top 10 beautiful cities of south asia
Urban Battle Fields of South Asia - Lessons Learned from Sri Lanka, India, and Pakistan pptx
... scope of this analysis. For further details, the reader may consult a number of 12 Urban Battle Fields of South Asia students at major universities, who may comply out of coercion orout of sympathy ... was____________16 D. Singh (2001, pp. 107 109 ).17 Ibid., pp. 109 – 110. 1CHAPTER ONEIntroductionBackgroundIndia, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka comprise three important states of South Asia. All have extensive ... Battle Fields of South Asia officials in Delhi see them as isolated, independent strikes. India hasexperienced a number of sustained urban campaigns, the most noto-rious and lethal of which was...
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Tài liệu Good practices in planning and management of integrated commercial poultry production in South Asia ppt
... 29 94 104 310 30 94 104 310 31 94 110 320 32-39 92 110 310 40-47 88 107 290 48-59 84 105 270 60-64 80 105 260 65-70 77 105 240 71-76 72 105 240 ECONOMIC TRAITS OF LAYERS Economically ... Intake/ 100 0 birds/day (kg) Water Intake/ 100 0 birds/day (litre)21 8 75 160 22 20 5 180 23 40 90 210 24 68 95 240 25 83 98 260 26 88 100 280 27 90 104 290 28 92 104 300 29 94 104 310 30 ... About 100 chicks may be reared in such cages with 160 cm2 space per chick. The floor must be made of 1.25 x 1.25 cm size weld mesh of 16 gauge thickness. One 100 watt bulb on the top of the...
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SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENTS AND TECHNICAL CHALLENGES IN THE PROGRESSIVE CONTROL OF FMD IN SOUTH ASIA pot
... of technical and scientific experts on FMD from South Asia, East Asia, and the West Eurasian epidemiological sub-regions. Progress of long term FMD control Roadmaps in West Eurasia and in South- East ... occurrence of three epidemics of regional significance in the past 3 years; type A Iran-05 (BAR-08 strain) in 2008, the type O Panasia-2 epidemic in 2 010- 11, and the Asia- 1 epidemic of 2011-12, all of ... Eurasia is considered to maintain an independent pool (Pool 3) of related FMD viruses of serotypes A, Asia- 1 and O, with only occasional entry of FMDV from other virus pools, such as South Asia...
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Báo cáo sinh học: " Detection and frequency of recombination in tomato-infecting begomoviruses of South and Southeast Asia" pptx
... the tomato-infecting begomoviruses of South and Southeast AsiaFigure 1Neighbor-Net generated for the tomato-infecting begomoviruses of South and Southeast Asia. Evidence for reticulate evolution ... http://www.virologyj.com/content/4/1/111Page 8 of 10 (page number not for citation purposes)genomes. Deviations in the tree order of individualsequences and of group of sequences between fragments of defined length indicate ... AccessResearchDetection and frequency of recombination in tomato-infecting begomoviruses of South and Southeast Asia HC Prasanna* and Mathura RaiAddress: Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, P B 5002,...
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Báo cáo hóa học: " Detection and frequency of recombination in tomato-infecting begomoviruses of South and Southeast Asia" pptx
... the tomato-infecting begomoviruses of South and Southeast AsiaFigure 1Neighbor-Net generated for the tomato-infecting begomoviruses of South and Southeast Asia. Evidence for reticulate evolution ... begomoviruses of South and Southeast Asia. Results: Different methods used for recombination breakpoint analysis provided strong evidencefor presence of recombination events in majority of the sequences ... AccessResearchDetection and frequency of recombination in tomato-infecting begomoviruses of South and Southeast Asia HC Prasanna* and Mathura RaiAddress: Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, P B 5002,...
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báo cáo hóa học:" Do South Asian women with PCOS have poorer health-related quality of life than Caucasian women with PCOS? A comparative cross-sectional study" docx
... (24.6%)were South Asian and 129 (75.4%) were Caucasian. The South Asian population consisted predominantly of women of Pakistani or Indian origin, either first or sec-ond generation, with 1% of Bangladeshi ... to compare the HRQoL of South Asian and Caucasian women diagnosed withPCOS. Exis ting research has ident ified a younger age of Table 2 Comparison of the Asian PCOS and Caucasian PCOS mean SF-36 ... affecting women of reproductive age. This study aimed to compare the HRQoL of South Asian and white Caucasian women withPCOS, given that it is particularly common among women of South Asian origin...
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Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - Overview pot
... ContentsProjectStaffviContributorsviiPrefacexiiiIntroductionxixMaps1. South Asia xxviii2.CulturalRegions of South Asia xxix3.MajorLanguages of South Asia xxx4.DominantReligiousGroups of South Asia xxxi5.CulturalGroups of South Asia xxxiiCultures of South Asia 1Appendix:AdditionalCastes,CasteClusters,andTribes309Bibliography342EthnonymIndextoAppendix349Glossary363Filmography367Index372Bibliography373Directory of Distributors373EthnonymIndex375 ... highmountainsinthenorth,valleysinthecenter,andforestsinthe south. Anindependentnationanddemo-craticmonarchysince1949,itsaffairsarecloselymanagedbyIndia.In1990thepopulationwasestimatedat1,500,000.Dzongkaistheofficiallanguage,withNepaliandEnglishalsowidelyspoken.ThecapitalisThimphu.Seventy-fivepercent of thepeopleareBuddhistandBuddhismistheofficialstatereligion.India(Republic of India)isthelargestandmostpopu-lous of thenations of South Asia. The1991census of Indialists844millioninhabitants(probablyanundercount)or16percent of theworld'spopulation.Indiaoccupiessome3,166,000squarekilometers.Itbecameademocraticrepublicin1950andiscomprised of twenty-fourstatesandsevenunionterritories.Itisamember of theBritishCommon-wealth of Nations.Thepopulation of Indiaiscomposed of anincrediblydiversemix of differentreligions,languagegroups,cultures,andsocialcategories.NewDelhiisthecapital.Maldives(Republic of Maldives)isanislandnationcomposed of over2,000islands(201inhabited)locatedintheIndianOcean640kilometerssouthwest of SriLanka.Thelandareacovers300squarekilometers,withnoislandhavinganareagreaterthan13squarekilometersandnonerisingover2metersabovesealevel.Thepopulationin1991was228,000with57,000livinginthecapitalcity of Male.ThenationallanguageisDivehiandthestatereligionisIslam.Mauritiusisanislandnationlocated1,280kilometersofftheeastcoast of MadagascarintheIndianOcean.Itiscomposed of themainislands of MauritiusandRodriguesandthesmallerislands of AgalegaandSaintBrandon.The11tL1VU"ULW1t ... seentwoprimeministersandan"heirapparent'killed;Pakistanhashangedonepresidentandseenanotherdieinaplanecrash;Bangladeshhaslosttwopresi-dentstoassassination;andinSriLankaaswellasBhutanoneprimeministerhasbeenassassinated.Thegrimmodelforall of theseacts of desperationwasnodoubttheshockingassas-sination of MahatmaGandhiin1948,aneventthatshowedextremists of allsortsthatifapersonwerewillingtodie,heorshecouldprobablytakeamajornationalleaderalongwithhim.Thiswasstilljustastruein1991.TheNations of South Asia Althoughthefocus of thisvolumeisthedistinctculturalgroups of South Asia, itisnecessarytoprovidesomebasicin-formationaboutthenationsinwhichthesepeoplelive.Thesenationsareshownonmap1,withcapital cities alsoindicated.Bangladesh(People'sRepublic of Bangladesh),formerlytheEasternProvince of Pakistan,becameanindependentna-tionin1971.Itoccupiesaterritory of some144,000squarekilometersandisborderedonthewest,north,andeastbyIndiaandbyMyanmar(formerlyBurma)onthesoutheast.In1990thepopulationwasestimatedat118,000,000.Dhaka(formerlyDacca)isthecapitalcity,withChittagong,Khulna,Rajshahi,andBarisalbeingothermajorurbancenters.TheofficiallanguageisBangla(Bengali),with98percent of thepopulationbeingethnicBengalisand87percentMuslims.Bangladeshisamongthepoorestnationsintheworldwithanannualpercapitaincome of U.S.$113in1986.In1988,1989,1991,andonmanyotheroccasionsBangladeshhassufferedtheeffects of monsoonsandcyclonesthathavekilledtens of thousandsandleftmillionshomeless.Bhutan(Kingdom of Bhutan)islocatedintheeasternHimalayanMountainsandisborderedbyIndiaonthe south andwest,Sikkimonthewest,andChina(Tibet)onthenorth.Itoccupies47,000squarekilometers,inthreedistinctregionsof...
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Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - A doc
... thevariousAborgroups)andexternal(i.e.,withneighboringpeoples)warfarewereeffectivelyelimi-natedaftertheinitiation of Britishrule.Conflictbetweenvil-lagesishandledbythebangocouncilandtheresolution of interbangoconflictistheresponsibility of thebogumbokang.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief&.Aborreligionischaracterizedbyabeliefinahost of spirits(uyu),bothbeneficentandmalevolent. Of these,theEpom(offspring of Robo,father of evilspirits)fig-ureprominently.Theyaretheadversaries of humanbeings(whoarebelievedtobetheoffspring of Robo'sprimordialbrother,Nibo)andaresaidtoinduceaccidents.Thesouls of thosewhohavenotbeenproperlyburiedorwhodiedunnat-uraldeathsbecomerams(evilspiritswhojointheEpomincombatagainsthumanity).Othernotableevilspiritsincludethenipong(spirit of awomanwhodiesduringpregnancy)andtheayinguyu(lowlandevilspiritswhoseassaultsaredirectedagainstmenandwomen of allages).Amongthemoreimpor-tantbenevolentspirits,BenjiBama(controller of humandes-tiny)mustbenoted,andeachnaturalforceisbelievedtopos-sessaspiritthatmustbeheldincheckthroughproperpersonalconductandtheperformance of certainrituals.Inaddition,theAborbelieveinseveraleternalbeings(e.g.,Seti,theearth,andMelo,thesky)whowereinexistencebeforecreationandareremovedfromtheaffairs of humanity.Thesebeingsbelongtoahigherorderthanthespirits,andtheyfig-ureprominentlyinAborcreationmyths.ReligiousPractitioners.TheAborhavetwocategories of religiouspractitioners:theepakmiri(diviner)andthenyibo(medicineman).Throughtheuse of incantations,herbs,div-ination,andspiritualdiscernment,theydeterminewhichspiritsareresponsiblefortheirmisfortuneandappeasethesemalevolentforcesthroughtheinvocation of afamiliarspirit.Thisspiritpossessesthebody of thepractitionerandassiststhesoul of theepakmiriornyiboinlocatingthespiritthatmustbeappeasedandinarrangingforasuitablepropitiatoryact of theindividualwhohasbeenafflicted.Thenyiboestab-lishescontactwiththeworld of spiritsbyrecountingcreationstories,whiletheepakmiriutilizesdanceandsong.Nospe-cialsocialsignificanceisattachedtoeitheroffice,thoughtheepakmiriisallowedtowearspecialbeadsonceremonialoccasions.Ceremonies.Ceremonialactivityaccompaniesthemajoreventsinthehumanlifecycleandisalsoassociatedwithaf-fairs of state,thelife of themoshupandrasheng,subsistenceactivities,warfare,andhealthcare.Songanddanceare of greatimportanceontheseoccasions.Theepakmiri,whoisalsotheguardian of tribalmyths,histories,genealogies,andothertraditionallore,isthecentralfigureduringtheseritualobservances.Arts.InadditiontothoseartifactsmanufacturedbytheAborsthathaveautilitarianorornamentalpurpose,tattoo-ingisalsopracticedbymanygroups.Abororalliteraturein-cludesanumber of myths,legends,folktales,traditionalbal-lads(abangs),religiousballads(ponungs),andpoliticalnarrations(abes).Therecentintroduction of writinghascon-tributedtoanincreaseinthisliterature.Whilemusicalcom-positionsarefewinnumber,danceisahighlydevelopedartformamongtheAbor.Medicine.IntraditionalAborthought,sicknessisbe-lievedtohaveitsbasisinthemalevolentactivity of forcesinthespiritworldandtreatmentconsists of theministrations of theepakmiri.Itishisorherjobtoascertainfromthespiritworldwhichspirithasbeenoffendedandhowexpiationistobemade.DeathandAfterlife.Itisbelieved ... thatlifecontinuesbe-yondthegrave,inalandwhereeach of theuyushasitsindi-vidualabode.Whenonedies,hisorhersoulistakentothedomain of theuyuwhowasthecause of death.Anindividualenjoysthesamestatusandlife-stylethatheorshehadwhilealive.Forthisreasonthedeceasedisprovidedwithfood,drink,possessions,andothertoolsandprovisionstoensurecomfortintheafterlife.BibliographyChowdhury,J.N.(1971).AComparativeStudy of AdiReli-gion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Duff-Sutherland-Dunbar,G.(1905).AborandGalong.Memoirs of theRoyalAsiaticSociety of Bengal,5(extranumber).Calcutta.Ffirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1954)."ReligiousBeliefsandRitualPractices of theMinyongAbors of Assam,India."Anthropos49:588-604. Encyclopedia of WorldCulturesVolumeIII SOUTH AsiA AnavilBrahman7AhirETHNONYMS:Gahra,Gaolan,Gaoli,Gerala,Goala,Golkar,Mahakul,RawatTheAhirareacaste of cowherds,milkers,andcattlebreederswidelydispersedacrosstheGangeticPlain,espe-ciallyinthemoreeasternlypart(Bihar,Bengal,andeasternMadhyaPradesh).TheAhiirmustnumberwelloveramilliontoday:theynumbered750,000in ... 8AnavilBrahmanstrivetomarrytheirdaughterstoDesaimenbutatthecost of largedowries.Hypergamyisalsopracticed.Thissystemper-mitsawomantomarryaman of ahigherbutnotalowerso-cialstatusthanherown.AnavilBrahmanshaveapreferenceforpatrilocality,patrilinealsystems of inheritance,andresi-denceinjointfamilygroups.Brahmanicidealsleadtoapreferencefordowrymarriage.Thelaws of Manudistinguisheightdifferentforms of marriage, of whichfourareactuallyvariations of thedowrymarriage;anditisthesefourthataretheoreticallyrecommendedtoBrahmans.BibliographyMarriot,McKim(1968).'CasteRankingandFoodTransac-tions:AMatrixAnalysis."InStructureandChangeinIndianSociety,editedbyMiltonSingerandBernardS.Cohn,133-171.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.VanderVeen,KlaasW.(1972).1GiveTheeMyDaughter.Assen:VanGorcum&Comp.N.V.LeSHONKIMBLEAndamaneseETHNONYM:MincopieOrientationIdentification.TheAndamanesearetheindigenoustribes of Negritohuntersandgatherers of theAndamanIslands.In1908,theterm"Andamanese"referredtothirteendistincttribalgroups,eachdistinguishedbyadifferentdialectandgeographicallocation.Todayonlyfourtribesremainandarereferredtocollectivelyas"Andamanese."ThefourextanttribesaretheOngees of LittleAndamanIsland,theSentine-lese of NorthSentinelIsland,theJarwas of theMiddleAndamans,andtheGreatAndamanese of StraitIsland.Location.TheAndamanIslands,whichcompriseanar-chipelago of 348islands,arelocatedintheBay of Bengalbe-tween 10 30'and13°30'Nand92°20'and93°0'E.Thetotallandareais8,293squarekilometers, of whichabout7,464squarekilometersarecoveredwithtropicalrainforests.Thenorthernandcentralislandsarehilly,whilethesouthernislandsaresurroundedbyoffshorecoralreefsandarecriss-crossedwithtidalcreeks.Thesouthwesternandnorthwesternmonsoonscreatearainyseasonthatlastsapproximatelyninetotenmonthseachyear;annualprecipitationis275to455centimeters.TheonlydryseasonontheislandsbeginsinFebruaryandendsinMarch.Demography.In1800,thetotaltribalpopulationontheislandswasestimatedatapproximately3,575.In1901,theestimatedroppedto1,895,andin1983,thetotaltribalpopu-lationwas269. Of the1983estimateonlythecount of 9GreatAndamaneseand98Ongeeswasaccurate.TheJarwasandtheSentineleseareisolatedbytopographyandbyeachtribe'shostilitytowardoutsiders.Since1789,thepopulation of nontribalpeoplesontheislandshassteadilyincreased.Thetotalnumber of outsidersontheislandswas157,552in1983comparedtothe269tribals.Theintrusion of outsidersanddiseasesintroducedbythem,suchasmeasles,ophthal-mia,andvenerealdisease,hascontributeddirectlytotheoveralldeclineintribalpopulationanditsdisproportionatemale/femaleratio.Theislands'expandingtimberindustryandthesettlement of increasingnumbers of nontribals,pri-marilyfrommainlandIndia,alsohavereducedthetotalareaavailableforusebythetribal.LinguisticAffiliation.Areallinguisticconnection of An-damanesewith South andSoutheastAsianlanguageareashasnotbeensystematicallyestablished.Andamaneseasalanguagefamilyiscomposed of twomaingroups:Proto-LittleAndamanese,whichincludesOngee,Jarwa,andSentinelese;andProto-GreatAndamanese.Proto-GreatAndamaneseisfurthersubdividedintothreegroups:BeaandBaie of South Andamans;Puchikwar,Kede,Juwoi,Koi,andJko of MiddleAndamans;andBo,Chari,Jeru,andKora of NorthAnda-mans.Earlyethnographicaccountssuggestthateach of thetribalgroupsontheislandsspokemutuallyunintelligiblelan-guages.Yetlinguisticrecords,compiledbytheisland'sad-ministratorsandmorerecentresearch,suggestagreatdegree of overlapintermsusedbyeachgroup.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheAndamanesearebelievedtoshareaculturalaffinitywithsome of theOrangAslis of insularSoutheast Asia. IthasbeenarguedthattheAndamanesearrivedfromtheMalayandBurmesecoastsbylandinlatequaternarytimesor,atalatertime,bysea.ThereisalsospeculationthattheAnda-manesecamefromSumatraviatheNicobarIslands.How-ever,thepreciseorigins of theAndamaneseremainscholarlyspeculationsthathavenotbeenthoroughlyinvestigatedandresearched.Theearlyrecordedhistory of theislandsbeganinearnestwiththeBritishin1788.Rapidchangesintradewindsinthearea,monsoons,andcoralreefssurroundingtheislandscausedmanyshipwrecks;thosefewwhosurvivedship-wreckswerekilledbytheAndamanese.Inaneffortto...
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Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - B potx
... herfathertothat of herhusband.Mar-riageismonogamousandisexpectedtobeforlife.Adulterywastraditionallypunishablebythedeath of bothpartiesin-volved.Marriagetoanon-Baluchiisrigidlyproscribed.Post-maritalresidenceispatrilocal.Inheritance.Allheritablepropertypassesfromfathertosons.Socialization.Baluchmayar,or"theBaluchiWay,"istheguidingprinciple of properconductfortheBaluchipeople.Itisasort of honorcode,entailingtheextension of hospitality,mercy,refuge,andhonestytoone'sfellows,anditisreaf-firmedintheoraltraditions of Baluchisongandpoetry.Chil-drenlearnproperbehaviorthroughobservingtheireldersandthroughbeingsubjecttotauntandgossipshouldtheybehavebadly.SociopoliticalOrganizationBaluchsocietyisorganizedbothintokin-basedclansandterritoriallydefinedtribes.Onecouldclaimaroughcorre-spondencebetweentheclanandthesocialhierarchyasdis-tinctfromthetribeandthemorespecificallypoliticalsphere,butthiscorrespondenceisnotabsolute.TheBaluchipeopleareanamalgam of manylargeunits,orchieftaincies,eachone of whichisitselfcomposed of anestedset of smalleror-ganizationalunits.Fromlargesttosmallest,theseconstituentunitscanbestbeunderstoodasclans,clansections,andsub-sections-withsmallersegments of thislastdivisionbeingthelevelthatmostcloselycorrespondstoactualsettlementunits.Ateachlevel of thishierarchy,leadershipisinthehands of amaleelder.Attheleastcomprehensivelevel,suchleadershipisaslikelytobeachievedasinherited,butovertimeauthorityatthemoreinclusivelevelshasdevolvedtotheelders of whathavebecomehereditary"chieflyclans"(Sar-darkel).Bythefifteenthcentury,theSardarkelformedtheor-ganizationalfoci of alooselyunderstoodfeudalsystem,whichhaddevelopedintoaset of semiautonomoussovereignprin-cipalitiesbytheeighteenthcentury.Duringtheimperialpe-riod,theSardarkelservedasmediatorsbetweenBritishandlocalinterests,losingagreatdeal of theiroriginalautonomyintheprocess.However,asaresult of theirparticipationinsecuringtheinterests of therulingpower,muchlandandwealthaccruedtothesegroups,establishinganewandmorepurelyeconomicbasisfortheirleadershiprole,aswellasal-lowingthemtodevelopsomething of amonopolyoveraccesstothelargerpoliticalsystemswithinwhichtheBaluchipeo-plenowfoundthemselves.Asa"stateless"people,theBaluchipoliticalpresenceistodaysomewhatattenuated.Inthe1970sand1980s,anumber of groupssprangupinthename of Baluchinationalism,buttheiractivitieshavebeenlargely of aguerrillanatureand,asyet,theyhavebeenunabletosecureinternationalsupportfortheircause.SocialControl.AlthoughMuslim,theBaluchidonotin-vokeSharia(Islamiclaw)todealwithsocialtransgressions.Rather,secularauthorityisvestedinthetraditionaltriballeaders(Sardars)andconductedaccordingtoRawaj,whichisbasedontheprinciples of Baluchmayar.Theultimatetradi-tionalsanctionwasprovidedbythemechanism of thebloodfeud,invokedbytheclantoavengethewrongfuldeath of one of itsmembers.Capitalpunishmentwasalsotraditionallyap-pliedincases of adulteryorthetheft of clanproperty.Refusaltocomplywiththesociallyprescribednorms of hospitalityispunishablebyfinesimposedbythelocalelders.Pardonformanysocialinfractionscanbeobtainedbytheintercession of femalerepresentatives of theoffender'sfamily.In thecase of alloffensesexceptthat of adultery,theoffendermayseekref.ugeinthehousehold of anonrelatedclan,whichobligatesthehouseholdprovidingsanctuarytofighttothedeathto ... 22BaigaComparativeNotesonthePlainsBhuiyas.Ranchi:ManinIndiaOffice.Russell,R.V.,andHiraLal(1916).'Baiga."TheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India.Vol.2,77-92.Lon-don:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1969.Oosterhout:AnthropologicalPublications.HUGHR.PAGE,JRBaluchiETHNONYMS:Baloch,BaluchOrientationIdentification.TheBaluchiarepredominantlySunniMuslim,seminomadicpastoralists,whosehomelandsstrad-dletheIran-Pakistanborderaswellasincludingasmallpor-tion of southernAfghanistan.Location.Baluchistanisthename of thewesternmostprovince of Pakistan,aswellas of thetransnationalterritory of thetraditionalBaluchihomeland.Thislargerregionwascarvedupbytheimperialpowersconcernedmorewithease of administrationthanwithrecognition of theterritoriallimits of theinhabitants.ThetraditionalBaluchiterritoryextendsfromthesoutheasternportion of theIranianPlateauacrosstheKirmanDeserttothewesternborders of SindandthePunjab,andfromtheGumalRiverinthenortheasttotheArabianSeainthe south. Thisisalargelyinhospitableland,much of itbarrendesertorharshmountainousterrain.Ba-luchiterritoryliesoutsidethemonsoonbelt,andannualrain-fallisverylow,notexceeding16centimeters.Throughouttheregion,wintersareharshandcold,andsummersareveryhot.Inthemountains,therainscomeinOctoberandMarch,whileinthelowlandstheycomeinJulyandAugust.Demography.PopulationfiguresfortheBaluchiaresomewhatsuspect,inpartbecause of theunreliability of census-takingproceduresacrossthethreemajorpoliticalunitsthatnowcontrolBaluchiterritory,andpartlybecausethecriteriaforascribingBaluchiidentityarenottightlyde-fined.Onthestrength of linguisticcriteria,thereareanesti-mated5millionor ... thelatterstillexistandtendtobeoccupationallyendogamous.Today,however,Muslimvillagecommunities,atleastinBangladesh,aremostoftenpopulatedbyordinarycultivators,amongwhomwell-markedcastelikedistinctionsarenotfoundandwhoempha-sizedistinctionsinwealthasthebasisforsocialrank.PoliticalOrganization.WestBengalisdividedintosix-teendistricts,andbelowthedistrictlevel(aseverywhereinIndia)thereisathree-tieredcouncilsystemknownaspancha.yatiraj,whosepurposeistoadministervillageandmultivil-lageaffairsandtocarryoutdevelopmentprojectsconsistentwithstatewideplansandgoals.Eachvillageelectsavillageas-sembly(gramsabha),whoseexecutivebodyisthevillagecouncil(grampanchayat).Usuallythesevillagecouncilsarecontrolledbythenumericallyand/oreconomicallydominantcastegroupinthevillageselectingthem.Severalvillagecoun.cilsinturnelectanareacouncil(anchalpanchayat),whichhasjurisdictionoverthevillagecouncils.Theheads of thevariousareacouncils,alongwithnominatedmembers of thestatelegislativeassembly,formthedistrictcouncil(zillaparishad),which,linkedtothestategovernment,hascontrolovertheentirelocalgovernmentsystem.Paralleltothelocalcouncilsateachlevelisathree-tieredjudicialsystemaswell.InBangladesh,whichundertookadministrativereformsin1982,the68,000officiallydesignated"villages"ormauzasareamalgamatedintoaround4,300unionswithgoverningcoun-cilsknownasunionparishadsconstitutingthelowestlevels of thenationalgovernmentandadministration,towhichthevillagerselectmembers.Unionsarefurthergroupedintonearly500upazillasorsubdistrictss,"governedbyupazillaparishads,whosemembershipsarecomposedbythechairmen of theunionparishads(exceptthatthechairman of anupazillaparishadisdirectlyelected).Upazillasinturnareunitedintosomesixty-fourdistricts,andtheseagainintofourdivisions.Thekeytothisadministrativeschemeissupposedtobetheupazillaparishad,whichhasmanylocaldecision-makingpowers,especiallythoserelevanttocommunitydevel-opment.Socialscientistswhohavestudiedthelocalgovern.mentsysteminBangladeshhavefoundthatitis.usuallydominatedbythemorewealthysections of thepeasantryandlocallypowerfulvillageelites.SocialControl.InbothWestBengalandBangladesh,for-malsocialcontrolmechanismsareprovidedbytheunits of localgovernmentdescribedabove,inconjunctionwithpoliceandcivilcourtadministration.However,informalmecha-nismshavetraditionallybeenimportantaswell.AmongHin-dus,intervillagecastepanchayats(councils),headedbytheelders,regulatemarriagesandotherwisegoverntheaffairsandmediatedisputes of themembers of thesamecasteinsev-eraladjacentvillages.AmongMuslims,similartraditionalcouncils,calledsamaj, of villageeldersperformsimilarfunc-tions,andsometimesthesegroupsmayencompassseveralcontiguousvillages.Thesetraditionalsociopoliticalgroup-ingsmayoverlapwiththeofficialunits of localgovernmentdescribedabove,inthattheleaders of theseindigenousgroupsaresometimeselectedtomembershipinthegovern.mentalbodiestoo.Conflict.Anthropologistshaveconductedmanystudies of conflictin South Asianvillages,includingthose of Bengal.Theyhavefoundthatconflictoftenoccursnotonlybetweenthevariouscastesbutalsobetweenfactions,eachcomposed of members of variouscastegroups.Competitionforscarcelandisamajorsource of conflict,aswellasrivalrybetweenlandownersforpowerandinfluenceinlocal,regional,andevenstateandnationalaffairs.Wealthylandowningfamilieswilloftenexercisecontrolovertheirtenantsandthelandlesspeoplewhoworkontheirland,relyingonthesupport of thelatterinconflictsituations.Theoutcomes of electionsforbothlocalandupper-levelcouncilsareinfluencedbyfac-tionalconflict,asarethepollsineachconstituencyforstateandnationallegislativebodies.ReligionandExpressiveCultureHinduismandIslamarethetwomajorreligions of Bengal,andreligiousidentificationwasthebasisforthepoliticaldivi-sionexperiencedbytheBengaliswiththedeparture of Britishrulein1947.InWestBengal,Hindusconstituted77percent of thepopulationin1981,andMuslims22percent.Some85percent of BangladeshisareMuslim,about14percentHindu.Lessthan1percent of BengalisareChristians;onecanalsofindafewisolatedBengaliBuddhistvillagesinsouthernBangladesh.ReligiousBeliefs.BengaliHinduismbyandlargecon-formstotheorthodoxVedanticvariety of thatfaith,althoughinresponsetotheculturalimpact of theBritishinthelastcenturythereemergedcertainmodernisticvariants(e.g.,theBrahmoSamaj,towhichsomeWesternizedhigh-casteelitesweredrawn).TheShaivitecult,focusingonworship of thegodShivaandhisfemalecounterparts,iswidespreadamongtheuppercastes,whileVaishnavism,involvingdevotiontotheLordKrishna,ispopularamongthelowercastes.BengaliMuslimsbelongoverwhelminglytotheSunnidivision of IslamandgenerallyconformtotheHanafischool of Islamiclaw.PopularreligioninBengaloftendisplayssyncretism,amixing of bothHinduandMuslimfolkbeliefs,deities,andpractices.Bengalisfamousforitswanderingreligiousmendi.cantfolkmusicians(e.g.,theBauls,whodisdaincasteandconventionalHindu/Muslimreligiousdistinctionsintheirworshipandway of life).InadditiontoformalworshipatHindutemplesandMuslimmosques,popularworshipin-volvingreligiousfolkmusiciswidespread,especiallyatVaish-navitegatherings(kirtan)andamongMuslimfollowers of severalSufiorders(tarika)presentinBengal.BengaliMus-limsarealsoknownfortheirpractice of "pirism,"theculticfollowing of Muslimsaintsorholymen(calledpirs).ReligiousPractitioners.TheHinduclergyisdrawnfromthehighest(Brahman)castesandisthusamatter of birth-right,althoughnotallBrahmansactuallypracticeaspriests(pandit,purahit).Practitionerswithin...
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... 68Stevenson,H.N.C.(1943).TheEconomics of theCentralChinTribes.Bombay:Times of IndiaPress(forTheGovern-ment of BurmainExile).F.K.LEHMAN(MARK-PA)Schermerhorn,RichardAlonzo(1978)."TheChinese:AUniqueNationalityGroup."InEthnicPluralityinIndia,byRichardAlonzoSchermerhorn,290-313.Tucson:University of ArizonaPress.Thurston,Edgar(1909).'Chinese-TamilCross."InCastesandTribes of SouthernIndia,editedbyEdgarThurstonandKadamkiRangachari.Vol.2,98 -100 .Madras:GovernmentPress.PAULHOCKINGSChinese of South Asia ETHNONYMS:Chini,IndianChineseThisarticlerefersnottoChinesesoldiers,whoformorethanthirtyyearshavepatrolledtheTibetanborderthatformsthenorthernlimit of South Asia, butrathertoethnicChi-nesewhohavelivedmainlyinmajor South Asian cities foracenturyormore.In1982therewere700ChineseinBan-gladesh, 110, 000inIndia,3,600inPakistan,and3,000inSriLanka.Therearealso700,000ChineseinMyanmar(Burma),whousuallyareclassifiedasChinese of Southeast Asia (ratherthan of South Asia) .Inall South AsiannationstheChinesepopulationhasincreasedsince1955,although,exceptinMyanmar,theyareasmallminority.Calcutta,Bombay,Madras,Delhi,andColomboeachhavesizablepop-ulations,withmost of theChineseprovidingspecializedeco-nomicservicessuchasrunningshoeshopsandrestaurants;inCalcuttaChinese-ownedtanneriesarealsoimportant.Evenatownthesize of Ootacamund(population 100 ,000)hastwolong-residentChinesebusinessfamilies.AfewBuddhistpilgrims,mostnotablyFaHien(fl.A.D.399-414),cametoIndiafromChinainveryearlytimes;andearlyinthefifteenthcenturyafewthousandcametothecoast of Kerala,toCalicut,withtheMingexpeditions;butitwasonlyafter1865thatChinesecameinsignificantnum-bers.Theyworkedasteaplantationlaborers,carpenters,roadbuilders,tradesmen,andseamen'slaunderers;alsoafewwereconvicts.Thosewhomigratedto South Asia camemainlyfromthesoutheasternprovinces of Guangdong,Hunan,Jiangxi,andFujian,speakingeitherCantoneseorHakka(aminoritylan-guage of thatregion).Theytendedtosettleintheseaports of South Asia, andtheyhaveremainedinsomecasesforfiveorsixgenerations.Although ... kinds of goods)insurroundingvillages.Thereweresmithswhomadethetraditionalsilver-amalgam(lateralumi-num)jewelry-suchasthebracelets,belts,earrings,rings,andnecklaceshungwithimportedbeadsandsilverrupeecoins-aswellasbrasshairpinsandotheritems,butthosear-tisanswereevenfewerinnumberthantheonesmentionedabove.indeed,thetradeinthelatteritemswasakintothelong-distancetradeinheirloomgoods,suchasthegreatgongsfromMyanmar(Burma),brassvesselsfromIndia,andothersorts of itemsthatsignifiedatleastanominalclaimuponthegoods of thevaaiplainscountry.Trade.All of thesemoreexpensiveitemsconstitutedthebasis of theprestigeeconomy of thesehillsandpassednotonlybysalebutbycirculation of myriadceremonialpaymentsandfines(especiallymarriage-prices,blood-moneypayments,andcompensationpaymentsfordefamation of status).Pres-tigegoodsandgayals-especiallyimportantfortheiruseinsacrificesassociatedwiththe"meritfeasts"bywhichsocialrankwasattainedorvalidated-werethetraditionalwealth of thesepeople.Furthermore,thedisplayorannouncement of theentirearray of whatonecurrentlyownedorhadownedinlife-symbolicallyindicatedoncarvedmemorialpostserectedforprestigiousdead-wasthedefinitivesign of one'ssocialandceremonialrank.Morespecifically,thepossession of asupposedlyuniqueobjectfromtheoutsideworld,likelytopossessaunique"personal"name of itsown,wasespeciallyimportant.Theideabehindtheprestigeeconomyisthatprosperityinthisworlddependsuponthesacrificialexchange of goodswithinhabitants of theLand of theDead,andonlyifonehadconductedfeasts of meritwouldoneandone'sdescendantshavewealthandwell-being.Thus,too,thecon-tinuity of lineagebetweenthedeadandtbelivingwasimpor-tant;itwasespeciallyimportantforanyonetobememorial-izedafterhisorherdeath.Memorialservicewasdonenotonlybythedisplay of wealthandbyitsfigurationonmemor-ialpostsandstonesbutalsointhecomposition of songs(vahia)commemoratingaman'sgreatnessontheoccasion of one of hisfeasts.Sogreatlywerewealthandpossessionstiedupwithaperson'ssocialpositionthatamongthemosthei-noustraditionaloffencesinthissocietyweretheft,bastardy,andthesupposedpossession of "evileye"(hnam,theuncon-sciousandheritableabilitytocauseharmbylookingenvi-ouslyuponanother'sprosperity,orevensomeone'sconsump-tion of agoodmeal).Allthesesituationsmeantthatpropertyhadfailedtopassbymeans of expectedformalexchanges:ithadpassedinsteadbyarbitraryexpropriation,orthroughachildbornout of wedlockwithoutbenefit of marriage-price,orbymisfortunecausedbymurderousenvy of possessionstowhichonehadnolegitimateclaim.Division of Labor.Thefewclasses of part-timecraftspe-cialistarementionedabove.Womendomore of thedomestictasksandallthetraditionalweaving.Theyarealsoalmostex-clusivelythespiritmediumsbecausemalespiritfamiliarschoosethem.Menalonecutdowntheforestsandworkassmiths.Thereappeartobenofemalehuntersorwarriorsex-ceptinlegends,probablybecausenowomancanholdinherownnameafeast of celebrationforthekilling of amajorani-mal,orafeast of celebration of ahumantrophyheadorthat of atiger.(Inall of thesecasesthepointistotametheangryspirit of thedeceasedanimalorpersonandsendittoserveoneandone'sforebearsintheLand of theDead.)Awomancan,however,holdadomesticfeast of meritinthename of herdeceasedhusband,inwhichdomesticanimalsaresimi-larlysacrificedonbehalf of theLand of theDead.Neverthe-less,onlymencanbevillagepriests,whoaremostlyap-pointedbychiefsandheadmenbecausetheyhavememorizedtherequiredchantsandformulasandknowtheritualse-quences.Priestsserveasmasters of ceremonyatthefeasts of meritandcelebrationandatthevariouskinds of rite of placation-bothcyclicalandsporadic-addressedtothevar-iousspiritowners of theface of theland,greatandsmall.Al-mostallothertasksandactivitiescanbeundertakenbyeithersex;therehaveevenbeenhistoricalinstances of importantfemalechiefs,whoattainedofficethroughbeingwidowed.Therearefewifanyexploitablenaturalresourcesinthesehillsandvirtuallynomodernindustry,atleastnothingmadeforexport.Asidefromthesalaries of teachersandgovern-mentservants of allsortsandtheincomes of merchantsandshopkeepers,themainsource of moneyisthewages of Chinwhoworkontheoutside-preeminentlyinMyanmar,inthearmedforces.LandTenure.Thisaspect of Chincultureishighlyvaria-ble.Avillagehascompleteownership of itstract,andeventherighttohuntinitmustberequestedfromthevillage;however,itispossibletorentlandsinanothervillage'stractonanindividualoracommunalbasis.Villagetractbound-ariesarepreciselyindicatedbylandmarks.Frequentlyagivenhillsidetract,oreventhewholevillagetract,willbeownedbyachieforotherhereditaryaristocrat.Theright of achieftotheduesandservices of hisvillagersinfactderivesfromhisownership of theland,whiletheultimateownershipbyavil-lage of itslandasawholederivesfromtheheritablepactmadebytheancestralfounders of thevillagewiththespiritowners of theland.Theparamountrightisownership,since ... adivinerhasidentifiedwhatistobedone.Thereareallmanner of privatecuringrituals,andtheseareheldbywhomeverknowshow,notbyprofessionals;theytendtoinvolvesacrificestointrudingspirits,soulrecall-ing,andtheleaving of miniatureimages of wealthoutsidethevillageforthespirits.Therearefewdefiniteseasonalcalen-dricalceremonies,butvillageritesmustbeheldbeforeclear-ing,planting,andharvesting.Allsorts of means(suchasob-servingcracksinheatedeggshells,thebileductsinpiglivers,orhowadyingfowlcrossesitslegs)areusedfordiviningthesource of troublesandtheauspiciousness of plans.Arts.Withminorexceptions,allChinartisnonrepresen-tative,andmanyChinusedtofindithardeventorecognizeadrawnorpaintedhumanfigure,thoughphotographswereclearenoughtothem.Floral-geometricdecorationisfoundintheweavingandinthememorialpostsmentionedearlier.Some of thedesignfiguresconventionallystandforthings-forexample,forvariouskinds of possessionsbelongingtoapersonbeingcommemorated-butnoneisiconic.DiseaseandCuring.Thefirstrecourseinthetreatment of diseasesandeven of woundsistheuse of mediumswhoar-rangefortheplacation of thespiritsresponsible,whomightotherwisepreventrecovery.Alongsidethisthereisawideva-riety of quiteidiosyncratictreatment,chiefly of anherbalna-ture,whichismainlypassedonfrommotherstodaughtersanddaughters-in-law.DeathandAfterlife.Thedeadareburied,andintheSouthernChinhillsthereissecondaryreburial of thebonesinasmalljar.Ingeneraltheblanket-wrappedcorpseisin-terredinastone-linedchamberinoneside of averticalpit.Thosewhohavediedaviolentdeathandwhothereforearelikelytohavebecomedangerousghostsareburiedinasepa-rategravesite,remotefromthevillageandsurroundingtrails.Therange of memorialconstructionsisconsiderable,butamongthemshouldbementioned-inadditiontothecom-memorativeposts-thestoneplatformsinandaroundthevillage,onwhichpeoplecanrestandonwhich,somesay,thespirit of thedeceasedmaysometimescomeandrest;andtheclusters of miniaturehousesontallstilts,inwhichperi-odicofferings of foodandminiaturefurnishingsareplacedforthespirit of thedeceased.Aninterestingfeature of thestoneplatforms(inthecase of deceasedmales),behindwhichthememorialpostsareraised,istheline of smallstonesthatmayalsobepresent,eachrepresentingeitherahumanvictim of thedeceasedor,equivalently,anotherman'swifeseducedbythedeceased.Modemmemorialstoneshavewrittenonthemlists of thedeceased'spossessionsinlife,ofteninastonishingdetail,downtotheoddenameledtincuporpair of woolensocks.SeealsoMizoBibliographyCarey,B.S.,andH.P.Tuck(1896).TheChinHills.2vols.Rangoon:GovernmentPress.Lehman,F.K.(1963).TheStructure of ChinSociety.Urbana:University of IllinoisPress.Lehman,F.K.(1970)."OnChinandKachinMarriageCy-cles."Man,n.s.5:118-125.Lehman,F.K.(1989)."InternalInflationaryPressuresinthePrestigeEconomy of theFeast -of- MeritComplex."InUpland-LowlandContrastsinMainlandSoutheast Asia, ed-itedbySusanB.Russell,89 -102 .NorthernIllinoisUniver-sityCenterforSoutheast Asia StudiesOccasionalPaper.DeKalb.Parry,N.E.(1932).TheLakhers.London:Macmillan.Shakespear,John(1912).TheLusheiKukiClans.London:Macmillan....
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Europeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:AWorldEthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,232-236.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:74 -103 .Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapital cities andotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.TechnicalspecialistsfromtheWorldHealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.) ... Europeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:AWorldEthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,232-236.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:74 -103 .Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapital cities andotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.TechnicalspecialistsfromtheWorldHealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.) 80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothisvolume.Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(1865-1936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,1793-1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,334-359.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,1608-1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:252-273.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,1750-1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGS ... Europeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:AWorldEthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,232-236.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:74 -103 .Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapital cities andotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.TechnicalspecialistsfromtheWorldHealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)...
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Grasia87causedbyblackmagic.Gondsalsobelieveintheevileyeandinwitchcraft.Awitchisusuallyawomanwhobyherevilpowerbringssicknessanddeathtopeopleintheneighbor-hood.Whendiscovered,sheispubliclydisgracedandex-pelledfromthevillageorevenkilled.Ceremonies.TheGondscelebratemanyfeastsconnectedmainlywiththeagriculturalseasonsandwithlife-cycleevents(birth,marriage,sickness,anddeath).Onallfestiveocca-sionssacrificesandofferingsareperformedeitherbytheoffi-cialvillagepriest,bythesoothsayersandmagicians,orbythehead of thefamilythatiscelebratinganevent.Allthesesacri-ficesareaccompaniedbyappropriateceremonies of symbolicsignificance.Theofferingsandsacrificescanbeeitheranimalorvegetable;itdependsonthetype of deitybeingaddressed.Femaledeitiesgenerallydemandthatbloodbespilled;thevictimsareusuallychickensorgoats,sometimesmalebuffalo,and,occasionallyinthepast,humanbeings.Vegetableoffer-ingsincludefruits(especiallycoconuts),flowers,coloredpowder,andstrings.Arts.Likemosttribals,theGondsareaccomplishedarti-sansandcanmanufacturealmostalltheimplementstheyre-quirefortheirworkonthefarmandintheforest,allfurnitureinhouseandkitchen,andall of theirornamentsanddecora-tions.Theyareartisticallygifted:theypainttheirhousewallswithartisticdesigns,andtheycarvememorialpillarsinwoodandstonefortheirdead.Theyhaveinventedvariousoriginaldancesandarepassionatedancers.Theyaregoodmusiciansonthedrum,theflute,andotherinstruments.Theyaregoodsingers,thoughthemelodies of theirsongssometimessoundmonotonousandmaynotbe of theirowninvention.Theyareinventiveincomposingnewsongs,folktales,legends,andmythsandinretellingthemdramatically.Theyhavecom-posedagreatepiccelebratingtheoriginsandexploits of acul-tureheronamedLingo.Medicine.TheGondsarefullyawarethatcertaindiseaseshaveanaturalcause,andtheyknowmanyjunglemedicinestocuresuchdiseases.Butwhentheseremediesremaininef-fective,theyresorttomagicaldevices.DeathandAfterlife.AfterdeathanadultGondmanorwomaniscremated;childrenareburiedwithoutmuchcere-mony.Ceremoniesareperformedatthefuneraltopreventthesoul of thedeceasedfromfindingitswaybacktoitshouseandvillage.TheGondsbelieveinanafterlife.Theybelieveeachhumanbeinghastwosouls,thelifespiritandtheshadow.Theshadowmustbepreventedfromreturningtoitshome,oritwillharmthesurvivingrelatives.ThelifespiritgoestoBhagwantobejudgedandrewardedbyreincarnationintoahigherformorpunishedinapool of bitingworms;afterawhilethesoulisrebornandbeginsanewlife.Othersbelievethatthesouljoinstheotherancestors of theclan,especiallyafterastonememorialhasbeenerected.StillothersbelievethatthesoulisabsorbedinBhagwanorBaraDeo.Thebeliefinthesurvival of theancestralspiritsis,however,quitestrong.Theseancestorspiritswatchoverthemoralbehavior of thelivingGondandpunishoffenders of triballaw.Thustheyactasstrictguardians of theGondcommunity.SeealsoAgaria;Ahir;Baiga;Kond;KoyaBibliographyElwin,Verrier(1943).MariaMurderandSuicide.London:OxfordUniversityPress.2nded.1950.Elwin,Verrier(1944).TheMuriaandTheirGhotul.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Fuchs,Stephen(1960).TheGondandBhumia of EasternMandla.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.2nded.1968.Bombay:NewLiteraturePublishingCo.Fiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1948).TheAboriginalTribes of Hyderabad.Vol.3,TheRajGonds of Adilabad.Lon-don:Macmillan.Fiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon,andElizabethvonFilrer-Haimendorf(1979).TheGonds of AndhraPradesh:TraditionandChangeinanIndianTribe.NewDelhi:VikasPublishingHouse.Grigson,William(1938).TheHillMarias of Bastar.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Russell,RV.,andHiraLal(1916).'Gond."InTheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India.Vol.3,38-143.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1969.Ooster-hout:AnthropologicalPublications.Singh,Indrajit(1944).TheGondwanaandtheGond.Luck-now:UniversityPublishers.STEPHENFUCHSGrasiaETHNONYMS:Bhil-GrasiaBhomia,Dungri-Grasia,Gara,Garasia,GirisiaOrientationTheterm"Grasia"referstotheRajputandotherlandholdersinsections of GujaratandRajasth,wheretheyholdlandsgiventothemasgaras(landlords)bythechieftainsformain-tenance.Itissaidthattheterm'Grasia"isderivedfromthenativetermfor"landlords."TheGrasiasaretheprincipalin-habitants of theBhakkarsection of PakistaniPunjab,andalso of parts of KachchhDistrict,inGujarat.SirJohnMalcolmnotedthattheterm"Girasias"denotes"chiefswhoweredrivenfromtheirpossessionsbyinvadersandestab-lishedandmaintainedtheirclaimtoashare of therevenueupontheground of theirpowertodisturborpreventitscol-lection."ThewordcanbederivedfromtheSanskritgiras,whichsignifies"mouthful,"andinthepastitwasusedmeta-phoricallytodesignatethesmallshare of theproduce of thecountrythattheseplunderersclaimed.TheGrasiasaresaid ... Grasia87causedbyblackmagic.Gondsalsobelieveintheevileyeandinwitchcraft.Awitchisusuallyawomanwhobyherevilpowerbringssicknessanddeathtopeopleintheneighbor-hood.Whendiscovered,sheispubliclydisgracedandex-pelledfromthevillageorevenkilled.Ceremonies.TheGondscelebratemanyfeastsconnectedmainlywiththeagriculturalseasonsandwithlife-cycleevents(birth,marriage,sickness,anddeath).Onallfestiveocca-sionssacrificesandofferingsareperformedeitherbytheoffi-cialvillagepriest,bythesoothsayersandmagicians,orbythehead of thefamilythatiscelebratinganevent.Allthesesacri-ficesareaccompaniedbyappropriateceremonies of symbolicsignificance.Theofferingsandsacrificescanbeeitheranimalorvegetable;itdependsonthetype of deitybeingaddressed.Femaledeitiesgenerallydemandthatbloodbespilled;thevictimsareusuallychickensorgoats,sometimesmalebuffalo,and,occasionallyinthepast,humanbeings.Vegetableoffer-ingsincludefruits(especiallycoconuts),flowers,coloredpowder,andstrings.Arts.Likemosttribals,theGondsareaccomplishedarti-sansandcanmanufacturealmostalltheimplementstheyre-quirefortheirworkonthefarmandintheforest,allfurnitureinhouseandkitchen,andall of theirornamentsanddecora-tions.Theyareartisticallygifted:theypainttheirhousewallswithartisticdesigns,andtheycarvememorialpillarsinwoodandstonefortheirdead.Theyhaveinventedvariousoriginaldancesandarepassionatedancers.Theyaregoodmusiciansonthedrum,theflute,andotherinstruments.Theyaregoodsingers,thoughthemelodies of theirsongssometimessoundmonotonousandmaynotbe of theirowninvention.Theyareinventiveincomposingnewsongs,folktales,legends,andmythsandinretellingthemdramatically.Theyhavecom-posedagreatepiccelebratingtheoriginsandexploits of acul-tureheronamedLingo.Medicine.TheGondsarefullyawarethatcertaindiseaseshaveanaturalcause,andtheyknowmanyjunglemedicinestocuresuchdiseases.Butwhentheseremediesremaininef-fective,theyresorttomagicaldevices.DeathandAfterlife.AfterdeathanadultGondmanorwomaniscremated;childrenareburiedwithoutmuchcere-mony.Ceremoniesareperformedatthefuneraltopreventthesoul of thedeceasedfromfindingitswaybacktoitshouseandvillage.TheGondsbelieveinanafterlife.Theybelieveeachhumanbeinghastwosouls,thelifespiritandtheshadow.Theshadowmustbepreventedfromreturningtoitshome,oritwillharmthesurvivingrelatives.ThelifespiritgoestoBhagwantobejudgedandrewardedbyreincarnationintoahigherformorpunishedinapool of bitingworms;afterawhilethesoulisrebornandbeginsanewlife.Othersbelievethatthesouljoinstheotherancestors of theclan,especiallyafterastonememorialhasbeenerected.StillothersbelievethatthesoulisabsorbedinBhagwanorBaraDeo.Thebeliefinthesurvival of theancestralspiritsis,however,quitestrong.Theseancestorspiritswatchoverthemoralbehavior of thelivingGondandpunishoffenders of triballaw.Thustheyactasstrictguardians of theGondcommunity.SeealsoAgaria;Ahir;Baiga;Kond;KoyaBibliographyElwin,Verrier(1943).MariaMurderandSuicide.London:OxfordUniversityPress.2nded.1950.Elwin,Verrier(1944).TheMuriaandTheirGhotul.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Fuchs,Stephen(1960).TheGondandBhumia of EasternMandla.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.2nded.1968.Bombay:NewLiteraturePublishingCo.Fiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1948).TheAboriginalTribes of Hyderabad.Vol.3,TheRajGonds of Adilabad.Lon-don:Macmillan.Fiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon,andElizabethvonFilrer-Haimendorf(1979).TheGonds of AndhraPradesh:TraditionandChangeinanIndianTribe.NewDelhi:VikasPublishingHouse.Grigson,William(1938).TheHillMarias of Bastar.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Russell,RV.,andHiraLal(1916).'Gond."InTheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India.Vol.3,38-143.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1969.Ooster-hout:AnthropologicalPublications.Singh,Indrajit(1944).TheGondwanaandtheGond.Luck-now:UniversityPublishers.STEPHENFUCHSGrasiaETHNONYMS:Bhil-GrasiaBhomia,Dungri-Grasia,Gara,Garasia,GirisiaOrientationTheterm"Grasia"referstotheRajputandotherlandholdersinsections of GujaratandRajasth,wheretheyholdlandsgiventothemasgaras(landlords)bythechieftainsformain-tenance.Itissaidthattheterm'Grasia"isderivedfromthenativetermfor"landlords."TheGrasiasaretheprincipalin-habitants of theBhakkarsection of PakistaniPunjab,andalso of parts of KachchhDistrict,inGujarat.SirJohnMalcolmnotedthattheterm"Girasias"denotes"chiefswhoweredrivenfromtheirpossessionsbyinvadersandestab-lishedandmaintainedtheirclaimtoashare of therevenueupontheground of theirpowertodisturborpreventitscol-lection."ThewordcanbederivedfromtheSanskritgiras,whichsignifies"mouthful,"andinthepastitwasusedmeta-phoricallytodesignatethesmallshare of theproduce of thecountrythattheseplunderersclaimed.TheGrasiasaresaid ... thattheiriden-titywiththeGondtribeisnotalwaysclear.Demography.ThelatestavailableCensusfiguresarefrom1971,whentherewere4,728,796Gonds-one of thelargesttribalgroupsonearth.Infact,thenumber of Gondsisreallymuchhigher,sincemanyGondcommunitieshavebeenfullyacceptedintotheHinducastesystem,haveadoptedanothername,andhavecompletelyabandonedtheiroriginaltribalways of life.WhilesomeGondsubsectionsthushavebeenlosttothetribe,somecommunities of differentoriginmayhavebeenincorporatedintotheGondtribe.TheBisonhornMarias of Bastarmaybesuchatribe.LinguisticAffiliation.IftheGondseverhadalanguage of theirown,theyhavelostitcompletely.Half of theGondsspeakaDravidianlanguagecalledGondiatpresent,whichismoreakintoTelugathantoKarmada.Inthesouthernparts of GondavanatheGondsspeakalanguagecalledParsiorParji(Persian),also of theDravidianfamily.InthenorthernregionstheGondsoftenspeakthelocallanguage,adialect of HindiorMarathi. Gujarati916percent of cultivatorshold 10 hectaresormore of land,whichaltogetherconstitutesnearly25percent of thetotalholdings.ThePatidarsandtheBrahmansarerichpeasants.TheKolis,theScheduledCastes(or'SC,"viewedas"Un-touchables"),thetribals,andtheMuslimsarepoorpeasantsandagriculturallaborers.Kinship,MarriageandFamilyKinGroupsandDescent.Descentisagnaticandpatrilineal.Marriage.AmongtheHinduGujaratis,marriageisasac-rament.Itisarrangedbyparents.Certaincastes(jatis)followtheprinciple of endogamyinwhichamanmustmarrynotonlywithinhisjatibutalsowithinhissubjati,whichisdi-videdintoekdasandgols(i.e.,circles).However,amongcer-taincastesexogamyrestrictsthecirclewithinwhichmarriagecanbearranged.Itforbidsthemembers of aparticulargroupinacaste,usuallybelievedtobedescendedfromacommonancestororassociatedwithaparticularlocality,tomarryany-onewhoisamember of thesamegroup.AnothercustomamongtheRajputs,Patidars,andBrahmansishypergamy,whichforbidsawoman of aparticulargrouptomarryaman of agrouplowerthanherowninsocialstandingandcompelshertomarryintoagroup of equalorsuperiorrank.DomesticUnit.Thefamilyisgenerallyconsideredtobetheparents,marriedaswellasunmarriedsons,andwidowedsisters.Thejointfamilyisanormparticularlyamongthetrad-ingandlandedcastesandalsoamongtheMuslimsinruralareas.Inthetraditionaljointfamily,threegenerationsliveto-gether.Allthefamilymemberseatfromonekitchenandcul-tivatelandjointly.Evenifthekitchensbecomeseparate,co-operativefarmingcontinuesinmanycases.Ajointfamilymayhavemorethanthirtymembers,althoughsuchcasesareexceptional.Atypicaljointfamilyhasfromeighttotwelvemembersinruralareasandsixtoeightmembersinurbanareas.Jointfamiliesarebecominglesscommon.Thehead of thefamily-thefatherorgrandfather-exercisesauthorityoverallfamilymembers.Womenandevenmarriedsonshavenoindependenceandcandolittlewithoutfirstobtainingconsentorapprovalfromthehead.Thissituationisnowchanging.Inheritance.AmongtheHindus,consanguinityistheguidingprinciplefordeterminingtheright of inheritance.Thefollowingareheirsinorder of precedence:sons,sons'sons,sons'grandsons,thewidow of thedeceased,daughters,daughters'sons,mother,father,brothers,brothers'sons.Alhoughinheritanceisbasedonpatrilinealprinciples,twowomen-thewidowandthedaughter-areveryhighonthescale of priority.Socialization.Infantsandchildrenareraisedbythemotherandgrandparents,thoughtherole of thefatherinbringingupthechildrenhasrecentlyincreased.Agirlisnotcloselylookedafterandsheisinvolvedinhouseholdchoresfromaveryyoungage,whereasaboyisprotectedandindulged.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Gujaratisaredividedintoanumber of socialgroups.TheHinduswhoconstitutethelargestgrouparedividedintoanumber of jatis,whichhaveahierarchicalorderbasedontheprinciples of purityandpollution.TheBrahmansareinthehighestposition,whiletheScheduledCastesoccupythelowestpositioninthehierarchy.TheSCsconstitute7percentof...
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Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - H pps
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HillPandaram99withtheirneighborsandcameunderthepoliticaljurisdiction of theearlyTamilkingdomsorlocalpettychieftains,whotaxedforestproductssuchascardamom,bamboo,ivory,honey,andwax.Theimportance of thistradeatthebegin-ning of thenineteenthcenturyishighlightedinthewritings of theAbbeDuboisandintheeconomicsurvey of theformerTravancoreStatemadeatthattimebytwoBritishofficials,WardandConner.ForesttradestillservestolinktheHillPandaramtothewiderHindusociety.SettlementsTheHillPandaramhavetwotypes of residentialgrouping-settlementsandforestcamps-althoughabout25percent of HillPandaramfamiliesliveacompletelynomadicexistenceandarenotassociatedwithanysettlement.Atypicalsettle-mentconsists of abouttenhuts,widelyseparatedfromeachother,eachhousingafamilywholivethereonasemiper-manentbasis.Thehutsaresimple,rectangularconstructionswithsplit-bambooscreensandgrass-thatchedroofs;manyarelittlemorethanroofedshelters.Aroundthehutsitesfruit-bearingtreessuchasmangoandtamarind,cassavaandsmallcultivationsmaybefound.Thesettlementsareoftensomedistancefromvillagecommunities(withtheirmulticastepopulations)andhavenocommunalfocuslikereligiousshrines.Settlementsareinhabitedonlyonanintermittentbasis.Thesecondtype of residentialgroupingistheforestcamp,consisting of twotosixtemporaryleafshelters,eachmadefromaframework of bamboothatissupportedonasin-gleuprightpoleandcoveredbypalmleaves.Theseleafshel-tershaveaconicalappearanceandareformedoverafireplaceconsisting of threestonesthatwerefoundonthesite.Rec-tangularlean-tosmayalsobeconstructedusingtwouprightpoles.Settlementsarescatteredthroughouttheforestrangesexceptintheinteriorforest,whichislargelyuninhabitedapartfromnomadiccamps of theHillPandaram.Themajor-ity of theHillPandaramarenomadicandtheusuallength of stayataparticularcampingsite(orarockshelter,whichisfrequentlyused)isfromtwotosixteendays,withsevenoreightdaysbeingtheaverage,althoughspecificfamiliesmayresideinaparticularlocalityforaboutsixtoeightweeks.No-madicmovements,inthesense of shiftingcamp,usuallyvaryoverdistancesfromahalf-kilometerto6kilometers,thoughindailyforagingactivitiestheHillPandarammayrangeoverseveralkilometers.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.AlthoughtheHillPandaramoccasionallyengageinpaidlaborforthefor-estdepartment,andasmallminority of familiesaresettledagriculturalistsontheforestperimeter,themajorityareno-madichunter-gatherers,whocombinefoodgatheringwiththecollection of minorforestproduce.Themainstaplecon-sists of variouskinds of yamcollectedbymeans of diggingsticks,togetherwiththenuts of aforestcycad,kalinga(Cycascincinalis).Suchstaplesaresupplementedwithpalmflour,andcassavaandriceareobtainedthroughtrade.Thehunting of smallanimals,particularlymonkeys,squirrels,andmonitorlizards,isimportant.Theseanimalsareob-tainedeitherduringforagingactivitiesorinahuntingpartyconsisting of twomenoramanandayoungboy,usingoldmuzzle-loadingguns.Dogs,anaidtohunting,aretheonlydomesticanimals.Trade.Thecollection of minorforestproduceisanimpor-tantaspect of economiclifeandtheprincipalitemstradedarehoney,wax,dammar(aresin),turmeric,ginger,cardamom,inchabark(Acaciaintsia,onevariety of whichisasoapsub-stitute,theotherafishpoison),variousmedicinalplants,oil-bearingseeds,andbarkmaterialsusedfortanningpurposes.Thetrade of theseproductsisorganizedthroughacontrac-tualmercantilesystem,aparticularforestrangebeingleasedbytheForestDepartmenttoacontractor,whoisnormallyawealthymerchantlivingintheplainsarea,oftenaMuslimorahigh-casteHindu.ThroughthecontractortheHillPan-daramobtaintheirbasicsubsistencerequirements:salt,con-diments,cloth,cookingpots,andtinsforcollectinghoney.Allthematerialpossessions of thecommunityareobtainedthroughsuchtrade-eventhetwoitemsthatarecrucialtotheircollectingeconomy,billhooksandaxes.Asthecontrac-tualsystemexploitedtheHillPandaram,whorarelygotthefullmarketvaluefortheforestcommoditiestheycollected,moveshavebeenmadeinrecentyearstoreplaceitbyaforestcooperativesystemadministeredbyforestryofficialsundertheauspices of thegovernment'sTribalWelfareDepartment.Division of Labor.Althoughwomenaretheprincipalgatherers of yams,whilethehunting of thelargermammalsandthecollection of honeyaretheprerogatives of men,thedivision of laborisnotarigidone.Menmaycookandcareforchildren,whilewomenfrequentlygohuntingforsmallerani-mals,anactivitythattendstobeacollectiveenterprisein-volvingafamilyaidedbyadog.Collection of forestproducetendstobedonebybothsexes.LandTenure.EachHillPandaramfamily(orindividual)isassociatedwithaparticularforesttract,butthereislittleornoassertion of territorialrightsorrightsoverparticularforestproductseitherbyindividualsorfamilies.Theforestisheldtobethecommonproperty of thewholecommunity.Nocom-plaintisexpressedattheincreasingencroachmentonthefor-estbylow-countrymenwhogatherdammarorotherforestproducts,oratincreasingincidences of poachingbythem.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Unlikethecastecommunities of Kerala,theHillPandaramhavenounilinealdescentsys-temorideologyandtherearenorecognizedcorporategroup-ingsabovethelevel of thefamily.Thesettlementsare ... HillTribes 101 KrishnaIyer,L.A.(1937)."Malapantiram."InTheTravan-coreTribesandCastes.Vol.1,96-116.Trivandrum:Govern-mentPress.Morris,Brian(1981)."HillGodsandEcstaticCults:NotesontheReligion of aHuntingandGatheringPeople."ManinIndia61:203-236.Morris,Brian(1986).ForestTraders:ASocio-EconomicStudy of theHillPandaram.L.S.E.MonographsinSocialAnthro-pology,no.55.London:AthlonePress.Mukherjee,B.(1954).TheMalapandaram of Travancore:TheirSocio-EconomicLife.Bulletin of theDepartment of An-thropology,no.3.Calcutta.BRIANMORRISHillTribesETHNONYM:ScheduledTribesThisinexacttermwaslongappliedbyBritishandAmericantravelersandcolonialauthoritiestotheindige-nousinhabitants of uplandareasin South andSoutheast Asia (andsometimesinotherparts of theworld).Althoughitwouldseemclearenoughwhata'hilltribe"is,thetermfindslittlefavoramongmodemanthropologists.First of all,itseemstohavetones of racialinferiority;thusthetermhasneverbeenapplied,forexample,totheHighlandclans of Scotland,eventhoughtheydofittheusualmold of hilltribes.Second,Westernwritershavebeeninconsistentintheiridentification of hilltribes,usuallydefiningthemassomehowinoppositiontoothersocialcategories.IntheIn-diansubcontinenttribesorhilltribeshavelongbeende-pictedasdistinctfromcastes;inSoutheast Asia theyhaveoftenbeenpresentedasdistinctfromrice-cultivatingpeas-antsintheplainsandalluvialvalleys.TheNilgiriHills of south India,totakeaspecificexample,arehometoseveralsmall,moreorlessindigenousgroups,mostnotablytheTodas,Kotas,Kurumbas,andBadagas(alldealtwithelse-whereinthisvolume).BritishwritersandadministratorsthereduringthenineteenthcenturyalwaysidentifiedtheTodas,Kotas,andKurumbasashilltribesoraboriginaltribes;whereastheBadagas,whohadcomeuptotheNilgiriHillsfromtheMysorePlainsafewcenturiesbefore,wereusuallywrittenabout,eveninlegislation,asbeingsome-thingotherthanhilltribes.Yettheyhadlivedwithinafewmiles of theKotasandTodasforcenturies,andtheywereataverysimilarlevel of economicdevelopmenttotheKotas.TheNilgiricaseleadstotheconclusionthathilltribesaresimplytheindigenouscommunitiesthatliveaboveaneleva-tion of 1,000meters.Intraditionalsocietieslikethose of IndiaandThailandonecanstillfinddiscreteculturalunitsconventionallycalledtribes.Thesetendtobeendogamoussocialunits,occupyingadistinguishableruralterritory,bearingatribalnameandadis-tinctmaterialculture,andoftenspeakingtheirownlanguage.Butthesamefeaturescharacterizemanydominantcastesin South Asia aswell(e.g.,theRajputs).Inthisregiontheoldcategorieswillnotsimplydisappearasanthropologistsdevelopmoreusefulways of categorizinghumansocieties.ThisisbecausethelegalformulationinIndiasoonafterindependence of twobroadsocialcategories,ScheduledTribesandScheduledCastes,hasbynowtouchedhundreds of millions of peoplewhotherebyhavebecomeeli-gibleforspecialtreatmentbyvariousbranches of thegovern.ment,inanefforttoamelioratethesocioeconomicbackward-ness of thesegroupings.SovaluedhavethesegovernmentbenefitsbecomethattheIndianauthoritiestodayfindthem-selvesunabletoabandonthegranting of specialbenefits,twogenerationsaftertheywerefirstinstituted.ThereareevengroupsliketheBadagas,whowerenevercalledhilltribesnortreatedasScheduledTribes,whononethelesstodayareclam-oringforclassificationasScheduledTribesforthemostobvi-ous of reasons.TheBadagasactuallybecameaScheduledTribein1991.Althoughmany of theearlieraccountsdepictedhilltribesas'animists,"orbelieversinspiritentitieswhodidnotfollowone of thegreat South Asianreligions(e.g.,theHillPandaram),subsequentresearchhasdescribedhilltribesthatareHindu,Buddhist,Muslim,andevenChristian(theMizos,Garos).Alongwiththesedifferencesinbelief,thehilltribesshowagreatvariety of economicadaptations:whileagricultureispreeminentamongmost,therearesomewhoarepastoralists(suchastheTodas),somewhoareartisans(Kotas),andsomewhoareitinerantpeddlers,magicians,andentertainers.Morethan500namedtribescanstillberecognizedinthecountries of South Asia. Detailsabouttribaldemographyareelusive.Mostnationalcensuseshave ... HillTribes 101 KrishnaIyer,L.A.(1937)."Malapantiram."InTheTravan-coreTribesandCastes.Vol.1,96-116.Trivandrum:Govern-mentPress.Morris,Brian(1981)."HillGodsandEcstaticCults:NotesontheReligion of aHuntingandGatheringPeople."ManinIndia61:203-236.Morris,Brian(1986).ForestTraders:ASocio-EconomicStudy of theHillPandaram.L.S.E.MonographsinSocialAnthro-pology,no.55.London:AthlonePress.Mukherjee,B.(1954).TheMalapandaram of Travancore:TheirSocio-EconomicLife.Bulletin of theDepartment of An-thropology,no.3.Calcutta.BRIANMORRISHillTribesETHNONYM:ScheduledTribesThisinexacttermwaslongappliedbyBritishandAmericantravelersandcolonialauthoritiestotheindige-nousinhabitants of uplandareasin South andSoutheast Asia (andsometimesinotherparts of theworld).Althoughitwouldseemclearenoughwhata'hilltribe"is,thetermfindslittlefavoramongmodemanthropologists.First of all,itseemstohavetones of racialinferiority;thusthetermhasneverbeenapplied,forexample,totheHighlandclans of Scotland,eventhoughtheydofittheusualmold of hilltribes.Second,Westernwritershavebeeninconsistentintheiridentification of hilltribes,usuallydefiningthemassomehowinoppositiontoothersocialcategories.IntheIn-diansubcontinenttribesorhilltribeshavelongbeende-pictedasdistinctfromcastes;inSoutheast Asia theyhaveoftenbeenpresentedasdistinctfromrice-cultivatingpeas-antsintheplainsandalluvialvalleys.TheNilgiriHills of south India,totakeaspecificexample,arehometoseveralsmall,moreorlessindigenousgroups,mostnotablytheTodas,Kotas,Kurumbas,andBadagas(alldealtwithelse-whereinthisvolume).BritishwritersandadministratorsthereduringthenineteenthcenturyalwaysidentifiedtheTodas,Kotas,andKurumbasashilltribesoraboriginaltribes;whereastheBadagas,whohadcomeuptotheNilgiriHillsfromtheMysorePlainsafewcenturiesbefore,wereusuallywrittenabout,eveninlegislation,asbeingsome-thingotherthanhilltribes.Yettheyhadlivedwithinafewmiles of theKotasandTodasforcenturies,andtheywereataverysimilarlevel of economicdevelopmenttotheKotas.TheNilgiricaseleadstotheconclusionthathilltribesaresimplytheindigenouscommunitiesthatliveaboveaneleva-tion of 1,000meters.Intraditionalsocietieslikethose of IndiaandThailandonecanstillfinddiscreteculturalunitsconventionallycalledtribes.Thesetendtobeendogamoussocialunits,occupyingadistinguishableruralterritory,bearingatribalnameandadis-tinctmaterialculture,andoftenspeakingtheirownlanguage.Butthesamefeaturescharacterizemanydominantcastesin South Asia aswell(e.g.,theRajputs).Inthisregiontheoldcategorieswillnotsimplydisappearasanthropologistsdevelopmoreusefulways of categorizinghumansocieties.ThisisbecausethelegalformulationinIndiasoonafterindependence of twobroadsocialcategories,ScheduledTribesandScheduledCastes,hasbynowtouchedhundreds of millions of peoplewhotherebyhavebecomeeli-gibleforspecialtreatmentbyvariousbranches of thegovern.ment,inanefforttoamelioratethesocioeconomicbackward-ness of thesegroupings.SovaluedhavethesegovernmentbenefitsbecomethattheIndianauthoritiestodayfindthem-selvesunabletoabandonthegranting of specialbenefits,twogenerationsaftertheywerefirstinstituted.ThereareevengroupsliketheBadagas,whowerenevercalledhilltribesnortreatedasScheduledTribes,whononethelesstodayareclam-oringforclassificationasScheduledTribesforthemostobvi-ous of reasons.TheBadagasactuallybecameaScheduledTribein1991.Althoughmany of theearlieraccountsdepictedhilltribesas'animists,"orbelieversinspiritentitieswhodidnotfollowone of thegreat South Asianreligions(e.g.,theHillPandaram),subsequentresearchhasdescribedhilltribesthatareHindu,Buddhist,Muslim,andevenChristian(theMizos,Garos).Alongwiththesedifferencesinbelief,thehilltribesshowagreatvariety of economicadaptations:whileagricultureispreeminentamongmost,therearesomewhoarepastoralists(suchastheTodas),somewhoareartisans(Kotas),andsomewhoareitinerantpeddlers,magicians,andentertainers.Morethan500namedtribescanstillberecognizedinthecountries of South Asia. 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Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - I ppt
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IndianChristian 103 BibliographyChaudhuri,NiradC.(1979).Hinduism,aReligiontoLiveBy.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress;London:Chatto&Windus.Zaehner,RC.(1962).Hinduism.London:OxfordUniver-sityPress.PAULHOCKINGSStutley,Margaret,andJamesStutley(1977).Harper'sDic-tionary of Hinduism:ItsMythology,Folklore,Philosophy,Liter-ature,andHistory.NewYork:Harper&Row.IndianChristianETHNONYMS:noneIndianChristiansarebelieversinthedivinity of JesusChrist.Despitethepersistingideain South Asia thatChris-tianityisthe"whiteman'sreligion,"ithasamassivefollowingtodayinthesubcontinent.Still,itisverymuchaminorityfaith,accountingfornearly8percent of theSriLankanpopu-lationbutlessthan3percentineach of theother South Asiancountries.In1991Indiahadanestimated21millionChristians,andtheother South Asiancountriestogetherhadanother3million.TheideathatChristianitywasintroducedbythecolo-nialpowers-RomanCatholicismbythePortugueseandthenAnglicanismbytheEnglish-isnotstrictlytrue.Keralaandsomeotherparts of thewestcoasthadcertainlybeenevangelizedbyNestorianmissionariessincethesixthcentury,andmanyin south IndiabelievethattheapostleThomascametoTamilNaduandwasmartyredandburiedinwhatisnowMadrascity.TheseearlyreligiousconnectionswerewithSyria(cf.SyrianChristians).ThePortuguesebroughtPortu-gueseandItalianpriestswiththem,andin1557Goa,theirmajorIndiancolony,becameanarchbishopric.Withthefounding of theEastIndiaCompanyin1600theEnglishin-troducedtheAnglicanfaith,andastimepassedotherProtes-tantsectsappeared.Theyears1850-1900werethehighpoint of Protestantmissionactivityin South Asia, withmin-istersfromAmericaandvirtuallyeverycountryinEuropevyingforconverts,especiallyamongtheUntouchables,tri-bals,anddowntroddenslumdwellers.Insomeareastheyweredramaticallysuccessfulatgainingconverts:theMizos of northeasternIndiaarenearlyallChristianstoday,thankstothesomewhatobscureWelshBaptistmission.Attheotherend of thecountry,though,theBadagasare97percentHinduafterseventyyears of concertedeffortbytheBaselEvangelicalmission,followedbyanotherseventyyears of othermissionaryactivity.TheRomanCatholicmissionarieshavenotfaredanybetteramongtheBadagas;butelsewheretherearelargeCatholiccongregationsinmanytownsandcit-ies.BytheCongregationdePropagandaFide(1622)theCatholicchurchencouragedthetraining of ... Indianpriests,andalsobroughtinlargenumbers of EuropeanJesuitsinasu-pervisorycapacity.Theyear1947markedalandmarkinProtestantchurchhistory,notjustbecausethiswastheyear of independenceforbothIndiaandPakistanbutalsobecauseitwastheyearwhentheChurch of South Indiacameintobeing-thefirstunifiedProtestantchurchanywhere.It of courseabsorbedtheformerAnglican,Methodist,andseveralothersectarianinstitutions.In1970therefollowedaunifiedProtestantChurch of NorthIndiaandaProtestantChurch of Pakistan.Thesechurches,bothProtestantandCatholic,arenowentirelyinthehands of South Asianbishopsandarchbish-ops,withveryfew of theformerEuropeanmissionariesre-maining.InSriLankaand south India,thegreatestgrowthshaverecentlybeenseenamongtheRomanCatholics,notprimarilybecause of newconversionsbutratherbecause of acalculatedavoidance of familyplanning.InNepalChristianandMuslimmissionaryactivityisprohibitedbylaw.Thehistory of Christianityin South Asia hasindeedbeenacheckeredone,butithasbeenanimportantinstru-ment of Westernization.ThefirstprintingpressesandthefirstmodemcollegeswereintroducedbyEuropeanmissionar-ies.Bythemiddle of thenineteenthcenturythesepeopleweremakingimportantcontributionstothegeneralsocialuplift of thecountry(andnotonlyforChristianconverts)bytheirpromotion of ruralandurbanschooling,adultliteracy,femaleeducation,colleges,hospitalsandclinics,andmodemurbancareers.AsaresulttheChristianpopulationhaswieldedadisproportionateinfluenceinmodemIndianandSriLankanlife.Littleconversionisstilltakingplace.IndianChristianstodaytendtobeurban,arealwaysmo-nogamous,andformnuclearfamiliesuponmarriage(whichtakesplaceinachurch).TheyusuallyfollowWesternizedprofessions,becomingteachers,nurses,bankclerks,andcivilservants.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; SyrianChristian of KeralaBibliographyCoutinho,Fortunato(1958).Leregimeparoissialdesdiocesesderitelatindel'Indedesorigines(XVIesiecleanosjours).Paris:EditionsBiatrice-Nauwelaerts.Gibbs,MildredE.(1972).TheAnglicanChurchinIndia,1600-1970.Delhi:IndianSocietyforPromotingChristianKnowledge.Nanjundayya,H.V.,andL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer(1930)."IndianChristian."InTheMysoreTribesandCastes,editedbyH.V.NanjundayyaandL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer.Vol.3,1-76.Mysore:MysoreUniversity.Neill,Stephen(1984).AHistory of ChristianityinIndia.2vols.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Thomas,AbrahamV.(1974).ChristiansinSecularIndia.Rutherford:FairleighDickinsonUniversity.PAULHOCKINGS ... 106 forest of itskindintheworld.Post-WorldWarIIdamproj-ects,includingthat of BhavaniSagar,createdtemporaryworkforothers.ManyIrulahaveenteredthegeneraljobmarketintheCoimbatore-Mettupalaiyam-Ootacamundregionandareemployedinawidearray of jobsinthepublicandprivatesec-tors.Suchjobsincludepositionsinairforceandarmycamps,nationalizedbanks,theincometaxoffice,thePostandTele-graphDepartment,theRailwayDepartment,theSugarcaneBreedingInstituteandPankajaMill,bothinCoimbatore(theonlymillthatemploysIrulas,out of twentysurveyed),thecorditefactoryatAruvankadu,andtheHindustanPhoto-FilmindustrynearOotacamund.TheIrulahavecattle,chick-ens,dogs,goats,andsheep,andafew of themmaykeepbuf-falo,pigeons,orpigs.Pigs,dogs,andchickensserveasscavengersinsomelowlandhamlets.Junglefowl,Nilgirilan-gurs,parrots,peacocks,quail,andassortedsquirrelsappeartobethemostcommonlytamedwildcreatures.IndustrialArts.TheIrulamaketheirowndrumsandwindinstrumentsfortheirmusicalenjoyment.TheKota of theupperNilgirisgenerallynolongersupplymusicastheyoncetraditionallydid,sotheIrulaarenowfrequentlyemployedasmusiciansatBadagaandTodafunerals.Trade.Akind of barteringtradehaspersistedforgenera-tionsbetweentheKina-r.Kota of theupperNilgirisandthenearbyIrula.TheKotaobtainhoney,brooms,winnowersandbasketsmade of bambooandbananasheathstrips,punkusedtolightfires(Kotapriestsmaynotusematchestolightfires)andresinincensefromtheIrulainreturnforironfieldandgardenimplementsmadebyKotablacksmiths.Division of Labor.Womenstillperformallthehouse-hold-relatedtasks.Whilemalesperformthoseagriculturaltasksrequiringmorestrength,suchasplowingorhoeingtheearthinpreparationforthesowing of grain,womenalso per-formmanyagriculturaltasks.Malestypicallydothesowing,andwomenoftendothemostboring of taskssuchasweed-ing,reaping,andthecarrying of loads of harvestedgardenproduceorgrain.Bothmalesandfemalesarehiredforahost of laboringtasks.Becauseinfantcarethusbecomesaprob-lem,itisnotunusualforwomentotaketheirinfantstowork-places.Olderchildrennotattendingschoolareoftentakencare of bytheelderlyinextendedfamilies.LandTenure.Members of theThengumarahadaCooper-ativeSocietycultivateallottedamounts of land.Afew of theIrulaowntitletoland,sometimesintheform of patta(landownership)documents.GaudasandChettiarsinparticularhavetakenoverIrulalandthroughloanmanipulation,andsometherebynowalsohaveIrulasworkingforthem.ManyIrulaleaselandfromlandowners.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheIrulaformanendogamouscastewithtwelveexogamouspatricians(inSanskritgotras,inTamilkulams)-Devanan(orThevananorDevala),Kal-katti,Koduvan(orKodugar),Kuppan(orKoppilingam),Kurunagan,Ollaga,Peratha,Porigan,Pungan(orPoong-karu),Samban(orChamban),Uppigan(orUppali),andVellagai(orVellai)-andaclanrepresentedbythethudaitree(Ilexdenticulata).Nevertheless,becausemembers of apatriciancannotmarrymembersinoneormore"brother"pa-tricians,thereareexogamouspatricianunitsamongtheIrula.Theoverallsize of theseunitsvariesfromoneareatoanother.Thus,theIrulakinshipsystemissimilartotheonethatdomi-natesinsouthernIndia.Inaddition,theIrulahaveasystemwherebyeachpatricianisaffiliatedwithafriendshippatricianwhosemembershelpwhenanevent,typicallyarite of pas-sage,requirescooperativeeffort.TheidealmarriageamongtheIrulais of afemalewithherfather'ssister'sson(i.e.,amalewiththe...
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Tìm thêm: hệ việt nam nhật bản và sức hấp dẫn của tiếng nhật tại việt nam xác định các mục tiêu của chương trình xác định các nguyên tắc biên soạn khảo sát chương trình đào tạo gắn với các giáo trình cụ thể xác định thời lượng học về mặt lí thuyết và thực tế tiến hành xây dựng chương trình đào tạo dành cho đối tượng không chuyên ngữ tại việt nam điều tra với đối tượng sinh viên học tiếng nhật không chuyên ngữ1 khảo sát thực tế giảng dạy tiếng nhật không chuyên ngữ tại việt nam khảo sát các chương trình đào tạo theo những bộ giáo trình tiêu biểu phát huy những thành tựu công nghệ mới nhất được áp dụng vào công tác dạy và học ngoại ngữ mở máy động cơ rôto dây quấn các đặc tính của động cơ điện không đồng bộ hệ số công suất cosp fi p2 đặc tuyến hiệu suất h fi p2 đặc tuyến tốc độ rôto n fi p2 đặc tuyến dòng điện stato i1 fi p2 động cơ điện không đồng bộ một pha thông tin liên lạc và các dịch vụ từ bảng 3 1 ta thấy ngoài hai thành phần chủ yếu và chiếm tỷ lệ cao nhất là tinh bột và cacbonhydrat trong hạt gạo tẻ còn chứa đường cellulose hemicellulose chỉ tiêu chất lượng theo chất lượng phẩm chất sản phẩm khô từ gạo của bộ y tế năm 2008