertilityismaintainedforaperiod of onetothreeyearsusingthismethod.Agriculturallandisgradedac-cordingtolatentfertility,andcropsareassignedaccordingly.36AborFiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1962).TheApaTanisandTheirNeighbours.London:Routledge&KeganPaul.Lal,Parmanand,andBimanKumarDasGupta(1979).LowerSiangPeople.Calcutta:Government of India.Roy,Sachin(1960).Aspects of Padam-MinyongCulture.Shillong:Notth-EastFrontierAgency.Simoons,FrederickJ.,andElizabethS.Simoons(1968).ACeremonialOx of India:TheMithaninNature,Culture,andHistory.Madison:University of WisconsinPress.Srivastava,L.R.N.(1962).TheGallongs.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.HUGHRPAGE,JRAgariaETHNONYMS:Agariya,AghariaAlthoughtheAgariaarenotahomogeneousgroup,itisbelievedtheywereoriginallyaDravidian-speakingbranch of theGondtribe.Asaseparatecaste,however,theydodistin-guishthemselvesfromothersbytheirprofessionasironsmelters.Theirpopulationwas17,548in1971,andtheywerewidelydispersedacrosscentralIndiaontheMaikalrangeinMandla,Raipur,andBilaspurdistricts of MadhyaPradesh.Thereareothercastes of AgariasamongtheLoharsaswell.TheAgaria'snamecomesfromeithertheHindugod of fireAgni,ortheirtribaldemonwhowasborninflame,Agyasur.TheAgarialiveintheirownsection of avillageortown,orsometimestheyhavetheirownhamletoutside of atown.Sometravelfromtowntotownworkingtheirtradeaswell.Asalreadyindicated,thetraditionaloccupation of theAgariaisironsmelting.TheygettheirorefromtheMaikalrange,pre.ferringstones of adarkreddishcolor.Oreandcharcoalareplacedinfurnacesthatareblastedbyapair of bellowsworkedbythesmelters'feetandchanneledtothefurnacethroughbambootubes,aprocessthatiskeptupforhours.Theclayin-sulation of thekilnisbrokenupandthemoltenslagandcharcoalaretakenandhammered.Theyproduceplowshares,mattocks,axes,andsickles.Traditionallybothmenandwomen(inBilaspurmenonly)collecttheoreandmakethecharcoalforthefurnaces.Atduskthewomencleanandpreparethekilnsforthenextday'swork,bycleaningandbreakingupthepieces of oreandroastingtheminanordinaryfire;thetuyeres(cylindricalclayventsfordeliveringairtoafurnace)arerolledbyhandandmadebythewomenaswell.Duringsmeltingoperationsthewomenworkthebellows,andthemenhammerandfashiontheoreonanvils.Theconstruction of anewfurnaceisanim-portanteventinvolvingthewholefamily:themendigtheholesforthepostsanddotheheavywork,thewomenplasterthewalls,andthechildrenbringwaterandclayfromtheriver;uponcompletion,amantra(prayer)isrecitedoverthefur-nacetoensureitsproductiveness.TherearetwoendogamoussubcastesamongtheAgaria,thePathariaandtheKhuntias.Thesetwosubgroupsdonotevensharewaterwitheachother.TheexogamousdivisionsusuallyhavethesamenamesastheGonds,suchasSonureni,Dhurua,Tekam,Markam,Uika,Purtai,Marai,tonameafew.SomenamessuchasAhindwar,Ranchirai,andRattoriaare of HindioriginandareanindicationthatsomenorthernHinduspossiblyhavebeenincorporatedintothetribe.Indi-vidualsbelongingtoasectionarebelievedtoconstitutealineagewithacommonancestorandarethereforeexoga-mous.Descentistracedpatrilineally.Marriagesareusuallyar-rangedbythefather.Whenaboy'sfatherdecidestoarrangeamarriage,emissariesaresenttothegirl'sfatherandifac-ceptedpresentswillfollow.ContrarytoHindumarriagecus-toms,marriageispermittedduringthemonsoonswhenironsmeltingispostponedandthereisnowork.Abride-priceisgenerallypaidafewdaysbeforetheceremony.AswiththeGonds,firstcousinsarepermittedtomarry.Widowmarriageisacceptedandisexpectedwithone'slatehusband'syoungerbrother,particularlyifheisabachelor.Divorceisallowedforeitherpartyincases of adultery,extravagance,ormistreat-ment.Ifawomanleavesherhusbandwithoutbeingdivorced,theothermanbycustomisobligatedtopayapricetothehusband.Evenamongthewidelydispersedsubgroups of theAgariatheretraditionallyhasbeendiscrimination:amongtheAsur,marriagewassanctionedbycustomwiththeChokh,althoughbothgroupsrefusedtomarrywiththeHinduLoharsubgroup,owingtotheirlowerstatus.ThefamilygodisDulhaDeo,towhomofferings of goats,fowl,coconuts,andcakesaremade.TheyalsosharetheGonddeity of theforest,BuraDeo.Lohasur,theirondemon,istheirprofessionaldeity,whomtheybelieveinhabitsthesmeltingkilns.DuringPhagunandontheday of DasahiatheAgariamakeofferings of fowlasasign of devotiontotheirsmeltingimplements.Traditionally,villagesorcererswerere-cruitedduringtimes of sicknesstodeterminethedeitywhohadbeenoffended,towhomanatonementwouldthenbeoffered.BibliographyElwin,Verrier(1942).TheAgaria.Oxford:HumphreyMil-ford,OxfordUniversityPress.Russell,R.V.,andHiraLal(1916)."Agaria."InTheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India,byR.V.RussellandHiraLal.Vol.2, 3-8 .Nagpur:GovernmentPrintingPress.Reprint.1969.Oosterhout:AnthropologicalPublications.JAYDiMAGGIOAbor5SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Theprimaryallegiance of anindivid-ualistohisorherfamily.Thecohesion of largergroupswithinthesociety,suchassubclans,clans,andmoieties,canalsobeoccasionedbydisputesandconflictsthatthreatenoneormore of theconstituentmembers of theselargergroups.AmongtheAbor'sprimaryinstitutionsmustbein-cludedjhumagriculture,thenuclearfamily,themoshup,andtherasheng.Theanticipatedsecondaryinstitutions(i.e.,corereligiousbeliefs,ritualcults,andfolklorecorpus)alsoobtainamongtheAbor.Traditionally,socialstatuswasachievedthroughtheaccumulation of wealth.Today,educationandoccupationarealsoviewedassigns of status.PoliticalOrganization.Eachvillageisanautonomousunitwhoseaffairsareadministeredbyacouncil(kebang).Councilmembershipconsists of clanrepresentativesandin-dividualvillagemembers.Everyaspect of villagelifeisgov-ernedbythekebang.Thisincludesthemediation of localdis-putes.Groups of villagesareorganizedintobangos,whicharegovernedbyabangocouncil.Disputesbetweenbangosaremediatedbyabogumbokang(atemporaryinterbangocouncilmadeup of bangoeldersfromthesamegroup).SocialControl.Sources of conflictwithinAborsocietyin-cludemaritalandfamilialdisputes,divorce,theft,assault,andinheritancedisputes.Theresolution of conflictandtheregulation of behaviorwithin...

... aKonkanigoddess.Thetemple of Jogeshvariisone of themaingoddesstemplesintheolderpart of thecity of Pune(Poona),thecapital of thepeshwasduringtheMarathaperiod.Thepeshwasalsohadaspecialrelationshipwiththeelephant-headedgodGanesh,"theremover of ob-stacles,"andinthelatenineteenthcenturythenationalistBalGangadharTilakraisedhouseholdGaneshworshiptoaneighborhoodfunction,completewith"booths"forpublicworshipandpatrioticthemes.TheGaneshorGanpatifesti-valstillhasspecialimportanceinPuneandotherMaharash-triancities.Ceremonies.AlthoughChitpavanswereknownasSan-skritscholarsandteachersandstrictobservers of religiousrights,DeshasthaBrahmans,thetraditionalritualpriests of theMarathi-speakingarea,consideredthemrituallyinferior.TheChitpavansneveradoptedtherole of ritualist,exceptwithintheirowncaste.However,theywereorthodoxinmanyways.Suttee,ortheimmolation of thewidowonthepyre of herhusband,wasavaluedceremonyamongChitpavansuntilitwasoutlawedin1830,butitwasgivenuptotallyatthattime.MarriageandfuneralritesforChitpavanBrahmansre-semblethoseforotherBrahmans,butthereisaspecialmod-emChitpavantwisttothefuneralexperience.Theelements of thefuneralinclude:waterfromtheGangesbeingpouredasalastoblationonthedyingBrahman'shead;thecarrying of thecorpsetothecremationgroundsonabamboopyre;thebringing of firetothegroundsinaspecialearthenpot;thelighting of thefirebytheoldestson;andthethirteendays of mourningfollowedbyafeastforneighborsandfamily.Allthisisthesubject of averypopular,darklycomedicplaybyaChitpavan,SatishAlekar'sMahanirvana,translatedinEng-lishas"TheDreadDeparture."ApracticethatisespeciallyimportanttoChitpavanandotherBrahmanwomenistheMahalakshmipuja,whichoccursduringthefestival of Nav-ratri("ninenights").Itisaspecialcelebrationforthefirstfiveyears of marriedlife.Duringthisfestival,womenjoininarit-ual of blowingintoearthenpots,whichinduceshyperventila-tion,possessionbyagoddess,andattimesagenerallyhilari-ouspartyatmosphere.Arts.WhileChitpavanshavenoparticulartraditionalartorcraft,theyhavebeenenormouslyimportantinbringingmodernitytoMaharashtrianculture.VishnushastriChip-lunkar(185 0-1 882)iscalledthefather of modemMarathiprose.VishnuNarayanBhatkande(186 0-1 936)systema-tizedclassicalmusic,establishedschoolsfortheteaching of music,andfacilitatedthecontinuance of Hindustanimusicundermodemsystems of patronage.GovindBallalDeval(185 5-1 916)wasapopularearlydramatist,creatingplaysonsocialreformthemes.HariNarayanApte(186 4-1 919)isconsideredthefather of themodemMarathinovel,andmany of themostfamouswritersinMarathihavecomefromtheChitpavancaste.SeealsoMarathaBibliographyChitale,Venu(1950).InTransit.Bombay:HindKitabs.Cox,Linda(1970)."TheChitpavans."IllustratedWeekly of India91: 6-1 5,3 6-3 7.Karve,Iravati(1958)."WhatIsCaste?"EconomicWeekly10(Januaryannual;22March;Julyspecial):12 5-1 38;40 1-4 07;88 1-8 88.Patterson,MaureenL. P. (1968)."ChitpavanBrahmanFam-ilyHistories.SourcesforaStudy of SocialStructureandSo-cialChangeinMaharashtra"InStructureandChangeinIn-Chin63plainsasthesourceforluxurygoods(preeminentlybrass-ware,someelaboratewovengoods,andgoldandsilver)andfortheiridealsaboutmoreluxurioussocialandculturallife.Theirname,Zo,reflects ... isnotuncommonformembers of commonerclanstoinsistthatforthemtheveryidea of clanmembershipismeaningless.Chinsocietyalsousedtoincludeslaves.Someslaveswerewarcaptives,whileotherschoseslaveryasawayout of debtorasprotectionfromrevengefeuds.Slaverywasstrictlyhereditaryonlythroughfemales.Afemaleslavewasconsideredamember of heraristocraticowner'shousehold,withtheinterestingconsequencethathermarriage-pricewasoftengreaterthanthat of acommonergirl,thoughitwasneverequaltothat of anaristocrat'sdaughterevenbyacom-monerminorwife.TheSouthernChinhadonlysmall-scalefeasts of merit,whichsecuredonlynonhereditaryritualpres-tigetothegiver'shousehold.SocialControl.Therearefivemainsources of control:(1)theideologythatseesallsocialrelationsasdefinedbyritual-izedexchanges of property,whichbindspeopletoonean-otherintheexpectation of makingpropertyclaimsoneachother;(2)thethreat of force(feudingandrevengearecom-mon)andtheassociatedneed of mutualcooperationforde-fense;(3)thepower of hereditaryheadmentomonopolizerit-ualaccesstothespirit world, directlyandthroughappointedorhereditaryvillagepriests,withoutwhichthespiritswouldmakelifeintolerable;(4)fearthatone'sbadreputationandactionswillprecludeone'sgoingtotheLand of theDeadafterdeath;and(5)thecloselyrelatedideology of mutualassistancewithinthecommunity.Conflict.Many of thecauses of feudshavealreadybeenmentioned.Themostcommoncauses of warfarebetweenvillages,however,werethefollowingthree:disputesoverwomen;disputesoverlandrights(notuncommonlyhavingtodowithaccesstotheveryfewandessentialsaltwellsinthewholeregionandtotraderouteswithinandtooutsidere-gions);anddisputesoverproperty,usuallypropertyclaimsstemmingfrommarriagealliancesandtributaryrelations.Itwasnotunusualtotakehumanheadsinraidsonothervil-lages,andthisheadhuntingconstitutedsomething of anin-dependentmotivationforwarfare,sinceone'sprosperityde-pendeduponone'sabilitytoaggrandizeone'sownforebearsintheLand of theDeadandforthatpurposeoneneededtoensurethemaregularsupply of slaves.Thisobjectwasachievedbytakingheadsandcelebratingthem,whichtamed72CochinJewcludedamongtheirranksseveralmerchants,includinginter-nationalspicemerchants,andprofessionals(lawyers,engi-neers,teachers,andphysicians).InIsrael,theCochinJewsarelargelyemployedinagri-culture.Thefirstgroups of theseJewstoarriveinIsraelwereherdedfromplacetoplace;inanearlyattempttoisolatethem(fromfear of contagiousdiseases)theyweretakentooutlyingmoshavim(agriculturalsettlements)suchasNevatiminthe south. Theirattemptstomakeasuccessout of Nevatimfailed.By1962,whenaJewishAgencySettlementStudiesCentresociologistconductedasurvey of themoshav,hedescribedthesituationasone of "failure"and'economicandsocialcrisis"expressingitselfindecliningoutputandem-igrationfromthemoshav.Trade.Inthe1970s,however,Nevatimturnedintoathrivingmoshav,producingavocados,olives,citrusfruits,pe-cans,cotton,potatoes,flowers,andchickens.Today,Nevatim(with571Cochinisin1982)isonlyone of fifteensuccessfulCochinimoshavim.Some of these,suchasMesillatZionnearBeitShemesh(174CochinJews),arepop-ulatedbyamajority of CochinJews;whileothers,suchasFedia(27CochinJews)andTarom(23),areheterogeneous.Division of Labor.InCochinmenusuallyhadsmallshopssellingsundrygoods.Thesewerelocatedontheverandas of theirhouses.Thewomenwereengagedindomesticpursuits.InIsraelmenhavenowadoptedmanyprofessionalorclericaljobs.LandTenure.Duetolack of landonthemoshavandnewaspirationsonthepart of theyoungergeneration,anexpand-ingurbansector of CochinJewsisincreasinglymakingitselffelt."Pockets" of CochinJewscanbefoundintheRamatEliahuneighborhood of RishonLezionandinJerusalem,Ashdod,andothertowns,wheretheyareemployedinwhite-collarandskilledoccupations.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.CochinJewsobservedstrictcasteendogamy,onlymarryingotherJews.However,therewasnointermarriagebetween"White"and"Black"Jews.Evenwithinthe"White"Jewishsubgroup,the"White"meyu-hasim(privileged),whoclaimeddirectdescentfromancientIsrael,didnotaccepttheirmeshurarim,ormanumittedslaves,asmarriagepartners.Similarly,the"Black"meyuhasimdidnotmarrytheirfreedslavesorproselytes.TodayinIsrael,morethanoneineverytwoCochinimarriagesiscontractedbetweenCochinJewsandotherIsraeliJews.KinshipTerminology.CochinJewsingeneraltendtoen-couragecross-cousinmarriage.KinshipterminologyreflectslocalMalayalamterminology,whileinIsraeldod(uncle)anddoda(aunt)refertoone'smother'sandfather'ssiblingswith-outspecification.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.MarriageisthemostimportantCochinisocialoccasion,celebratedinIndiaforacompleteweek. ... kinds of goods)insurroundingvillages.Thereweresmithswhomadethetraditionalsilver-amalgam(lateralumi-num)jewelry-suchasthebracelets,belts,earrings,rings,andnecklaceshungwithimportedbeadsandsilverrupeecoins-aswellasbrasshairpinsandotheritems,butthosear-tisanswereevenfewerinnumberthantheonesmentionedabove.indeed,thetradeinthelatteritemswasakintothelong-distancetradeinheirloomgoods,suchasthegreatgongsfromMyanmar(Burma),brassvesselsfromIndia,andothersorts of itemsthatsignifiedatleastanominalclaimuponthegoods of thevaaiplainscountry.Trade.All of thesemoreexpensiveitemsconstitutedthebasis of theprestigeeconomy of thesehillsandpassednotonlybysalebutbycirculation of myriadceremonialpaymentsandfines(especiallymarriage-prices,blood-moneypayments,andcompensationpaymentsfordefamation of status).Pres-tigegoodsandgayals-especiallyimportantfortheiruseinsacrificesassociatedwiththe"meritfeasts"bywhichsocialrankwasattainedorvalidated-werethetraditionalwealth of thesepeople.Furthermore,thedisplayorannouncement of theentirearray of whatonecurrentlyownedorhadownedinlife-symbolicallyindicatedoncarvedmemorialpostserectedforprestigiousdead-wasthedefinitivesign of one'ssocialandceremonialrank.Morespecifically,thepossession of asupposedlyuniqueobjectfromtheoutside world, likelytopossessaunique"personal"name of itsown,wasespeciallyimportant.Theideabehindtheprestigeeconomyisthatprosperityinthis world dependsuponthesacrificialexchange of goodswithinhabitants of theLand of theDead,andonlyifonehadconductedfeasts of meritwouldoneandone'sdescendantshavewealthandwell-being.Thus,too,thecon-tinuity of lineagebetweenthedeadandtbelivingwasimpor-tant;itwasespeciallyimportantforanyonetobememorial-izedafterhisorherdeath.Memorialservicewasdonenotonlybythedisplay of wealthandbyitsfigurationonmemor-ialpostsandstonesbutalsointhecomposition of songs(vahia)commemoratingaman'sgreatnessontheoccasion of one of hisfeasts.Sogreatlywerewealthandpossessionstiedupwithaperson'ssocialpositionthatamongthemosthei-noustraditionaloffencesinthissocietyweretheft,bastardy,andthesupposedpossession of "evileye"(hnam,theuncon-sciousandheritableabilitytocauseharmbylookingenvi-ouslyuponanother'sprosperity,orevensomeone'sconsump-tion of agoodmeal).Allthesesituationsmeantthatpropertyhadfailedtopassbymeans of expectedformalexchanges:ithadpassedinsteadbyarbitraryexpropriation,orthroughachildbornout of wedlockwithoutbenefit of marriage-price,orbymisfortunecausedbymurderousenvy of possessionstowhichonehadnolegitimateclaim.Division of Labor.Thefewclasses of part-timecraftspe-cialistarementionedabove.Womendomore of thedomestictasksandallthetraditionalweaving.Theyarealsoalmostex-clusivelythespiritmediumsbecausemalespiritfamiliarschoosethem.Menalonecutdowntheforestsandworkassmiths.Thereappeartobenofemalehuntersorwarriorsex-ceptinlegends,probablybecausenowomancanholdinherownnameafeast of celebrationforthekilling of amajorani-mal,orafeast of celebration of ahumantrophyheadorthat of atiger.(Inall of thesecasesthepointistotametheangryspirit of thedeceasedanimalorpersonandsendittoserveoneandone'sforebearsintheLand of theDead.)Awomancan,however,holdadomesticfeast of meritinthename of herdeceasedhusband,inwhichdomesticanimalsaresimi-larlysacrificedonbehalf of theLand of theDead.Neverthe-less,onlymencanbevillagepriests,whoaremostlyap-pointedbychiefsandheadmenbecausetheyhavememorizedtherequiredchantsandformulasandknowtheritualse-quences.Priestsserveasmasters of ceremonyatthefeasts of meritandcelebrationandatthevariouskinds of rite of placation-bothcyclicalandsporadic-addressedtothevar-iousspiritowners of theface of theland,greatandsmall.Al-mostallothertasksandactivitiescanbeundertakenbyeithersex;therehaveevenbeenhistoricalinstances of importantfemalechiefs,whoattainedofficethroughbeingwidowed.Therearefewifanyexploitablenaturalresourcesinthesehillsandvirtuallynomodernindustry,atleastnothingmadeforexport.Asidefromthesalaries of teachersandgovern-mentservants of allsortsandtheincomes of merchantsandshopkeepers,themainsource of moneyisthewages of Chinwhoworkontheoutside-preeminentlyinMyanmar,inthearmedforces.LandTenure.Thisaspect of Chincultureishighlyvaria-ble.Avillagehascompleteownership of itstract,andeventherighttohuntinitmustberequestedfromthevillage;however,itispossibletorentlandsinanothervillage'stractonanindividualoracommunalbasis.Villagetractbound-ariesarepreciselyindicatedbylandmarks.Frequentlyagivenhillsidetract,oreventhewholevillagetract,willbeownedbyachieforotherhereditaryaristocrat.Theright of achieftotheduesandservices of hisvillagersinfactderivesfromhisownership of theland,whiletheultimateownershipbyavil-lage of itslandasawholederivesfromtheheritablepactmadebytheancestralfounders of thevillagewiththespiritowners of theland.Theparamountrightisownership,sinceCoorg73tegratedintoKeralasociety,theywereinfluencedbymanyHindupracticesandbeliefs(e.g.,theemphasisuponpurity of descent,theweddingcustomsandcanopy,andthe"asceti-cism"associatedwithPassoverpreparations).Reportedly,theCochinJewshaveneversufferedfromanti-Semitismatthehands of theirHinduneighbors.ReligiousPractitioners.TheCochinJewsneverhadanyrabbis,butseveralmenservedasshochetim(ritualslaugh-terers)andhazanim(cantors)bothfortheirowncommuni-tiesandforanothercommunity of IndianJews,theBeneIs-raelinBombay.Ceremonies.Boththe'White"andthe"Black"Jewsper-formtheirceremoniesseparatelyintheirownsynagoguesandhomes.However,theceremoniesaresimilaranddistinctlyCochini,reflectingbothlocalHinduandChristianinflu-ences.Bothgroupsbuildamanara,oraperion,forthewed-ding,usuallyatthegroom'shouse.Afteraritualbaththebridereceivesatali,anIndianpendant,inimitation of localNayarpractice.Thegroomandbridedressintraditionalwed-dingdress.Thegroomentersthesynagogueonawhitecarpet-acustomapparentlyobservedby'Black"andnot'White"Jews-andsitsnearthepodiumuntilthebride'spro-cessionarrives.Thegroomhimself-andnotarabbi,asinotherJewishcommunities-actuallyannounceshisbetrothalandmarriagetohisbride.Arts.Dailyprayerswerechantedaccordingtotheshinglicustom,auniqueversion of thestandardJewishprayers.Inaddition,theCochinJewshavealargenumber of folksongsthattheysingregularly.Somearesungatweddings,somearelullabies,andsomespecificallyrecallthereturntoZion.In1984theCochinJewsinIsraelstagedahugepageantrelatinginsonganddancethestory of theiremigrationfromIndiaandtheirintegrationintoIsraelisociety.DeathandAfterlife.TheCochinJewsbelieveinanafter-life,influencedbothbyJewishandHindubeliefs.TheirdeadareburiedinJewishcemeteries.SeealsoBeneIsraelBibliographyKatz,Nathan,andEllenGoldberg(1989).'AsceticismandCasteinthePassoverObservances of theCochinJews."Jour-nal of theAmericanAcademy of Religion62:5 3-8 2.Mandelbaum,DavidG.(1975).'SocialStratificationamongtheJews of CochininIndiaandinIsrael."JewishJournal of Sociology17:16 5-2 10.Velayudhan, P. A.,etal.(1971).Commemorative Volume: CochinSynagogue,QuatercentenaryCelebration.Cochin:KeralaHistoricalAssociation.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1982).'SymmetrybetweenChristianandJewsinIndia:theCnaniteChristianandtheCochinJews of Kerala."ContributionstoIndianSociology16:17 5-1 96.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1984).FromCochintoEretzIsrael(inHe-brew).Jerusalem:KumuBerina.SHALVAJ.WEILCoorgETHNONYMS:Coorgi,KodaraCoorgisatiny,isolated,mountainousdistrictin south- westIndia,boundedontheeastbythehighMysorePlateau,averaginganelevation of 1,000meters,andonthewestbyamountainousfrontier3 0-5 0kilometersfromthewesterncoast.Itsgreatestlength,northto south, isabout100kilome-ters,anditsgreatestbreadth,easttowest,is65kilometers.TheWesternGhatmountainrangerunsfromnorthto south anditsmanyspursstrikeoutinalldirectionsthroughthesmallprovince,nowadistrict of KarnatakaState.Themainrivers,theKveriandLaksmanatirtha,areshallowandunnavigable.TheCoorgyearisdividedintothreeseasons-cold,hot,andrainy-withamarkedvariationinrainfallinthevariousregions.Theaverageyearlytemperaturerangesfrom10'to27'C.Coorgisprimarilyanagriculturalcountrywithcoffeeandricebeingthemainproducts.Coorgcontainsdensefor-ests of bamboo,sandalwood,andcardamom.Faunaincludeselephants,tigers,panthers,boars,anddeer.Theearlyhistory of CoorgcanbetracedbacktotheninthcenturyA.D.andconsists of asuccession of feudalrulersleadinguptothedynasty of theLingayatrajasbeginninginthe1600s.Thelastsurvivors of thedynastywerethebrothers,Doddavirarajendra(died1809)andLingarajendra(died1820).Theheirtothethrone,adaughter,Devammaji,was10atthetime of herfather'sdeathandthethronewasthere-foreusurpedbyanuncle.Theuncle,Lingarajendra,wassuc-ceededbyhissonChikkavirarajendra(ViraRajaII)whowaspoorlyacceptedbyhissubjects.Thisledtotheeventualan-nexation of CoorgbytheBritishin1834.Theannexationledtoanumber of economic,political,andsocialreforms,one of themostprominentbeingtheabolition of slavery.Therearethreelevels of territorialgroup;thevillageisthesmallestandthemostimportant.Villages,whicharemul-ticaste,containanumber of ancestralestates,eachcomprised of amainhouse of stoneandwoodandnearbyservants'huts of mudandbamboo.Thenad,consisting of severalvillages,isthenextlargergroup.Inthe1931census94percent of thepopulation of Coorglivedinsuchvillages.TraditionallyCoorgwasdividedintothirty-fivenadsandtwelvekombus,whichservejudicialpurposes.Everyvillagehasacouncil of eldersthatispresidedoverbyaheadmanwhosepositionishereditary.TherearetwotownsinCoorg:Mercara,(orMadikeri)withapopulation of 7,112;andVirarajpet,with4,106per-sons(as of 1931).Mercaraliesinthenorth-centralportion of theregion.Virarajpetisthemostimportantcommercialcentertoday. Of thetotal1931population of 163,327,89percentwereHindus,8percentMuslims,and2percentChristians.Thenumber of Kodaguspeakerswaslistedas72,085inthe1971census.TheprimarylanguagesspokeninCoorgareKodagu,Kannada(Dravidianlanguage),Hindi,andEnglish.CoorgsconsiderthemselvestobeKshatriyas,whocon-stitutethecaste of rulersandsoldiersinthetraditionalhier-archyandrankbelowonlyBrahmans.TodayCoorgsaresome of theprominentmilitaryleadersinIndia.Therearemore60Chakmadren.TheyaretaughtBuddhistideologyatanearlyage.Re-spectfor...

... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryendof...

... 90GujaratiGujaratandlowestinKachchh.Thepopulationisgrowingattherate of 2.7percentperyear.Gujarati-speakingpeopleconstitute91percent of thepopulation of Gujarat,whichalsoincludes1.5percentKachchh-speakingpeople.TherearethreemainreligiousgroupsinGujarat:Hindus(89.5per-cent),Muslims(8.5percent)andJains(1percent).Amajor-ity of theMuslimsspeakGujarati,thoughthereisasmallMuslimsectionthatspeaksUrdu.Around14percent of ... theGujaratipopulationaretribalswhopredominantlyliveintheeasternhillybelt.Sixty-ninepercent of thepopulationliveinruralareasand31percentliveinurbanareas.Ahmadabad,Surat,Vadodara,andRajkotarelargecities.linguisticAffiliation.Gujaratiisconsideredbylinguiststobeamember of theoutercircle of Indo-Aryanlanguages:itispartlyPrakriticandpartlySanskriticinorigin.Anumber of Arabic,Persian,Urdu,andEuropean-particularlyPortu-gueseandEnglish-wordshavebecomepart of thelanguage.Thereareseveraldialects.Importantamongthem,basedonregion,areKathiawadi,Kachchh,Pattani,Charotari,andSurati.Therearealsocaste-orcommunity-baseddialects,suchasNagari,AnavlaorBhathala,Patidari,Kharwa,Musalmani,Parsi,etc.DifferenttribalgroupshavetheirowndialectsthatbearacloseaffinitytoGujarati.ThedistinctiveGujaratiscripthasthirty-fourconsonantsandelevenvowels.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheterritorywasknownas"GurjaraBhoomi,""GurjaraDesh,""Gurjaratta,"or"GurjarMandal"-meaningabode of theGurjarpeople-betweenthefifthandninthcenturiesA.D.Thename of theareaknownas"Gujarat"wasrecognizedfromthetenthcenturyduringtheSolankiperiod,whenMul-rajalaidthefoundation of hiskingdomwithitscapitalatAn-hilwadPatan.DuringBritishruletheareawasdividedintoanumber of nativestatesandestatesandBritishadministra-tivedistricts,whichwereapart of theBombaypresidency.Afterindependencein1947,thenativestatesmergedintotheIndianUnion.Agroup of statesformedSaurashtraState;themainlandGujaratbecameapart of BombayStateandKachchhwascentrallyadministered.Butasaresult of furtherreorganization of thestatesin1956,SaurashtraandKachchhweredissolvedasseparatestatesandbecameapart of BombayState.Then,because of demandsforaseparatelin-guisticstate,Gujarat,Saurashtra,andKachchhformedtheseparatestate of Gujaratin1960.SettlementsAmong18,114villages,8percentaresmallwithapopulation of lessthan200persons;and49(0.2percent)arelargewithmorethan10,000peopleineach.Thesettlementpattern of eachvillageiseitherclusteredordispersed.Clusteredvillagesaredividedintosubclustersconsisting of agroup of familiesbelongingtothesamecasteorcommunity.Thedominantcasteresidesinthecenter,andtraditionallyUntouchablecastesliveontheperiphery of thevillage.Inthedispersedpatternmainlyfoundamongtribals,eachfamily-nuclearorjoint-livesonitsownfarm.Atempleorpublicplatformunderalargetreeisacentralplacewheremalesfromupperandmiddlecastesmeetandspendtheirsparetime.Today,most of themiddle-sizedandbigvillageshaveprimaryschools,oneortwoshops,grazingland,andacremationground.Thereare255townsorurbanagglomerations.Allbuteleven of thesetownshaveapopulationunder100,000.Many of themareexpandedvillageswherecasteorcommu-nityclustersformneighborhoodlocalities.Twostyles of housingarecommoninurbanandruralGujarat.Thefirstisthesturdymodernkindmade of brickandconcrete,withmorethantworoomsandaseparatekitchen.Thesecondisatenement of mud,stone,andwood.Theroofsare of locallymadetilesorthatch.(Numericaldatafrom1981census.)EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Despiterapidindustrialdevelopment,agricultureoccupiesaprominentplaceintheeconomy of thestate.Itcontributesanaverage of 35to40percent of thestate'sdomesticproducts.Sixty-twopercent of theworkersengagedinagricultureareeitherculti-vatorsorlaborers.Althoughagricultureisnotfullymecha-nized,use of tractorshasincreasedconsiderablyinrecentyears.Themajorfoodcropsarebajri,jowar,rice,andwheat.Cotton,groundnut,tobacco,andsugarcanearemajorcom-mercialcrops:theyoccupyabout40percent of thetotalculti-vatedarea of thestate.Cattle,buffalo,sheep,goats,chickens,horses,camels,monkeys,donkeys,andpigsarethemaindo-mesticanimals.Bullocksareusedforagriculture,cowsandbuffaloformilk.Acooperativedairyindustryhasdeveloped.IndustrialArts.Artisansinruralareasareengagedinpot-tery,silver-andbrass-ornamentmaking,embroidery,hand-loomconstructionandfurnituremaking.Despitegovernmentsupport,thesecraftsarerapidlydisappearing.Gujaratisone of themosthighlyindustrializedstatesinIndia.Themajorindustriesaretextiles,plastics,chemicals,andengi-neering.Interms of incomegeneratedfrommanufacturing,Gujaratrankssecondinthecountry.Trade.Tradeisaprimaryoccupation of Gujaratis.TheHinduandJainBaniasarethetradingcastes.InthiscenturythePatidarshaveemergedasentrepreneurs.Inaddition,theParsisandMuslimBohrasarealsotraders.Gujarathasbeenwellconnectedbytraderouteswithinthecontinentandalsowithothercountries.Historically,theGujaratispossessed ... thehamlet.Eachhomesteadhousesafamily,oftenajointfamilyconsisting of thefamilies of themarriedsonslivingwiththeirparents.IntheplainswheretheGondsaremoreSanskritized,orinfluencedbyhighHinduculture,somehaveadoptedHinduwaysandbeguntoliveinclosedvillages,yetapartfromtheothercastesandtribes.EconomyAllGondsareinsomewayorotherengagedinagricultureorworkintheforest.Theywouldnotdream of acceptinganyotheroccupation.Originallytheymusthavebeennomadichuntersandfoodgatherersandthenswitchedtoshiftingcul-tivation,retaining,however,theircloseconnectionwiththeforest.Shiftingcultivationisnotmerelyonetype of agricul-turebutacomplexculturalform,away of life.Itrequiresnodraftanimalsandallowsthecultivatorsmoreleisuretimeforworkintheforest,hunting,fishing,andthecollection of jun-gleproduce.However,mostGondshavebeenforcedtoaban-donshiftingcultivationbythegovernmentbecauseitisharmfultotheforest,andsomeGondsectionshadalreadyvoluntarilychangedovertoplowcultivationandeventoter-racecultivation.Theyprosperedeconomicallyandacquiredahighsocialstanding.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheGondshaveapronouncedpatrilinealandpatriarchalclansystem.Theycallitgotraorkur.AGondclancomprisesagroup of personswhobelievethattheyaredescendantsinthemalelinefromacommonancestor.Whileamalecanneverchangehisclan,awomanonmarriageistakenintotheclan of herhusband.TheGondspracticeclanexogamy,consideringintermarriagewithinaclantobeincest.Theybelievethegodswouldpunishsuchasinwithaskindisease,wormsinawound,orleprosy.Offend-ersagainstthelaw of exogamyareexcludedfromthetribalcommunityandcanonlybereadmittedafterseparation.Many of theGondclansbearanimalorplantnames,whichsuggestsatotemicorigin of theclans,andsomeGondclansstillobservetotemictaboos.Butgenerally,exceptfortheob-servance of exogamy,theclansystemhasnoimportantfunc-tion.IntheMandlaDistrictatleast,eighteenclanshavebeencombinedintoaphratry.Thecombination of theclansvarieslocally,butthenumber-eighteen-isalwaysretained.Thephratrytooobservesexogamy,butwiththepayment of afinethemarriageprohibitioncanbewaived.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.AnormalmarriageamongtheGondsisthemo-nogamousunion of amanandawomanbasedonmutualchoice,sanctionedbytheceremonialexchange of vows,withtheapproval of thetribalcouncil,witnessedbytherelatives of thepartnersandthevillagecommunity,andconcludedwithafestiveweddingdinner.AlthoughtheGondshaveliberalviewsonpremaritalsex,theyarestrictintheobservance of marriedfidelity.Theybelievethatadulteryispunishedbytheancestralspiritsthatcancausecropfailureoranepidemicamonghumansandcattle.AGondweddingissolemnizedwithmanysignificantceremonies.Theessentialweddingriteconsists of thegroomwalkingwithhisbrideseventimesaroundaweddingposterectedinthecenter of theweddingbooth.Marriageisobligatory.OriginallyGondboysandgirlsmarriedonreachingphysicalmaturity.NowadaystheGondsincreasinglyfollowtheexample of theruralHindupopula-tionandparentsarrangethemarriagewhenchildrenarestillyoung.Thefather of thegroomhastopayabride-price,theamount of whichdependsonthepositionandwealth of thetwofamilies.Cross-cousinmarriagesaremuchpreferred,somuchsothatayouthhastopayafineifherefusestomarryanavailablecrosscousin.AGondcanhavemorethanonewife,polygynybeingrestrictedonlybythecapability of themantosupportanumber of wives.TheGondspracticethesororateandthelevirate.WidowmarriageisforbiddenonlyamongtheSanskritizedGonds.Gondswhoaretoopoortopaythebride-priceandtheweddingexpensescontractaserv-icemarriage.Familieswithnosonsprefersuchamarriagear-rangement.Othermoreirregularforms of marriageamongtheGondsaretheelopement of anunmarriedgirlwithaboyorthecapture of agirlandherforcedmarriagetohercaptor.Marriagebycapturewasinthepastapopularform of mar-riageamongtheGonds.Themarriagemustlaterbelegalizedbytherelativesandvillagecouncils of thepartners.TheGondspermitdivorceandeasilyresorttoitforvariousrea-sons.Forinstance,amanmayobtainadivorceifhiswifeisbarren,quarrelsome,ornegligentindoingherassignedwork.Likewise,awomanmayelopewithanothermanifherhus.bandisabadprovider,adrunkard,orawifebeater,orifheishabituallyunfaithful.Adivorcerequiresthelegalsanction of thetribalcouncil of thevillage.DomesticUnit.Gondmarriagesareasarulehappyandlastingifthehusbandisabletoprovideafrugallivelihoodforwifeandchildrenandifthewifeiscompetentinherhouse-holdtasksandfieldwork.Gondmenandwomenareaffec-tionatetowardchildrenandenjoyhavinglargefamilies.86GondInheritance.Property,primarilyland,descendspatrilin-eallytothesonsequally(unlessonesonshouldmoveelse-where,inwhichcaseheforfeitshisrights).Daughtersinheritnexttonothingfromtheirfathers.Awidowusuallyremainsinthehouse,whichisinheritedbyheryoungestson(ultimo-geniture).Ifnottooold,thewidowmayberemarriedtoacloserelativeof...

... foundashouseholdservantsandcooks,andinsomecitiesinIndiatheyrunpublicbathhouses.HijrascomplainthatincontemporaryIndiatheiropportunitytoearnalivingbytherespectablemeans of performingatmarriagesandbirthshasdeclined,duetosmallerfamilies,lesselaboratelife-cycleceremonies,andageneraldeclineintherespectfortraditionalritualspecialists.Hijrashaveeffectivelymaintainedeconomicpredominance,ifnottotalmonopoly,overtheirritualrole.Definedbythelargersocietyasemasculatedmen,theyhaveclearlyseenthatitisintheirinteresttopreservethisdefinition of theirrole.Theydothisbymakingloudandpublicgesturestodenouncethe"frauds"and"fakes"whoimitatethem.Theythusreinforceinthepublicmindtheirownsolerighttotheirtraditionaloccu-pations.Whenhijrasfindotherfemaleimpersonatorsattempt-ingtoperformwhereitistheirrighttodoso,theychasethemaway,usingphysicalforceifnecessary.Hijraclaimstoexclusiveentitlementtoperformatlife-cyclerituals,tocollectalmsincertainterritories,andeventoownlandcommunallyreceivehistoricalsupportintheedicts of someIndianstatesthatoffi-ciallygrantedthemtheserights.Hijrashavealsobeensuccessfulincontrollingtheiraudi-encesintheirowneconomicinterest.Hijrasidentifywithre-nouncers(sannyasis)and,likethem,hijrashaveabandonedtheirfamilyandcasteidentitiesinordertojointheirreligiouscommunity.Likesannyasis,then,hijrastranscendnetworks of socialobligation.Theyoccupythelowestend of theIndiansocialhierarchyand,havingnoordinarysocialpositiontomaintainwithinthathierarchy,hijrasarefreedfromthere-straints of ordinarybehavior.Theyknowthattheirshame-lessnessmakesordinarypeoplereluctanttoprovokethemortoresisttheirdemandsformoneyandhencetheytradeonthefearandanxietypeoplehaveaboutthemtocoercecom-96HijraHijra100HillPandaraminusage.Apartfromconjugaltiesandclose"affinal"relation-ships(whichincontrasttothe"kin"linkshavewarmthandintimacy),kinshiptiesarenot"load"-bearinginthesense of implyingstructuredroleobligations.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Bothpolyandrousandpolygynousmarriageshavebeenrecorded,butmostmarriagesaremonogamous.Cross-cousinmarriageisthenormandmarriagesemergeal-mostspontaneouslyfrompreexistingkinshippatterns,ascampaggregatescenteronaffinallyrelatedmen.Thereislit-tleornomarriageceremonyandthereisnoformalarrange-ment of marriagepartners,althoughyoungmentendtoes-tablishpriortieswithprospectiveparents-in-law.MarriagesarebrittleandmostolderHillPandaramhaveexperiencedaseries of conjugalpartnershipsduringtheirlifetime.Acohab.itingcoupleformsanindependenthouseholdonmarriage,butthecouplemaycontinueasaunitinthecampaggregate of eitherset of parents.DomesticUnit.Theconjugalfamilyisthebasiceconomicunit.Members of afamilymayliveinseparateleafshelters(thoughspousessharethesameleafshelter)andmayformforagingpartieswithothermembers of acampaggregate,butallfoodgatheredbyanindividualbelongstohisorherownimmediatefamily,whoshareasimplehearth.Onlymeat,to-bacco,andtheproceeds of honey-gatheringexpeditionsaresharedbetweenthefamiliesconstitutingacampaggregate.Inheritance.AstheHillPandarampossessnolandandhavefewmaterialpossessions,littleemphasisisplacedoninheritance.Socialization.TheHillPandaramputanormativestressonindividualautonomyandself-sufficiency,andfromtheirearliestyearschildrenareexpectedtoassertindependence.Childrencollectforestproducefortradeandwilloftenspendlongperiodsawayfromtheirparents.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Organizedasaforagingcommunity,livinginsmallcampaggregates of twotothreefamiliesscat-teredoverawidearea,theHillPandaramexhibitnowiderstructures of sociopoliticalorganization.Therearenoritualcongregations,microcastes,noranyothercommunalassocia-tionsorcorporategroupingsabovethelevel of theconjugalfamily.Alack of widerformalorganizationiscoupledwithapervasivestressonegalitarianism,self-sufficiency,andtheautonomy of theindividual.Someindividualsinthesettle-mentsarerecognizedasmuttukani(headmen)buttheirroleisnotinstitutionalized,fortheyareessentiallyapart of thesystem of controlintroducedbyadministrativeagencies of theForestryandWelfareDepartmentstofacilitateefficientcommunicationwiththecommunity.SocialControl.TheHillPandaramhavenoformalinsti-tutionsforthesettlement of disputes,thoughindividualmenandwomenoftenactasinformalmediatorsorconciliators.Socialcontrolismaintainedtoanimportantdegreebyavaluesystemthatputsapremiumontheavoidance of aggres-sionandconflict;likeotherforagers,theHillPandaramtendtoavoidconflictbyseparationandbyflight.ReligionandExpressiveCultureAlthoughnominallyHindu,HillPandaramreligionisdis-tinctfromthat of theneighboringagriculturalistsinbeingun-iconic(i.e.,veneratingnotimages of deities,butthecrests of mountains)andfocusedonthecontact,throughpossessionrites, of localizedmaladevi(hillspirits).HillPan-darammayoccasionallymakeritualofferingsatvillagetem-ples,particularlythoseassociatedwiththegodsAiyappanandMuruganatthetime of theOnamfestival(December)oratlocalshrinesestablishedinforestareasbyTamillaborers;butotherwisetheyhavelittlecontactwiththeformalrituals of Hinduism.ReligiousBeliefs.ThespiritualagenciesrecognizedbytheHillPandaramfallintotwocategories:theancestralghostsorshades(chavu)andthehillspirits(maladevi).Thehillspiritsaresupernaturalsassociatedwithparticularhillorrockpreci-pices,andinthecommunityasawholethesespiritsarelegion,withahilldeityforaboutevery8squarekilometers of forest.Althoughlocalizedspirits,thehillspiritsarenot'familyspir-its"fortheymayhavedevoteeslivingsomedistancefromtheparticularlocality.Theancestralshades,ontheotherhand,arelinkedtoparticularfamilies,butlikethehillspiritstheirin-fluenceismainlybeneficent,givingprotectionagainstmisfor-tuneandprofferingadviceintimes of need.Oneclass of spir-its,however,isessentiallymalevolent.Thesearethearukula,thespirits of personswhohavediedaccidentallythroughfall-ingfromatreeorbeingkilledbyawildanimal.ReligiousPractitioners.Certainmenandwomenhavetheabilitytoinduceatrancelikestateandinthiswaytocontactthespirits.Theyareknownastullukara(possessiondancers,fromtullu,"tojump"),andattimes of misfortunetheyarecalleduponbyrelativesorfriendstogivehelpandsupport.Ceremonies.TheHillPandaramhavenotemplesorshrinesandthusmakenoformalritualofferingstothespirits,leadinglocalvillagerstosuggestthattheyhavenoreligion.Nordotheyritualizethelife-cycleevents of birth,puberty,anddeathtoanygreatdegree.Theimportantreligiouscere-monyisthepossessionseance,inwhichthetullukaragoesintoatrancestateinducedbyrhythmicdrummingandsing-ingandincarnatesoneormore of thehillspiritsoranances-tralshade.Duringtheseancethecause of themisfortuneisascertained(usuallythebreaking of atabooassociatedwiththemenstrualperiod)andthehelp of thesupernaturalissoughttoalleviatethesicknessormisfortune.Arts.IncontrastwithotherIndiancommunitiestheHillPandaramhavefewartforms.Nevertheless,theirsingingishighlydeveloped,andtheirsongsarevariedandelaborateandincludehistoricalthemes.Medicine.Allminorailmentsaredealtwiththroughher-balremedies,sincetheHillPandaramhaveadeepthoughunstructuredknowledge of medicinalplants.Moreseriouscomplaintsarehandledthroughthepossessionrites.BibliographyFirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1970)."NotesontheMalapantaram of Travancore."Bulletin of theInternationalCommitteeforUrgentAnthropologicalandEthnologicalRe-search3:4 4-5 1.HillPandaram99withtheirneighborsandcameunderthepoliticaljurisdiction of theearlyTamilkingdomsorlocalpettychieftains,whotaxedforestproductssuchascardamom,bamboo,ivory,honey,andwax.Theimportance of thistradeatthebegin-ning of thenineteenthcenturyishighlightedinthewritings of theAbbeDuboisandintheeconomicsurvey of theformerTravancoreStatemadeatthattimebytwoBritishofficials,WardandConner.ForesttradestillservestolinktheHillPandaramtothewiderHindusociety.SettlementsTheHillPandaramhavetwotypes of residentialgrouping-settlementsandforestcamps-althoughabout25percent of HillPandaramfamiliesliveacompletelynomadicexistenceandarenotassociatedwithanysettlement.Atypicalsettle-mentconsists of abouttenhuts,widelyseparatedfromeachother,eachhousingafamilywholivethereonasemiper-manentbasis.Thehutsaresimple,rectangularconstructionswithsplit-bambooscreensandgrass-thatchedroofs;manyarelittlemorethanroofedshelters.Aroundthehutsitesfruit-bearingtreessuchasmangoandtamarind,cassavaandsmallcultivationsmaybefound.Thesettlementsareoftensomedistancefromvillagecommunities(withtheirmulticastepopulations)andhavenocommunalfocuslikereligiousshrines.Settlementsareinhabitedonlyonanintermittentbasis.Thesecondtype of residentialgroupingistheforestcamp,consisting of twotosixtemporaryleafshelters,eachmadefromaframework of bamboothatissupportedonasin-gleuprightpoleandcoveredbypalmleaves.Theseleafshel-tershaveaconicalappearanceandareformedoverafireplaceconsisting of threestonesthatwerefoundonthesite.Rec-tangularlean-tosmayalsobeconstructedusingtwouprightpoles.Settlementsarescatteredthroughouttheforestrangesexceptintheinteriorforest,whichislargelyuninhabitedapartfromnomadiccamps of theHillPandaram.Themajor-ity of theHillPandaramarenomadicandtheusuallength of stayataparticularcampingsite(orarockshelter,whichisfrequentlyused)isfromtwotosixteendays,withsevenoreightdaysbeingtheaverage,althoughspecificfamiliesmayresideinaparticularlocalityforaboutsixtoeightweeks.No-madicmovements,inthesense of shiftingcamp,usuallyvaryoverdistancesfromahalf-kilometerto6kilometers,thoughindailyforagingactivitiestheHillPandarammayrangeoverseveralkilometers.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.AlthoughtheHillPandaramoccasionallyengageinpaidlaborforthefor-estdepartment,andasmallminority of familiesaresettledagriculturalistsontheforestperimeter,themajorityareno-madichunter-gatherers,whocombinefoodgatheringwiththecollection of minorforestproduce.Themainstaplecon-sists of variouskinds of yamcollectedbymeans of diggingsticks,togetherwiththenuts of aforestcycad,kalinga(Cycascincinalis).Suchstaplesaresupplementedwithpalmflour,andcassavaandriceareobtainedthroughtrade.Thehunting of smallanimals,particularlymonkeys,squirrels,andmonitorlizards,isimportant.Theseanimalsareob-tainedeitherduringforagingactivitiesorinahuntingpartyconsisting of twomenoramanandayoungboy,usingoldmuzzle-loadingguns.Dogs,anaidtohunting,aretheonlydomesticanimals.Trade.Thecollection of minorforestproduceisanimpor-tantaspect of economiclifeandtheprincipalitemstradedarehoney,wax,dammar(aresin),turmeric,ginger,cardamom,inchabark(Acaciaintsia,onevariety of whichisasoapsub-stitute,theotherafishpoison),variousmedicinalplants,oil-bearingseeds,andbarkmaterialsusedfortanningpurposes.Thetrade of theseproductsisorganizedthroughacontrac-tualmercantilesystem,aparticularforestrangebeingleasedbytheForestDepartmenttoacontractor,whoisnormallyawealthymerchantlivingintheplainsarea,oftenaMuslimorahigh-casteHindu.ThroughthecontractortheHillPan-daramobtaintheirbasicsubsistencerequirements:salt,con-diments,cloth,cookingpots,andtinsforcollectinghoney.Allthematerialpossessions of thecommunityareobtainedthroughsuchtrade-eventhetwoitemsthatarecrucialtotheircollectingeconomy,billhooksandaxes.Asthecontrac-tualsystemexploitedtheHillPandaram,whorarelygotthefullmarketvaluefortheforestcommoditiestheycollected,moveshavebeenmadeinrecentyearstoreplaceitbyaforestcooperativesystemadministeredbyforestryofficialsundertheauspices of thegovernment'sTribalWelfareDepartment.Division of Labor.Althoughwomenaretheprincipalgatherers of yams,whilethehunting of thelargermammalsandthecollection of honeyaretheprerogatives of men,thedivision of laborisnotarigidone.Menmaycookandcareforchildren,whilewomenfrequentlygohuntingforsmallerani-mals,anactivitythattendstobeacollectiveenterprisein-volvingafamilyaidedbyadog.Collection of forestproducetendstobedonebybothsexes.LandTenure.EachHillPandaramfamily(orindividual)isassociatedwithaparticularforesttract,butthereislittleornoassertion of territorialrightsorrightsoverparticularforestproductseitherbyindividualsorfamilies.Theforestisheldtobethecommonproperty of thewholecommunity.Nocom-plaintisexpressedattheincreasingencroachmentonthefor-estbylow-countrymenwhogatherdammarorotherforestproducts,oratincreasingincidences of poachingbythem.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Unlikethecastecommunities of Kerala,theHillPandaramhavenounilinealdescentsys-temorideologyandtherearenorecognizedcorporategroup-ingsabovethelevel of thefamily.Thesettlementsare ... foundashouseholdservantsandcooks,andinsomecitiesinIndiatheyrunpublicbathhouses.HijrascomplainthatincontemporaryIndiatheiropportunitytoearnalivingbytherespectablemeans of performingatmarriagesandbirthshasdeclined,duetosmallerfamilies,lesselaboratelife-cycleceremonies,andageneraldeclineintherespectfortraditionalritualspecialists.Hijrashaveeffectivelymaintainedeconomicpredominance,ifnottotalmonopoly,overtheirritualrole.Definedbythelargersocietyasemasculatedmen,theyhaveclearlyseenthatitisintheirinteresttopreservethisdefinition of theirrole.Theydothisbymakingloudandpublicgesturestodenouncethe"frauds"and"fakes"whoimitatethem.Theythusreinforceinthepublicmindtheirownsolerighttotheirtraditionaloccu-pations.Whenhijrasfindotherfemaleimpersonatorsattempt-ingtoperformwhereitistheirrighttodoso,theychasethemaway,usingphysicalforceifnecessary.Hijraclaimstoexclusiveentitlementtoperformatlife-cyclerituals,tocollectalmsincertainterritories,andeventoownlandcommunallyreceivehistoricalsupportintheedicts of someIndianstatesthatoffi-ciallygrantedthemtheserights.Hijrashavealsobeensuccessfulincontrollingtheiraudi-encesintheirowneconomicinterest.Hijrasidentifywithre-nouncers(sannyasis)and,likethem,hijrashaveabandonedtheirfamilyandcasteidentitiesinordertojointheirreligiouscommunity.Likesannyasis,then,hijrastranscendnetworks of socialobligation.Theyoccupythelowestend of theIndiansocialhierarchyand,havingnoordinarysocialpositiontomaintainwithinthathierarchy,hijrasarefreedfromthere-straints of ordinarybehavior.Theyknowthattheirshame-lessnessmakesordinarypeoplereluctanttoprovokethemortoresisttheirdemandsformoneyandhencetheytradeonthefearandanxietypeoplehaveaboutthemtocoercecom-96HijraHijra100HillPandaraminusage.Apartfromconjugaltiesandclose"affinal"relation-ships(whichincontrasttothe"kin"linkshavewarmthandintimacy),kinshiptiesarenot"load"-bearinginthesense of implyingstructuredroleobligations.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Bothpolyandrousandpolygynousmarriageshavebeenrecorded,butmostmarriagesaremonogamous.Cross-cousinmarriageisthenormandmarriagesemergeal-mostspontaneouslyfrompreexistingkinshippatterns,ascampaggregatescenteronaffinallyrelatedmen.Thereislit-tleornomarriageceremonyandthereisnoformalarrange-ment of marriagepartners,althoughyoungmentendtoes-tablishpriortieswithprospectiveparents-in-law.MarriagesarebrittleandmostolderHillPandaramhaveexperiencedaseries of conjugalpartnershipsduringtheirlifetime.Acohab.itingcoupleformsanindependenthouseholdonmarriage,butthecouplemaycontinueasaunitinthecampaggregate of eitherset of parents.DomesticUnit.Theconjugalfamilyisthebasiceconomicunit.Members of afamilymayliveinseparateleafshelters(thoughspousessharethesameleafshelter)andmayformforagingpartieswithothermembers of acampaggregate,butallfoodgatheredbyanindividualbelongstohisorherownimmediatefamily,whoshareasimplehearth.Onlymeat,to-bacco,andtheproceeds of honey-gatheringexpeditionsaresharedbetweenthefamiliesconstitutingacampaggregate.Inheritance.AstheHillPandarampossessnolandandhavefewmaterialpossessions,littleemphasisisplacedoninheritance.Socialization.TheHillPandaramputanormativestressonindividualautonomyandself-sufficiency,andfromtheirearliestyearschildrenareexpectedtoassertindependence.Childrencollectforestproducefortradeandwilloftenspendlongperiodsawayfromtheirparents.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Organizedasaforagingcommunity,livinginsmallcampaggregates of twotothreefamiliesscat-teredoverawidearea,theHillPandaramexhibitnowiderstructures of sociopoliticalorganization.Therearenoritualcongregations,microcastes,noranyothercommunalassocia-tionsorcorporategroupingsabovethelevel of theconjugalfamily.Alack of widerformalorganizationiscoupledwithapervasivestressonegalitarianism,self-sufficiency,andtheautonomy of theindividual.Someindividualsinthesettle-mentsarerecognizedasmuttukani(headmen)buttheirroleisnotinstitutionalized,fortheyareessentiallyapart of thesystem of controlintroducedbyadministrativeagencies of theForestryandWelfareDepartmentstofacilitateefficientcommunicationwiththecommunity.SocialControl.TheHillPandaramhavenoformalinsti-tutionsforthesettlement of disputes,thoughindividualmenandwomenoftenactasinformalmediatorsorconciliators.Socialcontrolismaintainedtoanimportantdegreebyavaluesystemthatputsapremiumontheavoidance of aggres-sionandconflict;likeotherforagers,theHillPandaramtendtoavoidconflictbyseparationandbyflight.ReligionandExpressiveCultureAlthoughnominallyHindu,HillPandaramreligionisdis-tinctfromthat of theneighboringagriculturalistsinbeingun-iconic(i.e.,veneratingnotimages of deities,butthecrests of mountains)andfocusedonthecontact,throughpossessionrites, of localizedmaladevi(hillspirits).HillPan-darammayoccasionallymakeritualofferingsatvillagetem-ples,particularlythoseassociatedwiththegodsAiyappanandMuruganatthetime of theOnamfestival(December)oratlocalshrinesestablishedinforestareasbyTamillaborers;butotherwisetheyhavelittlecontactwiththeformalrituals of Hinduism.ReligiousBeliefs.ThespiritualagenciesrecognizedbytheHillPandaramfallintotwocategories:theancestralghostsorshades(chavu)andthehillspirits(maladevi).Thehillspiritsaresupernaturalsassociatedwithparticularhillorrockpreci-pices,andinthecommunityasawholethesespiritsarelegion,withahilldeityforaboutevery8squarekilometers of forest.Althoughlocalizedspirits,thehillspiritsarenot'familyspir-its"fortheymayhavedevoteeslivingsomedistancefromtheparticularlocality.Theancestralshades,ontheotherhand,arelinkedtoparticularfamilies,butlikethehillspiritstheirin-fluenceismainlybeneficent,givingprotectionagainstmisfor-tuneandprofferingadviceintimes of need.Oneclass of spir-its,however,isessentiallymalevolent.Thesearethearukula,thespirits of personswhohavediedaccidentallythroughfall-ingfromatreeorbeingkilledbyawildanimal.ReligiousPractitioners.Certainmenandwomenhavetheabilitytoinduceatrancelikestateandinthiswaytocontactthespirits.Theyareknownastullukara(possessiondancers,fromtullu,"tojump"),andattimes of misfortunetheyarecalleduponbyrelativesorfriendstogivehelpandsupport.Ceremonies.TheHillPandaramhavenotemplesorshrinesandthusmakenoformalritualofferingstothespirits,leadinglocalvillagerstosuggestthattheyhavenoreligion.Nordotheyritualizethelife-cycleevents of birth,puberty,anddeathtoanygreatdegree.Theimportantreligiouscere-monyisthepossessionseance,inwhichthetullukaragoesintoatrancestateinducedbyrhythmicdrummingandsing-ingandincarnatesoneormore of thehillspiritsoranances-tralshade.Duringtheseancethecause of themisfortuneisascertained(usuallythebreaking of atabooassociatedwiththemenstrualperiod)andthehelp of thesupernaturalissoughttoalleviatethesicknessormisfortune.Arts.IncontrastwithotherIndiancommunitiestheHillPandaramhavefewartforms.Nevertheless,theirsingingishighlydeveloped,andtheirsongsarevariedandelaborateandincludehistoricalthemes.Medicine.Allminorailmentsaredealtwiththroughher-balremedies,sincetheHillPandaramhaveadeepthoughunstructuredknowledge of medicinalplants.Moreseriouscomplaintsarehandledthroughthepossessionrites.BibliographyFirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1970)."NotesontheMalapantaram of Travancore."Bulletin of theInternationalCommitteeforUrgentAnthropologicalandEthnologicalRe-search3:4 4-5 1.HillPandaram99withtheirneighborsandcameunderthepoliticaljurisdiction of theearlyTamilkingdomsorlocalpettychieftains,whotaxedforestproductssuchascardamom,bamboo,ivory,honey,andwax.Theimportance of thistradeatthebegin-ning of thenineteenthcenturyishighlightedinthewritings of theAbbeDuboisandintheeconomicsurvey of theformerTravancoreStatemadeatthattimebytwoBritishofficials,WardandConner.ForesttradestillservestolinktheHillPandaramtothewiderHindusociety.SettlementsTheHillPandaramhavetwotypes of residentialgrouping-settlementsandforestcamps-althoughabout25percent of HillPandaramfamiliesliveacompletelynomadicexistenceandarenotassociatedwithanysettlement.Atypicalsettle-mentconsists of abouttenhuts,widelyseparatedfromeachother,eachhousingafamilywholivethereonasemiper-manentbasis.Thehutsaresimple,rectangularconstructionswithsplit-bambooscreensandgrass-thatchedroofs;manyarelittlemorethanroofedshelters.Aroundthehutsitesfruit-bearingtreessuchasmangoandtamarind,cassavaandsmallcultivationsmaybefound.Thesettlementsareoftensomedistancefromvillagecommunities(withtheirmulticastepopulations)andhavenocommunalfocuslikereligiousshrines.Settlementsareinhabitedonlyonanintermittentbasis.Thesecondtype of residentialgroupingistheforestcamp,consisting of twotosixtemporaryleafshelters,eachmadefromaframework of bamboothatissupportedonasin-gleuprightpoleandcoveredbypalmleaves.Theseleafshel-tershaveaconicalappearanceandareformedoverafireplaceconsisting of threestonesthatwerefoundonthesite.Rec-tangularlean-tosmayalsobeconstructedusingtwouprightpoles.Settlementsarescatteredthroughouttheforestrangesexceptintheinteriorforest,whichislargelyuninhabitedapartfromnomadiccamps of theHillPandaram.Themajor-ity of theHillPandaramarenomadicandtheusuallength of stayataparticularcampingsite(orarockshelter,whichisfrequentlyused)isfromtwotosixteendays,withsevenoreightdaysbeingtheaverage,althoughspecificfamiliesmayresideinaparticularlocalityforaboutsixtoeightweeks.No-madicmovements,inthesense of shiftingcamp,usuallyvaryoverdistancesfromahalf-kilometerto6kilometers,thoughindailyforagingactivitiestheHillPandarammayrangeoverseveralkilometers.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.AlthoughtheHillPandaramoccasionallyengageinpaidlaborforthefor-estdepartment,andasmallminority of familiesaresettledagriculturalistsontheforestperimeter,themajorityareno-madichunter-gatherers,whocombinefoodgatheringwiththecollection of minorforestproduce.Themainstaplecon-sists of variouskinds of yamcollectedbymeans of diggingsticks,togetherwiththenuts of aforestcycad,kalinga(Cycascincinalis).Suchstaplesaresupplementedwithpalmflour,andcassavaandriceareobtainedthroughtrade.Thehunting of smallanimals,particularlymonkeys,squirrels,andmonitorlizards,isimportant.Theseanimalsareob-tainedeitherduringforagingactivitiesorinahuntingpartyconsisting of twomenoramanandayoungboy,usingoldmuzzle-loadingguns.Dogs,anaidtohunting,aretheonlydomesticanimals.Trade.Thecollection of minorforestproduceisanimpor-tantaspect of economiclifeandtheprincipalitemstradedarehoney,wax,dammar(aresin),turmeric,ginger,cardamom,inchabark(Acaciaintsia,onevariety of whichisasoapsub-stitute,theotherafishpoison),variousmedicinalplants,oil-bearingseeds,andbarkmaterialsusedfortanningpurposes.Thetrade of theseproductsisorganizedthroughacontrac-tualmercantilesystem,aparticularforestrangebeingleasedbytheForestDepartmenttoacontractor,whoisnormallyawealthymerchantlivingintheplainsarea,oftenaMuslimorahigh-casteHindu.ThroughthecontractortheHillPan-daramobtaintheirbasicsubsistencerequirements:salt,con-diments,cloth,cookingpots,andtinsforcollectinghoney.Allthematerialpossessions of thecommunityareobtainedthroughsuchtrade-eventhetwoitemsthatarecrucialtotheircollectingeconomy,billhooksandaxes.Asthecontrac-tualsystemexploitedtheHillPandaram,whorarelygotthefullmarketvaluefortheforestcommoditiestheycollected,moveshavebeenmadeinrecentyearstoreplaceitbyaforestcooperativesystemadministeredbyforestryofficialsundertheauspices of thegovernment'sTribalWelfareDepartment.Division of Labor.Althoughwomenaretheprincipalgatherers of yams,whilethehunting of thelargermammalsandthecollection of honeyaretheprerogatives of men,thedivision of laborisnotarigidone.Menmaycookandcareforchildren,whilewomenfrequentlygohuntingforsmallerani-mals,anactivitythattendstobeacollectiveenterprisein-volvingafamilyaidedbyadog.Collection of forestproducetendstobedonebybothsexes.LandTenure.EachHillPandaramfamily(orindividual)isassociatedwithaparticularforesttract,butthereislittleornoassertion of territorialrightsorrightsoverparticularforestproductseitherbyindividualsorfamilies.Theforestisheldtobethecommonproperty of thewholecommunity.Nocom-plaintisexpressedattheincreasingencroachmentonthefor-estbylow-countrymenwhogatherdammarorotherforestproducts,oratincreasingincidences of poachingbythem.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Unlikethecastecommunities of Kerala,theHillPandaramhavenounilinealdescentsys-temorideologyandtherearenorecognizedcorporategroup-ingsabovethelevel of thefamily.Thesettlementsare ... foundashouseholdservantsandcooks,andinsomecitiesinIndiatheyrunpublicbathhouses.HijrascomplainthatincontemporaryIndiatheiropportunitytoearnalivingbytherespectablemeans of performingatmarriagesandbirthshasdeclined,duetosmallerfamilies,lesselaboratelife-cycleceremonies,andageneraldeclineintherespectfortraditionalritualspecialists.Hijrashaveeffectivelymaintainedeconomicpredominance,ifnottotalmonopoly,overtheirritualrole.Definedbythelargersocietyasemasculatedmen,theyhaveclearlyseenthatitisintheirinteresttopreservethisdefinition of theirrole.Theydothisbymakingloudandpublicgesturestodenouncethe"frauds"and"fakes"whoimitatethem.Theythusreinforceinthepublicmindtheirownsolerighttotheirtraditionaloccu-pations.Whenhijrasfindotherfemaleimpersonatorsattempt-ingtoperformwhereitistheirrighttodoso,theychasethemaway,usingphysicalforceifnecessary.Hijraclaimstoexclusiveentitlementtoperformatlife-cyclerituals,tocollectalmsincertainterritories,andeventoownlandcommunallyreceivehistoricalsupportintheedicts of someIndianstatesthatoffi-ciallygrantedthemtheserights.Hijrashavealsobeensuccessfulincontrollingtheiraudi-encesintheirowneconomicinterest.Hijrasidentifywithre-nouncers(sannyasis)and,likethem,hijrashaveabandonedtheirfamilyandcasteidentitiesinordertojointheirreligiouscommunity.Likesannyasis,then,hijrastranscendnetworks of socialobligation.Theyoccupythelowestend of theIndiansocialhierarchyand,havingnoordinarysocialpositiontomaintainwithinthathierarchy,hijrasarefreedfromthere-straints of ordinarybehavior.Theyknowthattheirshame-lessnessmakesordinarypeoplereluctanttoprovokethemortoresisttheirdemandsformoneyandhencetheytradeonthefearandanxietypeoplehaveaboutthemtocoercecom-96HijraHijra100HillPandaraminusage.Apartfromconjugaltiesandclose"affinal"relation-ships(whichincontrasttothe"kin"linkshavewarmthandintimacy),kinshiptiesarenot"load"-bearinginthesense of implyingstructuredroleobligations.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Bothpolyandrousandpolygynousmarriageshavebeenrecorded,butmostmarriagesaremonogamous.Cross-cousinmarriageisthenormandmarriagesemergeal-mostspontaneouslyfrompreexistingkinshippatterns,ascampaggregatescenteronaffinallyrelatedmen.Thereislit-tleornomarriageceremonyandthereisnoformalarrange-ment of marriagepartners,althoughyoungmentendtoes-tablishpriortieswithprospectiveparents-in-law.MarriagesarebrittleandmostolderHillPandaramhaveexperiencedaseries of conjugalpartnershipsduringtheirlifetime.Acohab.itingcoupleformsanindependenthouseholdonmarriage,butthecouplemaycontinueasaunitinthecampaggregate of eitherset of parents.DomesticUnit.Theconjugalfamilyisthebasiceconomicunit.Members of afamilymayliveinseparateleafshelters(thoughspousessharethesameleafshelter)andmayformforagingpartieswithothermembers of acampaggregate,butallfoodgatheredbyanindividualbelongstohisorherownimmediatefamily,whoshareasimplehearth.Onlymeat,to-bacco,andtheproceeds of honey-gatheringexpeditionsaresharedbetweenthefamiliesconstitutingacampaggregate.Inheritance.AstheHillPandarampossessnolandandhavefewmaterialpossessions,littleemphasisisplacedoninheritance.Socialization.TheHillPandaramputanormativestressonindividualautonomyandself-sufficiency,andfromtheirearliestyearschildrenareexpectedtoassertindependence.Childrencollectforestproducefortradeandwilloftenspendlongperiodsawayfromtheirparents.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Organizedasaforagingcommunity,livinginsmallcampaggregates of twotothreefamiliesscat-teredoverawidearea,theHillPandaramexhibitnowiderstructures of sociopoliticalorganization.Therearenoritualcongregations,microcastes,noranyothercommunalassocia-tionsorcorporategroupingsabovethelevel of theconjugalfamily.Alack of widerformalorganizationiscoupledwithapervasivestressonegalitarianism,self-sufficiency,andtheautonomy of theindividual.Someindividualsinthesettle-mentsarerecognizedasmuttukani(headmen)buttheirroleisnotinstitutionalized,fortheyareessentiallyapart of thesystem of controlintroducedbyadministrativeagencies of theForestryandWelfareDepartmentstofacilitateefficientcommunicationwiththecommunity.SocialControl.TheHillPandaramhavenoformalinsti-tutionsforthesettlement of disputes,thoughindividualmenandwomenoftenactasinformalmediatorsorconciliators.Socialcontrolismaintainedtoanimportantdegreebyavaluesystemthatputsapremiumontheavoidance of aggres-sionandconflict;likeotherforagers,theHillPandaramtendtoavoidconflictbyseparationandbyflight.ReligionandExpressiveCultureAlthoughnominallyHindu,HillPandaramreligionisdis-tinctfromthat of theneighboringagriculturalistsinbeingun-iconic(i.e.,veneratingnotimages of deities,butthecrests of mountains)andfocusedonthecontact,throughpossessionrites, of localizedmaladevi(hillspirits).HillPan-darammayoccasionallymakeritualofferingsatvillagetem-ples,particularlythoseassociatedwiththegodsAiyappanandMuruganatthetime of theOnamfestival(December)oratlocalshrinesestablishedinforestareasbyTamillaborers;butotherwisetheyhavelittlecontactwiththeformalrituals of Hinduism.ReligiousBeliefs.ThespiritualagenciesrecognizedbytheHillPandaramfallintotwocategories:theancestralghostsorshades(chavu)andthehillspirits(maladevi).Thehillspiritsaresupernaturalsassociatedwithparticularhillorrockpreci-pices,andinthecommunityasawholethesespiritsarelegion,withahilldeityforaboutevery8squarekilometers of forest.Althoughlocalizedspirits,thehillspiritsarenot'familyspir-its"fortheymayhavedevoteeslivingsomedistancefromtheparticularlocality.Theancestralshades,ontheotherhand,arelinkedtoparticularfamilies,butlikethehillspiritstheirin-fluenceismainlybeneficent,givingprotectionagainstmisfor-tuneandprofferingadviceintimes of need.Oneclass of spir-its,however,isessentiallymalevolent.Thesearethearukula,thespirits of personswhohavediedaccidentallythroughfall-ingfromatreeorbeingkilledbyawildanimal.ReligiousPractitioners.Certainmenandwomenhavetheabilitytoinduceatrancelikestateandinthiswaytocontactthespirits.Theyareknownastullukara(possessiondancers,fromtullu,"tojump"),andattimes of misfortunetheyarecalleduponbyrelativesorfriendstogivehelpandsupport.Ceremonies.TheHillPandaramhavenotemplesorshrinesandthusmakenoformalritualofferingstothespirits,leadinglocalvillagerstosuggestthattheyhavenoreligion.Nordotheyritualizethelife-cycleevents of birth,puberty,anddeathtoanygreatdegree.Theimportantreligiouscere-monyisthepossessionseance,inwhichthetullukaragoesintoatrancestateinducedbyrhythmicdrummingandsing-ingandincarnatesoneormore of thehillspiritsoranances-tralshade.Duringtheseancethecause of themisfortuneisascertained(usuallythebreaking of atabooassociatedwiththemenstrualperiod)andthehelp of thesupernaturalissoughttoalleviatethesicknessormisfortune.Arts.IncontrastwithotherIndiancommunitiestheHillPandaramhavefewartforms.Nevertheless,theirsingingishighlydeveloped,andtheirsongsarevariedandelaborateandincludehistoricalthemes.Medicine.Allminorailmentsaredealtwiththroughher-balremedies,sincetheHillPandaramhaveadeepthoughunstructuredknowledge of medicinalplants.Moreseriouscomplaintsarehandledthroughthepossessionrites.BibliographyFirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1970)."NotesontheMalapantaram of Travancore."Bulletin of theInternationalCommitteeforUrgentAnthropologicalandEthnologicalRe-search3:4 4-5 1.HillPandaram99withtheirneighborsandcameunderthepoliticaljurisdiction of theearlyTamilkingdomsorlocalpettychieftains,whotaxedforestproductssuchascardamom,bamboo,ivory,honey,andwax.Theimportance of thistradeatthebegin-ning of thenineteenthcenturyishighlightedinthewritings of theAbbeDuboisandintheeconomicsurvey of theformerTravancoreStatemadeatthattimebytwoBritishofficials,WardandConner.ForesttradestillservestolinktheHillPandaramtothewiderHindusociety.SettlementsTheHillPandaramhavetwotypes of residentialgrouping-settlementsandforestcamps-althoughabout25percent of HillPandaramfamiliesliveacompletelynomadicexistenceandarenotassociatedwithanysettlement.Atypicalsettle-mentconsists of abouttenhuts,widelyseparatedfromeachother,eachhousingafamilywholivethereonasemiper-manentbasis.Thehutsaresimple,rectangularconstructionswithsplit-bambooscreensandgrass-thatchedroofs;manyarelittlemorethanroofedshelters.Aroundthehutsitesfruit-bearingtreessuchasmangoandtamarind,cassavaandsmallcultivationsmaybefound.Thesettlementsareoftensomedistancefromvillagecommunities(withtheirmulticastepopulations)andhavenocommunalfocuslikereligiousshrines.Settlementsareinhabitedonlyonanintermittentbasis.Thesecondtype of residentialgroupingistheforestcamp,consisting of twotosixtemporaryleafshelters,eachmadefromaframework of bamboothatissupportedonasin-gleuprightpoleandcoveredbypalmleaves.Theseleafshel-tershaveaconicalappearanceandareformedoverafireplaceconsisting of threestonesthatwerefoundonthesite.Rec-tangularlean-tosmayalsobeconstructedusingtwouprightpoles.Settlementsarescatteredthroughouttheforestrangesexceptintheinteriorforest,whichislargelyuninhabitedapartfromnomadiccamps of theHillPandaram.Themajor-ity of theHillPandaramarenomadicandtheusuallength of stayataparticularcampingsite(orarockshelter,whichisfrequentlyused)isfromtwotosixteendays,withsevenoreightdaysbeingtheaverage,althoughspecificfamiliesmayresideinaparticularlocalityforaboutsixtoeightweeks.No-madicmovements,inthesense of shiftingcamp,usuallyvaryoverdistancesfromahalf-kilometerto6kilometers,thoughindailyforagingactivitiestheHillPandarammayrangeoverseveralkilometers.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.AlthoughtheHillPandaramoccasionallyengageinpaidlaborforthefor-estdepartment,andasmallminority of familiesaresettledagriculturalistsontheforestperimeter,themajorityareno-madichunter-gatherers,whocombinefoodgatheringwiththecollection of minorforestproduce.Themainstaplecon-sists of variouskinds of yamcollectedbymeans of diggingsticks,togetherwiththenuts of aforestcycad,kalinga(Cycascincinalis).Suchstaplesaresupplementedwithpalmflour,andcassavaandriceareobtainedthroughtrade.Thehunting of smallanimals,particularlymonkeys,squirrels,andmonitorlizards,isimportant.Theseanimalsareob-tainedeitherduringforagingactivitiesorinahuntingpartyconsisting of twomenoramanandayoungboy,usingoldmuzzle-loadingguns.Dogs,anaidtohunting,aretheonlydomesticanimals.Trade.Thecollection of minorforestproduceisanimpor-tantaspect of economiclifeandtheprincipalitemstradedarehoney,wax,dammar(aresin),turmeric,ginger,cardamom,inchabark(Acaciaintsia,onevariety of whichisasoapsub-stitute,theotherafishpoison),variousmedicinalplants,oil-bearingseeds,andbarkmaterialsusedfortanningpurposes.Thetrade of theseproductsisorganizedthroughacontrac-tualmercantilesystem,aparticularforestrangebeingleasedbytheForestDepartmenttoacontractor,whoisnormallyawealthymerchantlivingintheplainsarea,oftenaMuslimorahigh-casteHindu.ThroughthecontractortheHillPan-daramobtaintheirbasicsubsistencerequirements:salt,con-diments,cloth,cookingpots,andtinsforcollectinghoney.Allthematerialpossessions of thecommunityareobtainedthroughsuchtrade-eventhetwoitemsthatarecrucialtotheircollectingeconomy,billhooksandaxes.Asthecontrac-tualsystemexploitedtheHillPandaram,whorarelygotthefullmarketvaluefortheforestcommoditiestheycollected,moveshavebeenmadeinrecentyearstoreplaceitbyaforestcooperativesystemadministeredbyforestryofficialsundertheauspices of thegovernment'sTribalWelfareDepartment.Division of Labor.Althoughwomenaretheprincipalgatherers of yams,whilethehunting of thelargermammalsandthecollection of honeyaretheprerogatives of men,thedivision of laborisnotarigidone.Menmaycookandcareforchildren,whilewomenfrequentlygohuntingforsmallerani-mals,anactivitythattendstobeacollectiveenterprisein-volvingafamilyaidedbyadog.Collection of forestproducetendstobedonebybothsexes.LandTenure.EachHillPandaramfamily(orindividual)isassociatedwithaparticularforesttract,butthereislittleornoassertion of territorialrightsorrightsoverparticularforestproductseitherbyindividualsorfamilies.Theforestisheldtobethecommonproperty of thewholecommunity.Nocom-plaintisexpressedattheincreasingencroachmentonthefor-estbylow-countrymenwhogatherdammarorotherforestproducts,oratincreasingincidences of poachingbythem.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Unlikethecastecommunities of Kerala,theHillPandaramhavenounilinealdescentsys-temorideologyandtherearenorecognizedcorporategroup-ingsabovethelevel of thefamily.Thesettlementsare...

... asthebridesmaid,andthebride'sbrotherwillserveasthebestman.Thebrideisbroughtbyherrelativesandthegroom'spartytothegroom'shouseontheweddingday.Inthehouseorwithinatemporaryshelter(pandal)erectednearthehouse,thegroominthemostpertinentact of themarriageceremonyandinconformitywiththewidespreadpracticeinsouthernIndia,tiesanecklace(tali,providedbyhismaternaluncle)aroundthebride'sneck.Afeastisthenprovidedbythegroom'speople.Milletwouldinpasttimeshavebeenserved,butitisnowfashionabletoservericewithcurry.Thegroomafterwardbowstothefeet of gueststoreceivetheirblessingandisfollowedinthisactbyhiswife.Alongwiththeirbless-ing,theguestsgivemoney(typicallyRs1,2,or5)tothecou-ple.Alllatergotothebride'shouse,andthereisthenan-otherfeast(again,withriceandcurry),whichrunsintothenight.Allfeastingisaccompaniedbythedancing of malesandfemales(usuallyinseparategroupsbutinonecircle).Theconsumption of intoxicatingbeveragesisalsoliabletotakeplace.Theestablishment of aseparatepatrilocalhouse-holdaftermarriageisthenorm.Conformingwiththewide-spreadpracticeinsouthernIndia,thewifeusuallyreturnstoherpaternalhomeinherseventhmonth of pregnancyandre-mainsthereuntilafterherinfantisdelivered.Whileawom-an'sinabilitytobearachildisnotconsideredgroundsfordi-vorce,anIrulamanmaymarryanotherwomanifhisfirstwifecannotconceive.Hethenismarriedtobothwomen.Theusualgroundsfordivorceareunfaithfulnessorahusband'slack of provisionforhiswife.Whenamarriageistroubled,aIndianChristian103BibliographyChaudhuri,NiradC.(1979).Hinduism,aReligiontoLiveBy.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress;London:Chatto&Windus.Zaehner,RC.(1962).Hinduism.London:OxfordUniver-sityPress.PAULHOCKINGSStutley,Margaret,andJamesStutley(1977).Harper'sDic-tionary of Hinduism:ItsMythology,Folklore,Philosophy,Liter-ature,andHistory.NewYork:Harper&Row.IndianChristianETHNONYMS:noneIndianChristiansarebelieversinthedivinity of JesusChrist.Despitethepersistingideain South Asia thatChris-tianityisthe"whiteman'sreligion,"ithasamassivefollowingtodayinthesubcontinent.Still,itisverymuchaminorityfaith,accountingfornearly8percent of theSriLankanpopu-lationbutlessthan3percentineach of theother South Asiancountries.In1991Indiahadanestimated21millionChristians,andtheother South Asiancountriestogetherhadanother3million.TheideathatChristianitywasintroducedbythecolo-nialpowers-RomanCatholicismbythePortugueseandthenAnglicanismbytheEnglish-isnotstrictlytrue.Keralaandsomeotherparts of thewestcoasthadcertainlybeenevangelizedbyNestorianmissionariessincethesixthcentury,andmanyin south IndiabelievethattheapostleThomascametoTamilNaduandwasmartyredandburiedinwhatisnowMadrascity.TheseearlyreligiousconnectionswerewithSyria(cf.SyrianChristians).ThePortuguesebroughtPortu-gueseandItalianpriestswiththem,andin1557Goa,theirmajorIndiancolony,becameanarchbishopric.Withthefounding of theEastIndiaCompanyin1600theEnglishin-troducedtheAnglicanfaith,andastimepassedotherProtes-tantsectsappeared.Theyears185 0-1 900werethehighpoint of Protestantmissionactivityin South Asia, withmin-istersfromAmericaandvirtuallyeverycountryinEuropevyingforconverts,especiallyamongtheUntouchables,tri-bals,anddowntroddenslumdwellers.Insomeareastheyweredramaticallysuccessfulatgainingconverts:theMizos of northeasternIndiaarenearlyallChristianstoday,thankstothesomewhatobscureWelshBaptistmission.Attheotherend of thecountry,though,theBadagasare97percentHinduafterseventyyears of concertedeffortbytheBaselEvangelicalmission,followedbyanotherseventyyears of othermissionaryactivity.TheRomanCatholicmissionarieshavenotfaredanybetteramongtheBadagas;butelsewheretherearelargeCatholiccongregationsinmanytownsandcit-ies.BytheCongregationdePropagandaFide(1622)theCatholicchurchencouragedthetraining of ... Indianpriests,andalsobroughtinlargenumbers of EuropeanJesuitsinasu-pervisorycapacity.Theyear1947markedalandmarkinProtestantchurchhistory,notjustbecausethiswastheyear of independenceforbothIndiaandPakistanbutalsobecauseitwastheyearwhentheChurch of South Indiacameintobeing-thefirstunifiedProtestantchurchanywhere.It of courseabsorbedtheformerAnglican,Methodist,andseveralothersectarianinstitutions.In1970therefollowedaunifiedProtestantChurch of NorthIndiaandaProtestantChurch of Pakistan.Thesechurches,bothProtestantandCatholic,arenowentirelyinthehands of South Asianbishopsandarchbish-ops,withveryfew of theformerEuropeanmissionariesre-maining.InSriLankaand south India,thegreatestgrowthshaverecentlybeenseenamongtheRomanCatholics,notprimarilybecause of newconversionsbutratherbecause of acalculatedavoidance of familyplanning.InNepalChristianandMuslimmissionaryactivityisprohibitedbylaw.Thehistory of Christianityin South Asia hasindeedbeenacheckeredone,butithasbeenanimportantinstru-ment of Westernization.ThefirstprintingpressesandthefirstmodemcollegeswereintroducedbyEuropeanmissionar-ies.Bythemiddle of thenineteenthcenturythesepeopleweremakingimportantcontributionstothegeneralsocialuplift of thecountry(andnotonlyforChristianconverts)bytheirpromotion of ruralandurbanschooling,adultliteracy,femaleeducation,colleges,hospitalsandclinics,andmodemurbancareers.AsaresulttheChristianpopulationhaswieldedadisproportionateinfluenceinmodemIndianandSriLankanlife.Littleconversionisstilltakingplace.IndianChristianstodaytendtobeurban,arealwaysmo-nogamous,andformnuclearfamiliesuponmarriage(whichtakesplaceinachurch).TheyusuallyfollowWesternizedprofessions,becomingteachers,nurses,bankclerks,andcivilservants.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; SyrianChristian of KeralaBibliographyCoutinho,Fortunato(1958).Leregimeparoissialdesdiocesesderitelatindel'Indedesorigines(XVIesiecleanosjours).Paris:EditionsBiatrice-Nauwelaerts.Gibbs,MildredE.(1972).TheAnglicanChurchinIndia,160 0-1 970.Delhi:IndianSocietyforPromotingChristianKnowledge.Nanjundayya,H.V.,andL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer(1930)."IndianChristian."InTheMysoreTribesandCastes,editedbyH.V.NanjundayyaandL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer.Vol.3, 1-7 6.Mysore:MysoreUniversity.Neill,Stephen(1984).AHistory of ChristianityinIndia.2vols.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Thomas,AbrahamV.(1974).ChristiansinSecularIndia.Rutherford:FairleighDickinsonUniversity.PAULHOCKINGSIrula105gosa)andtamarindareoftenpresentwithinlowlandsettle-ments.ThelowlandIrulawhoherdcattleforothers,typicallyindrierareaswiththornforest,areassociatedwithadistinc-tivesettlementpatterninwhichalargecattleenclosureissur-roundedbyathornywall of piledbranches.TheIrulaalsohaveburialgroundswithancestraltemples,calledkoppamanais,inwhichstonesassociatedwiththedepartedspirits of thedeadarehoused.Eachpatricianhasaburialplaceandakoppamanai,butthetwoarenotnecessarilytogether(forexample,whileSambanpeopleareonlyburiedatKallampa-layam,thereareSambankoppamanaisatHallimoyarandKunjappanai).Althoughaburialgroundisusuallyclosetoasettlement,itcanbefartheraway.Asinmanyotherparts of Asia andintothePacificBasin,thesacredness of aburialgroundisoftenassociatedwiththepagodatree(thePolyne-sianfrangipani).Largelybecausemany of theIrulaarelandlesslaborers,most of themliveinone-roomedhouses.Nevertheless,IrulaplantationlaborersinhabitingtheNilgirislopesstilloccupybipartitehouseswiththesacredcookingareaformallyseparated(typicallynotwithawallbutwithashallowearthenplatform)fromthelivingandsleepingareas.TheKasabatothenorth of theNilgirimassif,whoherdcattleforothers(Badagasincluded),occupytripartitestructureswithlivingquartersforhumanstooneside of aroomwithanopenfront,andacalfroomtotheotherside.Theopenfront of thecenterroomfacilitatesthewatching of theenclosedcattleatnight,anditismostusefulwhenpredatorsorwildel-ephantscomenear.WhiletraditionalIrulahousesaremade of wattleanddaub,withthatchedroofs(orinsomeinstancesbananasheathsforwallingandroofing),moreIrulaarelivinginhouseswithwalls of stoneorbrickandroofswithtiles,es-peciallyifthegovernmenthasprovidedfinancialassistance.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Theearliestre-portsindicatethatthehoe-usingIrula of theeasternNilgirislopesobtainedonecrop of milletinayearfromshiftedplots,involvingagrowingperiodthatcoincidedwiththewesterlymonsoon.Theythendependedupongardenproduce,gath-erededibles,andhuntingforsurvivaloncetheharvestedgrainhadbeenconsumed.ThattheseIrulawereprobablynamedafterayamspeciesisindicative of howimportantyamsweretothemwhentheyturnedtogathering.Severalwildyamspecieswereavailable.Irulaarestillwellknownforthegatheringandsupply of honeytotheirneighbors.Despitesculpturedrepresentations of bowsandarrowsinsomeNilgiridolmensathigherelevation,itisnoteworthythattheIrulaseemalwaystohaveusednetsandspearswhentheyhunted.Ourrecord of atleasteightyspecies of plantsgrowinginIrulagardenstestifiestothepastandcontinuingsignificance of gardenstoalltheIrula.Thatatleasttwenty-five of theidenti-fiedplantshadaNew World originalsoprovesthewilling-ness of theIrulatoincorporateintroducedspeciesintotheireconomy.Thecontinuedcultivation of fingermillet(Eleusinecorocana),Italianmillet(Setariaitalica),andlittlemillet(Panicumsumatrense)andnodryricebytheIrulaonthehigherslopesmayinitselfrepresentaNeolithicsurvival,be-causethecultivation of dryricehasinSoutheast Asia widelyreplacedtheearliercultivation of theItalianandlittlemilletsfromChina.TheIrulastillcommonlygrowthesetwospecies of millettogetherandthenharvesttheItalianmilletwhenthelittlemilletisfarfrommaturation.Verysmallsicklesareusedforharvestingindividualgrainheads.Whenfingermillet(grownapartfromtheothertwo)istobeharvested,theplantsarevisitedperiodicallytopermittheremoval of grainasitripens.Anothereconomicpursuitthatmayhavecontin-uedfromNeolithictimes,duringwhichcattlerearingwaswidespreadinsouthernIndia,isthemannerbywhichlow-landIrulainforestedareaskeepcattlefortheirneighbors(Kuruvasincluded).ThefewIrulawhostillmanagetoprac-ticeshiftingagriculturesetfireinAprilorMaytothevegeta-tiontheyhavecut,sothecultivation of milletwillthentakeplaceduringthewesterlymonsoon.Thebarnyardmillet(Echinochloa),bullrushmillet(Pennisetum),commonmillet(Panicummiliaceum)andsorghummillet(Sorghum),all of thelowland,renownedfortheirdroughtresistance,andthustypicallygrownondryfields,arecultivatedwiththeaid of plowsandmainlyintheseason of thewesterlymonsoon.Nowwiththecooperation of theForestDepartment,theIrulagatherforestproduce(includingmedicinalplants)forsale.SincemostIrula of theNilgirislopescurrentlyworkasplantationlaborers,plantationmanagementsstartingwiththoseinthetime of theBritishRajhadtoprovideperiodicre-leasetimeforthoseIrulawhoneededtoperformtheirownagriculturalchores.TheGandhianquesttoimprovethelives of members of theScheduledTribesisdemonstratedbythemannerinwhichthegovernmenthasenabledIrula of theeasternNilgirislopestoestablishcoffeeandteagardens of theirown,andatKunjappanaitheSilkBoard of thegovern-ment of TamilNaduisnowprovidingfinancialassistancetoenablesilkwormfarmingamongtheIrula.From1974thegovernmentgavesmallplotstoIrulaontheeasternslopes,andtheCooperativeLandDevelopmentBank(anagency of theTamilNadugovernment)atthenearesttown(Kotagiri)wasby1979helpingtofinancethegrowing of coffeeandteainnurseries,sothattheIrulacouldhavetheirowncommer-cializedgardens.WhileafewIrulawhowiselymanagedtheirgrantedlandsandloansprospered,manydidnotmanagetheirendeavorswellandthereturnpaymentonloansatalowratewaseventuallyendedinmanyinstancesbyaspecialbillpassedinMadrasbytheTamilNadugovernment.Itispri-marilythecooperation of thegovernment,withtheForestDepartment of TamilNaduplayinganimportantrole,thathasenabledmorelowlandIrulatobecomeinvolvedinthean-nualcultivation of irrigatedrice.Hallimoyar,Kallampalayam,andThengumarahada(withitsCooperativeSociety),inwhichtheIrulaliveclosetothemembers of severalcastes,haveirrigationnetworks.OnericecropstartedinMarchisharvestedinJune,andthesecondcropstartedinJulyisreadyinDecember.In1978anewlyconstructedricemillbecameoperationalatThengumarahada.Irulalivingtothe south of theNilgirimassifare ... per-formmanyagriculturaltasks.Malestypicallydothesowing,andwomenoftendothemostboring of taskssuchasweed-ing,reaping,andthecarrying of loads of harvestedgardenproduceorgrain.Bothmalesandfemalesarehiredforahost of laboringtasks.Becauseinfantcarethusbecomesaprob-lem,itisnotunusualforwomentotaketheirinfantstowork-places.Olderchildrennotattendingschoolareoftentakencare of bytheelderlyinextendedfamilies.LandTenure.Members of theThengumarahadaCooper-ativeSocietycultivateallottedamounts of land.Afew of theIrulaowntitletoland,sometimesintheform of patta(landownership)documents.GaudasandChettiarsinparticularhavetakenoverIrulalandthroughloanmanipulation,andsometherebynowalsohaveIrulasworkingforthem.ManyIrulaleaselandfromlandowners.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheIrulaformanendogamouscastewithtwelveexogamouspatricians(inSanskritgotras,inTamilkulams)-Devanan(orThevananorDevala),Kal-katti,Koduvan(orKodugar),Kuppan(orKoppilingam),Kurunagan,Ollaga,Peratha,Porigan,Pungan(orPoong-karu),Samban(orChamban),Uppigan(orUppali),andVellagai(orVellai)-andaclanrepresentedbythethudaitree(Ilexdenticulata).Nevertheless,becausemembers of apatriciancannotmarrymembersinoneormore"brother"pa-tricians,thereareexogamouspatricianunitsamongtheIrula.Theoverallsize of theseunitsvariesfromoneareatoanother.Thus,theIrulakinshipsystemissimilartotheonethatdomi-natesinsouthernIndia.Inaddition,theIrulahaveasystemwherebyeachpatricianisaffiliatedwithafriendshippatricianwhosemembershelpwhenanevent,typicallyarite of pas-sage,requirescooperativeeffort.TheidealmarriageamongtheIrulais of afemalewithherfather'ssister'sson(i.e.,amalewiththe...