Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - N pdf

... arekilledforthisfeast,anditistheonlytimethatpigfightsareheld.Itoccursapproximatelyeverytwoorthreeyears,when-evervillageheadsagreethattheyhavethenecessaryresources(inpigs)tohostone.Arts.Nicobaresesongsaresungunaccompaniedbyinstru-ments.Dancingisdoneingroups-onsomeislandsmalesandfemalesdanceinseparategroups.ThereisnoNicobaresetraditionaldrama.Popularsportsincludecanoeraces,pigfighting,stickfighting,wrestling,andvolleyball.Medicine.Themenluanacuresicknessbycontrollingthespiritswhocauseit.Herbalremediesareused,asiscuringby'sucking"outbits of stoneorbone,etc.,fromthebody of theailingperson.DeathandAfterlife.TheNicobaresebelieveinanafter-lifeinwhichthedeadconductthemselvessimilarlytohowtheydidinlife.Forthisreason,thepersonalbelongings of thedeadareburiedwiththebodyandfoodisleftattheburialsite.Certaincoconutpalms of thedeceased'sformerplanta-tionaremarkedwithasign,designatingtheirfruitassolelyfortheuse of thedeadperson'sspiritforaboutsixmonths.Thebody of thedeceasedisinterred,thenexhumedandre-buriedafteraboutaweek,atthetime of whichfinalburialafeastisheld.ETHNONYMS:Barthapalya(inNepali),Bhotia,Bhutia,TamangOrientationIdentification.TheNyinbaareone of manysmall,largelyendogamousgroupspositionedalongthenorthernborder-lands of NepalthatcanbeidentifiedasethnicallyTibetanbytheirlanguage,bytheTibetanBuddhistreligion,andotherfeatures of cultureandsocialstructure.TheNyinbaliveinHumla,adistrict of theKarnaliZoneinfarnorthwesternNepal.Tibetanspeakersinthisregioncalltheirterritory"NyinYulTshanZhi,"literally,"thefourvillagesona south- facing[sunny]slope."Nepalispeakerscallthecommunity"Barthapale,"thapalereferringtoitshighvalleylocation.Governmentdocumentsoriginallyidentifiedthesepeopleas'Bhotia,"meaningTibetan.Later,toaffirmtheirNepalina-tionality,theybecameclassifiedas"Tamang,"theethnonym of Tibeto-Burman-speakinghillpeoplefromcentralNepal.Location.Nyinbavillagesarelocatedatapproximately30" N and81°51'E,inavalleycarvedoutbytheHumlaKarnaliandDozamrivers.Theterraininthisregionisruggedandthearablelandlimited,creatingstrongcompetitionforland.Nyinbacontrolanarrowband of territorybeginningat2,550metersandextendingtothevalleysummit,withthevillageslocatedbetween2,850and3,300meters.Thiselevationisas-sociatedwithatemperateclimate.Much of theforce of thesummermonsoonisspentonmountainstotheeastand south, limitingannualrainfall.Asecond,westernmonsoonbringsheavysnowfallsinwinter.Demography.In1983,theNyinbaincluded1,332indi.viduals,716malesand616females.Thehighsexratio,116malesforevery100females,canbeattributedtoapattern of preferentialtreatment of maleinfants.Almost35percent of thepopulationislessthanage15,andtheintrinsicrate of naturalincreaseappearstoberelativelylow:between1and1.5percentperyear.LinguisticAffiliation.TheNyinbaspeakadialect of Ti-betansimilartothedialects of otherethnicTibetangroupsinwestNepal.Theseseemmostcloselyrelatedtodialectsspo-kenbywesternTibetanagriculturalists.TheTibetanlan-guageisrelatedtoBurmese,withthesetwolanguagesconsid-eredabranch of theSino-TibetanLanguagePhylum.Nagas187ThereareaboutasmanyNagadialectsasthereareNagatribes.Thelinguafranca of thestate of NagalandisNagaPidgin(alsoknownasNagamese,KachariBengali,orBodo)andisparticularlyprevalentinKohimaDistrict.Therearesometwenty-sevenknownNagadialects,allpart of theTibeto-BurmanFamily,whichisitselfpart of theSino-TibetanPhylum.TheseincludeAngamiNaga,AoNaga,ChangNaga,ChokriNaga,KhezaNaga,KhiamnganNaga,KhoiraoNaga,KonyakNaga,andmanyothers.HistoryandCulturalRelationsWhilefolktraditionsregardingthehistory of thevariousNagatribesabound,scholarlyconsensushasnotbeenreachedconcerningtheirorigin.Generallyspeaking,verylit-tleisknown of theorigin of any of theMongoloidgroupswhosesouthwesterlymigrationbroughtthemultimatelytothesub-HimalayanregionandnortheasternIndia(e.g.,theBondosandtheGaros).TheirpresenceisattestedintheseareasasearlyasthetenthcenturyB.C.WhatisknownisthatthesetribesspokeTibeto-Burmandialectsandthatitisprob-ablethattheiroriginalhomelandwasintheregionbetweentheHuang-HoandYangtze(Ch'ang)riversinnorthwesternChina.Thesepeoplescameinsuccessivemigratorywavesforseveralcenturies(aftertheinvasions of theAryansinwesternIndia).Thegeographicextent of thesemigrationswasquiteconsiderable;Aryan-Mongoloidcontacttookplaceinthecenturiesthatfollowed.TheMongoloidtribeswerenotho-mogeneous.Theirlanguages,socialstructures,and cultures werediverse,andintheearlycenturies of theCommonEratheybeganextensiveexpansion,fromtheirinitialsettlementsintheIrawadiandChindwinriverregionsinnorthernMyanmar(Burma),throughoutAssam,theCacharHills,andtheNagaHills.Fromthethirteenthcenturyonward,theAhoms-rulers of Assamfrom1228untiltheBritishannexa-tion of theprovincein1826-hadextensiveculturalcontactwithvariousNagatribes.Thenature of therelationshipbe-tweenthesetribesandtheAhomsrangedfromcooperativetoantagonistic.NagatribeslivingneartheplainspaidannualtributetoAhomrulersasasign of allegiance,forwhichtheNagasweregivenrevenue-freelandsandfisheries.TheseweregrantedwiththeunderstandingthattheNagawouldrefrainfromraidsintheplainsareas.Tradeandcommercewerealsoextensive,withtheNagastradingsalt(aparticularlyimpor-tantmedium of exchange),cotton,medicinalherbs,ivory,bee'swax,mats,anddaos(adzes)forAssameserice,cloth,andbeads.Attimes,northernAhomraidersattackedNagavillages,takingbootyanddemandingtribute.However,theseincursionsdidnotestablishlastingAssameseruleovertheNagaHillsregion.TheNagaretainedtheirindependenceuntiltheBritishannexationintheearlynineteenthcentury.TheBritishaddedAssamtotheEastIndiaCompany'sterri-toriesin1820.In1832theyattemptedtoannexNagacoun-trybutmetwithsustainedandeffectiveguerrillaresistancefromNagagroups,particularlytheAngamitribe.TheBritishrespondedbysendingapproximatelytenmilitaryexpeditionsintoNagaterritorybetween1835and1851.GuerrillaactivitycontinuedunabatedandBritishpostsweresubsequentlyes-tablishedintheAngamiregion.Thismarkedanimportantpointintheprocess of Nagalandannexation.AunifiedAn-gamiresponsewasmountedin1878withraidsonBritishforcesundertakenbyvillagesandvillageclusters.Theimpe-rialresponseinvolvedtheburning of offendingvillages.An-gamiresistanceeventuallymetwithfailureandtheyeventu-allybecameanadministeredtribeunderBritishrule.Withthesubjugation of thisregion,theextension of alienrulethroughoutNagalandsoonfollowed,furtherwideningtheculturalgapbetweentheNagaandotherhillpeoplesandtheIndianinhabitants of thelowlands.Britishtreatment of theNagawasfavorable.TheyallowednoIndiantofunctionasadministrator of thehilldistrictsandattemptedtopreventexploitation of thehillpeoplesbyplainsfolk.Christianmis-sionaryactivitysoonfollowedBritishannexation,withAmer-icanBaptistsassumingthelead.Rapidprogressinconversionwasmade.Increasedliteracyandagrowingsense of Nagasolidarity-forwhichtheofficialorgan of expressionwastheNagaNationalCouncil(NNC)-resultedintheNNC'sclaimforregionalindependencein1947.Thedeparture of theBritishandtheemergence of Indianself-rulemadeNagapoliticalautonomywithinasovereignIndiaanegotiablepos-sibility.TotalindependencefortheNagahomeland,how-ever,wasanimpossibility.ViolenceeruptedinNagalandin1955asIndianforcestriedtoquellNagasecessionefforts,andin1956theNNCdeclaredtheexistence of theFederalGovernment of Nagaland.Conflictcontinuedinspite of ef-fortstosatisfythecallforNagapoliticalfreedombythegranting of statehood(acausechampionedbytheNagaPeo-plesConvention).In1963theefforts of thisorganizationandthesegment of theNagapopulacewhichitrepresentedresultedintheformation of thestate of Nagaland.Inspite of thisaction,hostilitiescontinued.Underthesponsorship of theBaptistChurch,apeacecommissionwasformedandacease-firedeclaredbetweentheNagalandfederalgovernmentandthegovernment of Indiaon24May1964.Thecease-firelasteduntil1September1972whenanattemptonthelife of thechiefminister of NagalandresultedintheIndiangovem-ment'stermination of thecease-fireandbanning of theNNC.ArmedresistancebytheNNCcontinuedintothe1970sandwasnotsuppresseduntiltheShillongAccordwassignedbyrepresentatives of theIndiangovernmentandtheNagalandfederalgovernmentinNovember1975.Isolatedpockets of resistancepersistedintothelate1970s,buteffec-tiveresistancetoIndianhegemonyhassinceceased.OneverysmallNagaundergroundantigovernmentoperationex-istedinexileinBurmainthe1980s,butitsinfluenceinNagalandatthattimewasminuscule.SettlementsNagavillagesareautonomousunitssituatedonhilltops.Theaverageelevation of thevillagesisbetween900and1,200me-ters.Because of themountainousterrainandthethreat of in-vasionbyneighboringtribes,thesesmallvillageswereorigi-nallyintendedtobeself-sufficientandsecure.ConsequentlyearlyexplorersreportedthatNagavillageswereheavilyforti-fied.However,withthecessation of bothintertribalconflictandoutsideinterference(chieflyfromBritishandIndianforces),theneedforsecurityandthedegree of villagefortif-cationhaslessenedconsiderably.Normsforconstructionvar-iedsomewhatwithintheconstituentNagatribes,yetafewgeneralobservationsmaybemade.Villageshaveoneormoreentrancesthatwereonceguardedheavilyand,attimes,booby-trapped.Villagefortificationsincludedlargewoodendoors(latchedfromtheinside of thevillageandhewnfroma190Nagasmaybeleftforthedaughtertoenjoyduringherlifetime,butitreturnstothemaleheirsafterherdeath.Veryfewexceptionstothisgeneralruleareknown.Socialization.Afteranelaboratepostbirthritual(part of whichplacesthenewbornincloserelationshipwiththefa-ther'skindred),Angamichildrenaresuckledbytheirmoth-ersfortwotothreeyears.Girls'earsarepiercedsixtotwelvemonthsfollowingbirth,whilethose of boysarepiercedassoonastheyareabletospeak.At4to6years of age,anAn-gamiboyleaveshismother'sside of thehouse(wherehehassleptuptothispoint)andmovestohisfather'sside of thehousetosleep.Fromthispointonheisconsideredamember of themalecommunityandnolongerremainswithwomenwhensexseparationtakesplaceatgennas(magicoreligiousritesandceremonies).Mothersareresponsiblefortheup-bringing of childrenandanuclearfamilystructureobtains.TheAngamimorung(youngmen'shouse),whichfunctionsasaguardhouse,clubhouse,andcenter of severalcommunalactivitiesinmostNagatribes(withtheexception of theSema),is of ceremonialimportanceonly;itdoesnotserveasanactualresidenceforyoungunmarriedmen(asitdoesamongtheAo,forexample).Girls'houses(foundamongtheAo,Memi,andothertribes)arealsolocatedinsomeAngamivillages.Nagachildrengenerallyshareinallresponsibilitiesassumedbytheirparents.Thesocialization of Nagagirlsin-cludesinstructionbytheirmothersinweaving,anindustrialartbelongingexclusivelytowomen.Boysandgirlsareal-lowedaconsiderableamount of premaritalsexualfreedominmostNagatribes.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.ThebasicAngamisocialunitistheexogamouspatrilinealclan(thino),thoughtheclanhasbeensupersededbythekindred(putsa).Individualidentityisboundchieflytothesegroups.Clanandkindredareresponsi-bleforthebehavior of constituentmembers.Socialstatusisreflectedintheroofing of houses.Prestigecanbeattainedbythecollection of trophiesinwarandinsponsorship of festi-vals.Statusmayalsobebasedonaperson'sindividualclanmembership.PoliticalOrganization.Acouncil of eldersfunctionsastheadministrativeauthorityinavillage,andindividualswithgrievancesmayvoicethematcouncilmeetings.Chiefsarealsopart of thepoliticalstructure of thevillage,butthede-limitation of theirpowersvariesamongtheseveralNagatribes.Thegovernmentappointsvillageofficialstoday.InAngamivillagesthesearecalledgaonburasandtheirauthorityandresponsibilitiesaresimilartothose of thevillagechief-tains(pehumas) of thepast.Theoffice of thegaonburaisnothereditary.Thesamewastrue,inmostcases, of that of thepehuma.Thegaonbura'smajoradministrativeresponsibilityisthecollection of thehousetax,thoughhemayalsoactonbehalf of hisvillagersasago-betweenwithgovernmentoffi-cials.Thepehumaexercisedmostinfluenceintheconduct of war,thesettlement of disputeswithinthevillagebeingdele-gatedtotheelders'council.SocialControl.ConflictsareresolvedwithinAngamivil-lagesbyacouncil of elderswhodiscussmatters of disputeamongthemselves,withthepartiesinvolved,andwiththegeneralpublic,untilsomeresolutionisreached.Issuescen-teringontribalcustomareusuallyreferredtotheoldermen of aclan.Factualquestionsaredecidedbyoath,andtheau-thority of theoath(particularlywhenonepartyswearsbythelives of familyandclanmembers)israrelyquestioned.Conflict.Nagatribesmaintainedahighdegree of isolationfromneighboringpeoples.Conflictbetweenvillages,tribes,andclanswasfrequentbeforeannexation of thehighlandre-gionsbytheBritish,aswerehostilitiesbetweentheNagaandtheAssameselivingintheplains.Headtakingwasanimpor-tantfeature of warfareamongtheNagagenerally,andweap-onsincludedspears,shields,andguns(acquiredinlargepartafterthecoming of theBritish).InitialBritishincursionsintoNaga-heldterritoriesmetwithsubstantialresistance.TheAngamiinparticularwereactivelyinvolvedinanti-Britishre-sistance,frequentlyconductingguerrillaraidsonBritishout-posts.Intime,theconduct of warwasaugmentedbydiplo-maticeffortstoresolveissues of territorialsovereigntyandindependence.Asaresult,armedresistanceseasonedwithdi-plomacyhasbeentheNagamethod of conflictresolution,firstwiththeBritishcolonialauthoritiesandthenwiththeIndiangovernment.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.ChristianityhastakenrootinsomeNagatribes,butithasbynomeanseclipsedtraditionalreli-giousbeliefs.TheAngamireligioussystemfeaturesbeliefinanumber of spiritsandsupernaturalforcesassociatedwiththecycle of life.Animateandinanimateobjectsmayberegardedasembodiedspirits,andthereisadistinctiondrawnbetweenthegodsandthesouls of deadhumans.Amongthevastnum-ber of terhoma("deities")thefollowingshouldbenoted:Kenopfu(thecreatorgod);Rutzeh(thegiver of suddendeath);Maweno(god of fruitfulness);Telepfu(amischie-vousgod);TsukoandDzurawu(husbandandwifedwarfgodspresidingoverwildanimals);Metsimo(guardian of thegateleadingtoparadise);Tekhu-rho(god of tigers);andAyepi(agodwholivesinAngamihousesandbringsprosperity).Su-pernaturalforcesarebelievedtopossessbothbenevolentandmaliciousqualitiesand,whenoccasiondemands,Angamibe-liefprovidesforprayertobemadetothemandfortheirpropi-tiationorchallengebyhumans.ReligiousPractitioners.Angamireligiouspractitionersincludethefollowing:thekemovo(whodirectspubliccere-moniesandistherepository of historicaltraditionsandgene-alogicalinformation);thezhevo(whofunctionsasintegralpart of theperformance of personalgennas,andwhoalsoiscalledonintimes of sicknesstoadviseanappropriatecere-monialcourse of actiontocurethedisease);thetsakro(anoldmanwhoinauguratesthesowing of crops);andthelidepfu(anoldwomanwhoinauguratesthereaping of crops).All of thesepractitionersarepublicfunctionaries.Otherreli-giousspecialists,whoserealm of activityisconfinedtotheprivatedomain,areknownaswell.Theseinclude:thethem-uma,whoseknowledgemayrangefromcompetenceinpartic-ularkinds of divinationtoknowledge of poisons;thezhumma("invulnerables"),whoreportedlycanbeharmedneitherbybulletnorspear;thekihupfuma(individualsgiftedwithpow-erstocauseillnessandbadfortune);andtheterhope(womenwhodreaminordertoforetelltheoutcome of variousendeav-Nagas191ors).Asimilarhierarchy of practitionersobtainsinmanyotherNagatribes.Ceremonies.Angamireligiouslifecentersonaseries of elevengennas(magicoreligiousceremoniesaccompaniedbybehavioralrestrictionsbindinguponcommunityand/orin-dividual)performedduringtheyear.Theseareconnectedwithagriculturaleventsthataffectthelife of thecommu-nity.Gennas of lessfrequentoccurrenceincludethoseforwardancing,interclanvisitation,andpreparation of anewvillagedoor.Individualgennas(i.e.,thoseassociatedwiththenormalcycle of eventsinaperson'slife)includethoseforbirth,marriage,anddeath.Somesevensocialgennasmaybeperformedinordertogainstatus.Miscellaneousgennasforillness,rainmaking,headtaking,andhuntingmayalsobeperformed.Angamireligiouslifealsoincludestheobservance of certainrestrictionsonindividualbehavior(calledkennas)andcorporatebehavior(calledpennas).Theceremonyaccompanyingthegenna(callednanu)involvestheoffering of flesh(part of whichisofferedtothespirits),thewearing of ceremonialgarments,singing,dancing,thepounding of dhan(unhuskedgrain of thericeplant),theab-stentionfromwork,andtheprohibition of anycontactwithstrangers.Similarityinthestructure of ritesandceremoniesobtainsinotherNagatribes.Arts.MusicanddancingareimportantcomponentsinAngamigennas.Oralliteratureincludesnumerousmythsandlegends(whicharealsoaccompaniedbysong).Images of spiritsandgodsarelackinginAngamivisualart,buttherep-resentation of thehumanforminAngamiwoodworkisknown.Woodendolls of thehumanfigureinminiaturearemadeanddressedintraditionalclothing.Originallythesewereproducedforartisticpurposesbuttheirvaluewasper-ceivedbythosewhoproducedthem,makingthemsubjecttosale.Life-sizehumanfiguresaremanufacturedandplacedovergraves.Therepresentation of thehumanheadisacom-monfeature of Angamiwoodcarving(e.g.,onvillagedoors,housegables,andwoodenbridges),asarethehead of thegayal,thepig'shead,andanimagerepresentingeitherahumanbreastorthetop of adhanbasket.ProficiencyinwooddoesnotobtainamongallNagatribes.Medicine.MagicoreligiousceremoniesarethemajorcureprescribedforillsamongtheAngami.Inadditiontotheserites,anumber of medicinalherbsareusedfortheircurativeproperties.Thebrain of thekhokhefish,thebile of thetoad,thecasts of earthworms,adog'seyesandhairs,raweggs,andthemarrow of theserowareamongtheanimalpartsandby-productsusedformedicinalpurposesbytheAngami.AmongotherNagatribes(e.g.,theAo),magicoreligiousmeansforthecure of illnessesarealsopreferred,buttheuse of plantandanimalby-productsformedicinalpurposesalsoobtains.DeathandAfterlife.Attitudestowardtheburial of thedeadvaryamongthevariousNagatribes.TheAngamiplaceresponsibilityfortheburial of thedeadonthemalerelatives of thedeceased.Burialusuallytakesplacewithinthevillage.Agraveispreparedeitherbesideone of thevillagepathsorinfront of thedeceased'shouse.Thebody of amanisinterredinacoffincoveredbyawhitecloth.Withitareburiedafirestick,oneortwospears,adao,ayoungchicken(alive),andagadzosiseed(placedbetweentheteeth of thecorpse).Thegadzosiseedisprovidedsothatthedeceased'sencounterwithMetsimointheafterlifewillbeasuccessfulone.Awomanisburiedwithafewbeads,anewunder-petticoat,areapinghook,ayoungchicken(live),andthegadzosiseed.Onceburied,thecoffiniscoveredwithflatstones.Ontothestonesispouredthecontents of thedeceased'sceremonialkang("carryingbasket"):seedforwetrice,Job'stears,millet(andeveryotherkind of ediblegrain),zu(ricebeer),andthedeceased'sdrinkingcup.Thegraveisthencoveredwithearthandleveled.Atopthegraveareplacedpersonalimplementsoncebelongingtothedeceased.Angamieschatologydistin-guishesbetweenthefatesintheafterlife of thosewholivegoodlivesandthosewhodonot.TheformerjointheskygodUkepenopfu,whilethelatterarecondemnedtopassthroughsevenexistencesbeneaththeEarth.Lifewiththeskygodispresumedtobeanextension of earthlylifewithhunting,headhunting,drinking,andfeasting.Themajorrequirementforentryintothisblessedstateisthatonehaveperformedthezhathogennaandabstainedfromuncleanmeatthereafter.AngamimalesmuststrugglewithMetsimoonthenarrowpassagethatleadstothegate of theskygod'sdomain.Failureresultsinthedeceased'sbeingforcedtowanderbetweenHeavenandEarthasawanderingspirit.SimilaritiesbetweentheAngamiandotherNagatribesregardingeschatologydoobtain.BeliefinthenarrowroadleadingtoParadiseisvirtu-allyuniversalamongtheNaga.BibliographyAnand,V.K.(1969).NagalandinTransition.NewDelhi:As-sociatedPublishingHouse.Elwin,Verrier,ed.(1969).TheNagasintheNineteenthCen-tury.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Fuchs,Stephen(1973).TheAboriginalTribes of India.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Fuirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1969).TheKonyakNagas:AnIndianFrontierTribe.NewYork:Holt,Rinehart&Winston.Fiurer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1976).ReturntotheNakedNagas.NewDelhi:VikasPublishingHouse.Ganguli,Milada(1984).APilgrimagetotheNagas.NewDelhi:OxfordandIBHPublishingCo.Horam,M.(1977).SocialandCulturalLife of Nagas.NewDelhi:B.RPublishingCorp.Hutton,JohnHenry(1921).TheSemaNagas.London:Macmillan.2nded.1968.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Hutton,JohnHenry(1921).TheAngamiNagas.London:Macmillan.2nded.1969.London:OxfordUniversityPress.LeBar,FrankM.(1964).EthnicGroups of Mainland South- east Asia. NewHaven,Conn.:HRAFPress.Majumdar,D. N. (1944).Racesand Cultures of India.Allaha-bad:Kitabistan.4thed.1961.NewYork: Asia PublishingHouse.NambudiriBrahman193theirsubsistencefromtheincome of theirmediumtolargelandedholdings.Theywerenotexpectedtoparticipateinthelife-crisisceremonies of casteslowerthanthemselves,apartfromthecoronationsinafew of therulinghouses.Theyallhadatleastafewservantsintheirhomes.SomeNambudiris,slightlylowerinrank,performedritualsatwell-knowntem-ples(thoughmany of thesealsohadritualsperformedbyEm-brandiriBrahmansfrom South KanaraDistrict of KarnatakaStateandbyPattarBrahmansfromTamilNadu).Traditionally,theNambudiriBrahmanslivedoffthein-comefromtheirlands,althoughafewalsoworkedinlargetemples.Theyspentconsiderableamounts of timelearningandrecitingSanskritslokasandmany of themwerefamousscholarsandteachers of theVedas.Theyalsoparticipatedinsacrifices.Underthetraditionallandtenuresystem,theNambudiriBrahmansheldlandprimarilyastherulersorasadirectgrantfromaruler.Theydidnotdealwiththatlanddirectly,prefer-ringtoleaveagriculturalmanagementtotenantsandsubten-ants.Theirlandwasheldasanimpartibleinheritancebytheeldestson,thoughyoungersonsandunmarrieddaughterswereeligibletobesupportedbytheincomefromtheprop-erty.Thelandtenurelawspassedinthe1920sand1930smadetheNambudiripropertypartible.Themajorlandre-formlawmeasurespassedintheearly1970splusaseries of Supremecourtdecisionsthatprovidedforpermanency of tenurefortheirtenantsandgaveownershiprightstothelow-estrung of tenantshavehadtheeffect of causingmany of theNambudiriBrahmanhouseholdstobeseverelyimpoverished.KinshipTheNambudiriBrahmanswerepatrilinealandpracticedpri-mogeniture.Theyweredividedintovariousstatusgroups,themostsignificantonebeingthedivisionbetweentheAdhyansandtheAsyans.TheAdhyans(recognizedbythesuffix-padattheend of theirnames)werethewealthiestandmostpow.erful.Therewasatendencyfortheeightmostpowerful of theAdhyanstobeendogamous.Thehighest-rankingAsyansweretheoneswhohadtherighttorecitetheVedas.Kinshipterminologyfollowsamodification of theDra-vidianpattern.Thereisastrikingabsence of termstorefertoaffinesnotactuallylivinginone'sillam,indicatingthataffin-itywasnotacriticalprinciple of thesystem.Onceagirlwasmarriedshewastotallyamalgamatedintoherhusband'sfam-ilyandusedthesametermsthatheused.Theonlyaffinesevengivenatermarethemother'sbrotherandmother'sbrother'swife.Theothersignificantdifferencefromtherest of south Indiaistheabsence of adistinctionbetweencrossandparallelcousins.AmongNambudirisbothareconsideredtobesimilartoone'sownbrothersandsistersandbothareforbiddenasmarriagepartners.MarriageandFamilyOnlytheeldestsonwasallowedtotakeawifeorwivesfromhisowncaste.Theyoungersonseitherremainedcelibateorelseformedpermanentorsemipermanentliaisonswithwomenfromthesomewhatlowermatrilinealcastes(seethearticleonNayars).Althoughonlytheoldestsoncouldmarry,hewasal-loweduptothreewivesatatime.Girlstendedtobemarriedtohouseholdswithinatwo-tothree-days'walkfromtheirna-tiveillam.Postpubertalmarriagewasmostfrequent.Dowrieswerequitehigh,andgettingagirlmarriedwasconsideredaburdentoherfamily.Sometimesamanmighttakeasecondwifeinexchangeinordertosaveonthedowryforhisdaugh-ter.Aftermarriageagirlhadnorightsinhernatalhome,andwhethershewashappyormiserableshesimplyhadtobearit.ManyNambudiriwomenfeltthatbeingaNambudiriwomanwastheworstfateanyhumanbeingcouldhave,andtheysometimesprayedthatnooneshouldever"bebornaNam-budiriwoman."Thesizeandcomposition of thedomesticunithasvariedovertime.Traditionallyitincludedamanandhiswifeorwivesandtheirchildren,hisunmarriedbrothers,andanyun-marriedsistersthatmightremain.Itwasoftenathree-generationunitwithpowerandauthorityalwaysvestedintheoldestlivingmale.Whenlawswerepassedpermittingyoungersonstomarry,householdssometimescametoincludethewivesandchildren of brothers,thoughbythentheselargehouseholdshadbeguntopartition.Traditionalinheritancewasinthemalelineandpropertywaskeptintactthroughtherule of primogenitureandimpar-tibility.Thishasgreatlychangedsincethe1920sand1930s.SociopoliticalOrganization(SeethearticleonNayarsforgeneralbackgroundinforma-tion.)Whenattheend of theeighteenthcenturytheBritishtookoverdirectpoliticalcontrolinMalabarandcametoplayamajorroleasadvisersinCochinandTravancoretoo,theNambudiris,deprived of theirpoliticalrolebutstillmaintain-ingtheirstatusasreligiousauthorities,withdrewtotheires-tates.Theyremainedaloof,preferringtoreemphasizetheirspiritualsanctityandpurity.Inthefirstquarter of thetwenti-ethcenturysome of theNambudiriyouthbecameinvolvedintheNambudirireformmovement.Throughthisactivitytheybecamedirectlyinvolvedinpolitics,withmany of theoldersonsaligningthemselveswiththeCongresspartybutmost of theyoungersonsandwomenjoiningtheCommunists.Thehead of theCommunistParty of India(Marxist)forthepasttwenty-fiveyears,E.M.S.Namboodiripad,cameout of theearlierNambudirireformmovement.Traditionally,socialcontrolwasexercisedthroughfearandshaming.Traditionallyconflictswerehandledbythecasteelders.Aspecialkind of courtwasheldforfemaleswhowereevensuspected of committingadultery.ThesecourtscametoanabruptendwhenoneNambudiriwomannamedsixty-fourmen(somequitewellknown)withwhomsheclaimedtohavecommittedadultery.Today,localconflictsarehandledbythevillagepanchayatsandmoreseriousandwide-reachingmattersbythecivilauthorities.ReligionandExpressiveCultureTheNambudirisareHindus.Thehigher-rankingNambudirisperformpujas(individualworshiprituals)andsacrificesintheirownhomesbutdonotworkasritualspecialistsforoth-ers.Themainpujaris(templepriests)areTamilBrahmansorBrahmansfrom South Kanara,thoughinafewtemplestherearealsoNambudiriorKeralaBrahmans.Keralahasbeenin-novativeinprovidingtrainingandcertificationforwell-trainedlower-castepujaris.ThemostimportantceremoniescelebratedinKeralaamongHindusareVishu,Onam,andThiruvathira.Inaddi-200Nayar.beeninnovativeinprovidingtrainingandcertificationforwell-trainedlower-castepujaris.Ceremonies.ThemostimportantceremoniescelebratedinKeralaamongHindusareVishu,Onam,andThiruvathira.Traditionally,thesewerethethreeceremonialoccasionswhena"visitinghusband"wasexpectedtobringnewclothestohiswife.VishuoccursatthesametimeastheTamilNewYearinmid-April.Itisatimeforwearingnewclothesandalsoisconsideredthebeginning of thesummer.Thefirstthingsapersonseesthatmorninguponarisingaresaidtoin-fluencehisorherlifethroughouttheyear.Onam(inAugust-September)istheharvestfestivalassociatedwiththefirstpaddyharvest.ItisalsotheMalayaliNewYear.ForNayarsitisextremelyimportantnotonlyasatimeforgettingnewclothesbutalsobecause of themanyritualsassociatedwithit.ThiruvathiraisinDecember,andit ... of Muslimsinthecountryandanevensmallernumber of convertstoChristianity.ExceptforperhapsChristians,al-mostallgroupsparticipateinindigenousandsyncreticsha-manic,oracular,orpre-BuddhistBonbeliefsandpracticesthatrecognizetheeffects of localgods,godlings,spirits,andplaces of power.Generally,HinduisminNepalisbasedontheDharmashastras,Puranas,andvariousdevelopmentsinVaishnavismandShaivismthathavelargelyoriginatedinIndia.BuddhisminNepalblendsMahayana,ortheGreatVehicle,withVajrayana,theDiamondWay.WhetherTibet-ansorNewars,BuddhistsbelieveinthefiveDhayaniBud-dhas,andalongwithHindustheybelieveintheprinciples of dharmaandkarma.HindusinNepalworshipthemajorgods of Hinduism,suchasforms of Vishnu,Shiva,Durga,andSaraswati.IntheKathmanduValleyHindusalongwiththeBuddhistsalsoworshippowerfullocalgoddessesandgods208Newar.Conflict.InthelateMallaperiod,therewerefrequentcon-flictsamongthesmallkingdomsinthevalley.Conflictsbe-tweencastesoftenledtotheweakening of servicerelations.Thebest-rememberedoneistheprolongedGubhaju-UdAyconflict,whichwasbroughtbeforethecourtandevenneededtheking'sintervention.Amechanismtosplitagrouppeace-fullyisabsentinmanycases;thusconflict,bycreatingfissuresandsplintergroups,helpsmaintaingroupsatanoptimumsize.Traditionalsocialrelationshavebeenweakeninginmanyrespectsrecently.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Buddhism,Hinduism,andindigenousbeliefscoexistandaremixedamongtheNewars.Themainform of BuddhismpracticedhereisMahayanaorGreatVehi-cle'Way,"inwhichtheTantricizedandesotericVajrayana,Diamond,orThunderbolt"Way"isconsideredthehighest.TheravadaBuddhismisnotaspopularbuttherehasbeenamoderateresurgenceinrecentyears.Hinduismhasbenefitedfromstrongerbackingforseveralcenturies.Shiva,Vishnu,andrelatedBrahmanicaldeitiesarerevered,butmorecharac-teristicistheworship of variousgoddessescalledbyblankettermssuchasmatrika,devi,ajima,andmai.Indigenousele-mentsareseenintherituals of digudya,byancanakegu("feedingfrogs"aftertransplantingrice),beliefsaboutsuper-naturals,andmanyothercustoms.TheNewarsbelieveintheexistence of demons(lakhe),malevolentsouls of thedead(pret,agati),ghosts(bhut,kickanni),evilspirits(khya),andwitches(boksi).Cremationgrounds,crossroads,placesre-latedtowaterordisposal,andhugestonesaretheirfavoritehauntingplaces.Mantrasandofferingsareusedbypriestsandotherpractitionerstocontrolandpropitiatethem.ReligiousPractitioners.GubhajuandBrahmanareBud-dhistandHindupriests,respectively;theyaremarriedhouse-holders,asonlyTheravadamonksarecelibate.BuddhistandHindupriestsofficiateathouseholdrituals,festivals,andotherrites.TantricpriestsorAciju(Karmicirya),funeralpriestsorTini(Sivacarya),andBhiaregradedlower.Astrol-ogersarealsoconnectedwithfuneralsinsomeplaces.Incer-tainlocalities,Khusah(Tandukir)servetheNiycasteastheirhouseholdpriests.Ceremonies.Mainlife-cycleritualsare:ritualsatandafterbirth(macabubenkegu,jankwa,etc.);twostages of initiation(bwaslhaandbarechuyeguorkaytapfljftforboys;ihiandbaratayeguforgirls);weddingceremonies;old-agecelebrations(budhajankwa);funeralandpostmortuaryrites.Therearefortyormorecalendricalritualsandfestivalspracticedinasinglelocality.Some,suchasgathamuga(ghantakarnia),mohanidasai,swanti,andtihar,arecommontoalllocalities,butmanyotherfestivalsarelocalized.Offeringalmsisanim-portantreligiousact, of whichtheBuddhistsamyakisthemostfestive.Thereareritualsrepeatedwithinayear.Nityapfja(dailyworship of deities),salhubhway(feastonthefirstday of eachmonth),andmangalbarvrata(Tuesdayfasting)areexamples.Therearealsorituals of whichthedateisnotfixed,whichareperformedonlywhennecessaryorproposed.Arts.Newarartistictalentisdisplayedinarchitectureandsculpture.InspiredbyIndiantradition,uniquestyles of pal-aces,temples,monasteries,stupas,fountains,andresidentialbuildingsdeveloped.Theyareoftendecoratedwithwoodcarvingsandequippedwithstoneormetalsculptures.Reh-giouspaintingsarefoundonthewalls,scrolls,andmanu-scripts.Musicwithdrums,cymbals,windinstruments,andsometimessongsisindispensableinmanyfestivalsandritu-als.Mostartsarepracticedbymales.Medicine.Diseaseisattributedtoevilobjects,theillwill of mothergoddesses,witchcraft,attack,possessionorotherinfluence of supematurals,misalignment of planets,evilspells,andsocialandotherdisharmony,aswellasnaturalcausessuchasbadfood,water,andclimate.Peopleresorttobothmodemfacilitiesandtraditionalmedicalpractitioners.Amongthelatterarethejharphuk(orphupha)yayemha(ex-orcist),vaidya(medicineman),kaviraj(Ayurvedicdoctor),midwives,bonesetters of thebarbercaste,BuddhistandHindupriests,anddyahwaikimha(akind of shaman).Popu-lartreatmentmethodsincludebrushingoffandblowingawayillobjectsinthebody(phuphMyaye),readingorattachingmantras(spells),makingofferingstosupernaturalsordeities,andusinglocalherbalandothermedicines.DeathandAfterlife.Itisbelievedthatthesoul of thede-ceasedmustbesenttoitsproperabodethroughaseries of postmortuaryritesperformedbymaledescendants.Other-wise,itremainsinthis world asaharmfulpret.Twoideasaboutafterlife,that of HeavenandHellandthat of rebirth,coexist.Attainment of agoodorbadafterlifedependsupontheperson'smeritaccumulatedwhilealiveandupontheproperperformance of therituals.Thedeceasedarealsowor-shipedandpropitiatedasancestors.SeealsoNepaliBibliographyGutschow,Niels(1982).StadtraumundRitualderNewaris-chenStadteimKathmandu-Tal:Einearchitekturanthropolo-gischeUntersuchung.Stuttgart:Kohlhammer.Nepali,GopalSingh(1965).TheNewars.Bombay:United Asia Publications.Slusser,MaryShepherd(1982).NepalMandala:ACulturalStudy of theKathmanduValley.Princeton:PrincetonUniver-sityPress.Toffin,Gerard(1984).SocieteetreligionchezlesNiwarduNepal.Paris:CentreNationaldelaRechercheScientifique.HIROSHIISHIINicobareseETHNONYMS:noneOrientationTheNicobaresearethemajorityethnicandlinguisticgrouplivingintheNicobarIslandgroup,adistrict of India's194NambudiriBrahmantion,traditionallytherewerenumeroustemplefestivals,andonoccasionNambudiriswereinvolvedinperformingimpor-tantlargeVedicsacrifices(Agnicayana),whichcouldtakeaslongastendaysandrequiredmonths of preparation.Tradi-tionally,nonon-Brahmansweresupposedtohearthewords of theVedaorbepresentduringaVedicsacrifice.AsamongallHindus,thereisastrongbeliefinreincarnation.SeealsoNayarBibliographyLogan,William(1887).Manual of Malabar.Reprint.1961.Malabar.3vols.Madras:GovernmentPress.Mencher,Joan(1966)."KeralaandMadras:AComparativeStudy of EcologyandSocialStructure."Ethnology5:13 5-1 71.Mencher,Joan(1966)."NamboodiriBrahmans:AnAnalysis of aTraditionalEliteinKerala."Journal of AsianandAfricanStudies1: 7-2 0.Mencher,Joan(1966)."NamboodiriBrahmans of Kerala."NaturalHistoryMagazine,May,1 5-2 1.Mencher,Joan,andHelenGoldberg(1967)."KinshipandMarriageRegulationsamongtheNamboodiriBrahmans of Kerala."Man2:8 7-1 06.Menon,Ramesh(1991)."TheNamboodiris:TraumaticDe-cline."IndiaToday(15July):9 0-9 2.Pillai,ElamkulamP. N. Kujan(1970).StudiesinKeralaHis-tory.Trivandrum:Privatelyprinted.JOANP.MENCHERNayakaETHNONYMS:Jenu-Koyyo-Shola-Nayakas,JenuKurumba,KattuNaikr,KattuNayaka,Naicken,Naiken,Naikr,SolaNayakaOrientationIdentification.TheNayakaareatribalpeople.Theirvari-ousnamesrelatetothefactthattheyliveintheforestandcollecthoneyfromwildbees'nests:kattuandsalamean"for-est,"whilejenumeans"honey."Thenamesweregiventothembyoutsiders.Thename"Nayaka"probablyoriginatedinMalayalam.Theyrefertotheirownpeoplebythephrasenamasonta,whichroughlytranslatesas"ourfamily."Location.TheNayakaliveintheNilgiriHillsin south India,at11° N and750E,onthewesternjungleslopes,from1,000to300metersabovesealevel.Thearea,calledtheWynaad(orWainad),isdividedadministrativelybetweentheNilgirisDistrict of TamilNaduandtheadjoiningMalappuramDistrict of Kerala.TheNayakaarescatteredthereamidotherpopulationsinsmallcommunitiesbetweenwhichtherearevir-tuallynoties of anykind.ThemonsoonisatitsheightduringJuly,whileFebruaryisthemiddle of thedryperiod.Demography.TheIndiancensus of 1981estimatedtheirtotalnumberat1,400.Localcommunitiescomprisethreetothirtynuclearfamilieseach.Theaveragenumber of childrenperfamilyisprobablyabouttwo.LinguisticAffiliation.TheNayakalanguage,whichtheNayakacallnamabaia,"ourlanguage,"belongstotheKannadoidSubgroup of theNilgiri South Dravidianlan-guages.Itcontainselements of Kannada,Tamil,andMalaya-lam,Kannadabeingpredominant.Therearelinguisticdiffer-encesbetweenthevariousNayakalocalcommunities,reflectingtheircontactwithdifferentneighbors,butnottothepoint of mutualunintelligibility.MostNayakaspeakinadditiontotheirownlanguageatleastone of thesethreemajor South Dravidianlanguages.HistoryandCulturalRelationsInthepast,scholarssuggestedthatthefood-gatherergroups of theNilgiriswerethedescendants of thepowerfulKuruma(Pallavas),whofledtothewildduringtheascension of theCholladynasty,aroundtheninthcenturyA.D.Morerecentlyscholarshaveregardedthemastheindigenousinhabitants of thearea.TheWynaaditself,aspart of theNilgiris,wasintheeighteenthcenturyapart of thekingdom of Mysore,ruledbyHaidarAli,andlaterbyhissonTipuSultan.In1803,Britishtroops of theEastIndiaCompanyledbythe(later)Duke of Wellingtonwonitover.Infectedbymalaria,theWynaadwasnotpopularwithimmigrants,most of whomcrosseditandsettledhigherupthehills;theseimmigrantsincludedtheag-riculturalistBadagainthelateseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,theBritishduringthenineteenthcentury,andafterthemIndians of variouscastesandreligions.Inthe1830sex-plorationforgoldbeganintheWynaad,buildingtoabriefbutdevastatinggoldrushduringthe1880s.In ... arekilledforthisfeast,anditistheonlytimethatpigfightsareheld.Itoccursapproximatelyeverytwoorthreeyears,when-evervillageheadsagreethattheyhavethenecessaryresources(inpigs)tohostone.Arts.Nicobaresesongsaresungunaccompaniedbyinstru-ments.Dancingisdoneingroups-onsomeislandsmalesandfemalesdanceinseparategroups.ThereisnoNicobaresetraditionaldrama.Popularsportsincludecanoeraces,pigfighting,stickfighting,wrestling,andvolleyball.Medicine.Themenluanacuresicknessbycontrollingthespiritswhocauseit.Herbalremediesareused,asiscuringby'sucking"outbits of stoneorbone,etc.,fromthebody of theailingperson.DeathandAfterlife.TheNicobaresebelieveinanafter-lifeinwhichthedeadconductthemselvessimilarlytohowtheydidinlife.Forthisreason,thepersonalbelongings of thedeadareburiedwiththebodyandfoodisleftattheburialsite.Certaincoconutpalms of thedeceased'sformerplanta-tionaremarkedwithasign,designatingtheirfruitassolelyfortheuse of thedeadperson'sspiritforaboutsixmonths.Thebody of thedeceasedisinterred,thenexhumedandre-buriedafteraboutaweek,atthetime of whichfinalburialafeastisheld.ETHNONYMS:Barthapalya(inNepali),Bhotia,Bhutia,TamangOrientationIdentification.TheNyinbaareone of manysmall,largelyendogamousgroupspositionedalongthenorthernborder-lands of NepalthatcanbeidentifiedasethnicallyTibetanbytheirlanguage,bytheTibetanBuddhistreligion,andotherfeatures of cultureandsocialstructure.TheNyinbaliveinHumla,adistrict of theKarnaliZoneinfarnorthwesternNepal.Tibetanspeakersinthisregioncalltheirterritory"NyinYulTshanZhi,"literally,"thefourvillagesona south- facing[sunny]slope."Nepalispeakerscallthecommunity"Barthapale,"thapalereferringtoitshighvalleylocation.Governmentdocumentsoriginallyidentifiedthesepeopleas'Bhotia,"meaningTibetan.Later,toaffirmtheirNepalina-tionality,theybecameclassifiedas"Tamang,"theethnonym of Tibeto-Burman-speakinghillpeoplefromcentralNepal.Location.Nyinbavillagesarelocatedatapproximately30" N and81°51'E,inavalleycarvedoutbytheHumlaKarnaliandDozamrivers.Theterraininthisregionisruggedandthearablelandlimited,creatingstrongcompetitionforland.Nyinbacontrolanarrowband of territorybeginningat2,550metersandextendingtothevalleysummit,withthevillageslocatedbetween2,850and3,300meters.Thiselevationisas-sociatedwithatemperateclimate.Much of theforce of thesummermonsoonisspentonmountainstotheeastand south, limitingannualrainfall.Asecond,westernmonsoonbringsheavysnowfallsinwinter.Demography.In1983,theNyinbaincluded1,332indi.viduals,716malesand616females.Thehighsexratio,116malesforevery100females,canbeattributedtoapattern of preferentialtreatment of maleinfants.Almost35percent of thepopulationislessthanage15,andtheintrinsicrate of naturalincreaseappearstoberelativelylow:between1and1.5percentperyear.LinguisticAffiliation.TheNyinbaspeakadialect of Ti-betansimilartothedialects of otherethnicTibetangroupsinwestNepal.Theseseemmostcloselyrelatedtodialectsspo-kenbywesternTibetanagriculturalists.TheTibetanlan-guageisrelatedtoBurmese,withthesetwolanguagesconsid-eredabranch of theSino-TibetanLanguagePhylum.Nagas187ThereareaboutasmanyNagadialectsasthereareNagatribes.Thelinguafranca of thestate of NagalandisNagaPidgin(alsoknownasNagamese,KachariBengali,orBodo)andisparticularlyprevalentinKohimaDistrict.Therearesometwenty-sevenknownNagadialects,allpart of theTibeto-BurmanFamily,whichisitselfpart of theSino-TibetanPhylum.TheseincludeAngamiNaga,AoNaga,ChangNaga,ChokriNaga,KhezaNaga,KhiamnganNaga,KhoiraoNaga,KonyakNaga,andmanyothers.HistoryandCulturalRelationsWhilefolktraditionsregardingthehistory of thevariousNagatribesabound,scholarlyconsensushasnotbeenreachedconcerningtheirorigin.Generallyspeaking,verylit-tleisknown of theorigin of any of theMongoloidgroupswhosesouthwesterlymigrationbroughtthemultimatelytothesub-HimalayanregionandnortheasternIndia(e.g.,theBondosandtheGaros).TheirpresenceisattestedintheseareasasearlyasthetenthcenturyB.C.WhatisknownisthatthesetribesspokeTibeto-Burmandialectsandthatitisprob-ablethattheiroriginalhomelandwasintheregionbetweentheHuang-HoandYangtze(Ch'ang)riversinnorthwesternChina.Thesepeoplescameinsuccessivemigratorywavesforseveralcenturies(aftertheinvasions of theAryansinwesternIndia).Thegeographicextent of thesemigrationswasquiteconsiderable;Aryan-Mongoloidcontacttookplaceinthecenturiesthatfollowed.TheMongoloidtribeswerenotho-mogeneous.Theirlanguages,socialstructures,and cultures werediverse,andintheearlycenturies of theCommonEratheybeganextensiveexpansion,fromtheirinitialsettlementsintheIrawadiandChindwinriverregionsinnorthernMyanmar(Burma),throughoutAssam,theCacharHills,andtheNagaHills.Fromthethirteenthcenturyonward,theAhoms-rulers of Assamfrom1228untiltheBritishannexa-tion of theprovincein1826-hadextensiveculturalcontactwithvariousNagatribes.Thenature of therelationshipbe-tweenthesetribesandtheAhomsrangedfromcooperativetoantagonistic.NagatribeslivingneartheplainspaidannualtributetoAhomrulersasasign of allegiance,forwhichtheNagasweregivenrevenue-freelandsandfisheries.TheseweregrantedwiththeunderstandingthattheNagawouldrefrainfromraidsintheplainsareas.Tradeandcommercewerealsoextensive,withtheNagastradingsalt(aparticularlyimpor-tantmedium of exchange),cotton,medicinalherbs,ivory,bee'swax,mats,anddaos(adzes)forAssameserice,cloth,andbeads.Attimes,northernAhomraidersattackedNagavillages,takingbootyanddemandingtribute.However,theseincursionsdidnotestablishlastingAssameseruleovertheNagaHillsregion.TheNagaretainedtheirindependenceuntiltheBritishannexationintheearlynineteenthcentury.TheBritishaddedAssamtotheEastIndiaCompany'sterri-toriesin1820.In1832theyattemptedtoannexNagacoun-trybutmetwithsustainedandeffectiveguerrillaresistancefromNagagroups,particularlytheAngamitribe.TheBritishrespondedbysendingapproximatelytenmilitaryexpeditionsintoNagaterritorybetween1835and1851.GuerrillaactivitycontinuedunabatedandBritishpostsweresubsequentlyes-tablishedintheAngamiregion.Thismarkedanimportantpointintheprocess of Nagalandannexation.AunifiedAn-gamiresponsewasmountedin1878withraidsonBritishforcesundertakenbyvillagesandvillageclusters.Theimpe-rialresponseinvolvedtheburning of offendingvillages.An-gamiresistanceeventuallymetwithfailureandtheyeventu-allybecameanadministeredtribeunderBritishrule.Withthesubjugation of thisregion,theextension of alienrulethroughoutNagalandsoonfollowed,furtherwideningtheculturalgapbetweentheNagaandotherhillpeoplesandtheIndianinhabitants of thelowlands.Britishtreatment of theNagawasfavorable.TheyallowednoIndiantofunctionasadministrator of thehilldistrictsandattemptedtopreventexploitation of thehillpeoplesbyplainsfolk.Christianmis-sionaryactivitysoonfollowedBritishannexation,withAmer-icanBaptistsassumingthelead.Rapidprogressinconversionwasmade.Increasedliteracyandagrowingsense of Nagasolidarity-forwhichtheofficialorgan of expressionwastheNagaNationalCouncil(NNC)-resultedintheNNC'sclaimforregionalindependencein1947.Thedeparture of theBritishandtheemergence of Indianself-rulemadeNagapoliticalautonomywithinasovereignIndiaanegotiablepos-sibility.TotalindependencefortheNagahomeland,how-ever,wasanimpossibility.ViolenceeruptedinNagalandin1955asIndianforcestriedtoquellNagasecessionefforts,andin1956theNNCdeclaredtheexistence of theFederalGovernment of Nagaland.Conflictcontinuedinspite of ef-fortstosatisfythecallforNagapoliticalfreedombythegranting of statehood(acausechampionedbytheNagaPeo-plesConvention).In1963theefforts of thisorganizationandthesegment of theNagapopulacewhichitrepresentedresultedintheformation of thestate of Nagaland.Inspite of thisaction,hostilitiescontinued.Underthesponsorship of theBaptistChurch,apeacecommissionwasformedandacease-firedeclaredbetweentheNagalandfederalgovernmentandthegovernment of Indiaon24May1964.Thecease-firelasteduntil1September1972whenanattemptonthelife of thechiefminister of NagalandresultedintheIndiangovem-ment'stermination of thecease-fireandbanning of theNNC.ArmedresistancebytheNNCcontinuedintothe1970sandwasnotsuppresseduntiltheShillongAccordwassignedbyrepresentatives of theIndiangovernmentandtheNagalandfederalgovernmentinNovember1975.Isolatedpockets of resistancepersistedintothelate1970s,buteffec-tiveresistancetoIndianhegemonyhassinceceased.OneverysmallNagaundergroundantigovernmentoperationex-istedinexileinBurmainthe1980s,butitsinfluenceinNagalandatthattimewasminuscule.SettlementsNagavillagesareautonomousunitssituatedonhilltops.Theaverageelevation of thevillagesisbetween900and1,200me-ters.Because of themountainousterrainandthethreat of in-vasionbyneighboringtribes,thesesmallvillageswereorigi-nallyintendedtobeself-sufficientandsecure.ConsequentlyearlyexplorersreportedthatNagavillageswereheavilyforti-fied.However,withthecessation of bothintertribalconflictandoutsideinterference(chieflyfromBritishandIndianforces),theneedforsecurityandthedegree of villagefortif-cationhaslessenedconsiderably.Normsforconstructionvar-iedsomewhatwithintheconstituentNagatribes,yetafewgeneralobservationsmaybemade.Villageshaveoneormoreentrancesthatwereonceguardedheavilyand,attimes,booby-trapped.Villagefortificationsincludedlargewoodendoors(latchedfromtheinside of thevillageandhewnfroma190Nagasmaybeleftforthedaughtertoenjoyduringherlifetime,butitreturnstothemaleheirsafterherdeath.Veryfewexceptionstothisgeneralruleareknown.Socialization.Afteranelaboratepostbirthritual(part of whichplacesthenewbornincloserelationshipwiththefa-ther'skindred),Angamichildrenaresuckledbytheirmoth-ersfortwotothreeyears.Girls'earsarepiercedsixtotwelvemonthsfollowingbirth,whilethose of boysarepiercedassoonastheyareabletospeak.At4to6years of age,anAn-gamiboyleaveshismother'sside of thehouse(wherehehassleptuptothispoint)andmovestohisfather'sside of thehousetosleep.Fromthispointonheisconsideredamember of themalecommunityandnolongerremainswithwomenwhensexseparationtakesplaceatgennas(magicoreligiousritesandceremonies).Mothersareresponsiblefortheup-bringing of childrenandanuclearfamilystructureobtains.TheAngamimorung(youngmen'shouse),whichfunctionsasaguardhouse,clubhouse,andcenter of severalcommunalactivitiesinmostNagatribes(withtheexception of theSema),is of ceremonialimportanceonly;itdoesnotserveasanactualresidenceforyoungunmarriedmen(asitdoesamongtheAo,forexample).Girls'houses(foundamongtheAo,Memi,andothertribes)arealsolocatedinsomeAngamivillages.Nagachildrengenerallyshareinallresponsibilitiesassumedbytheirparents.Thesocialization of Nagagirlsin-cludesinstructionbytheirmothersinweaving,anindustrialartbelongingexclusivelytowomen.Boysandgirlsareal-lowedaconsiderableamount of premaritalsexualfreedominmostNagatribes.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.ThebasicAngamisocialunitistheexogamouspatrilinealclan(thino),thoughtheclanhasbeensupersededbythekindred(putsa).Individualidentityisboundchieflytothesegroups.Clanandkindredareresponsi-bleforthebehavior of constituentmembers.Socialstatusisreflectedintheroofing of houses.Prestigecanbeattainedbythecollection of trophiesinwarandinsponsorship of festi-vals.Statusmayalsobebasedonaperson'sindividualclanmembership.PoliticalOrganization.Acouncil of eldersfunctionsastheadministrativeauthorityinavillage,andindividualswithgrievancesmayvoicethematcouncilmeetings.Chiefsarealsopart of thepoliticalstructure of thevillage,butthede-limitation of theirpowersvariesamongtheseveralNagatribes.Thegovernmentappointsvillageofficialstoday.InAngamivillagesthesearecalledgaonburasandtheirauthorityandresponsibilitiesaresimilartothose of thevillagechief-tains(pehumas) of thepast.Theoffice of thegaonburaisnothereditary.Thesamewastrue,inmostcases, of that of thepehuma.Thegaonbura'smajoradministrativeresponsibilityisthecollection of thehousetax,thoughhemayalsoactonbehalf of hisvillagersasago-betweenwithgovernmentoffi-cials.Thepehumaexercisedmostinfluenceintheconduct of war,thesettlement of disputeswithinthevillagebeingdele-gatedtotheelders'council.SocialControl.ConflictsareresolvedwithinAngamivil-lagesbyacouncil of elderswhodiscussmatters of disputeamongthemselves,withthepartiesinvolved,andwiththegeneralpublic,untilsomeresolutionisreached.Issuescen-teringontribalcustomareusuallyreferredtotheoldermen of aclan.Factualquestionsaredecidedbyoath,andtheau-thority of theoath(particularlywhenonepartyswearsbythelives of familyandclanmembers)israrelyquestioned.Conflict.Nagatribesmaintainedahighdegree of isolationfromneighboringpeoples.Conflictbetweenvillages,tribes,andclanswasfrequentbeforeannexation of thehighlandre-gionsbytheBritish,aswerehostilitiesbetweentheNagaandtheAssameselivingintheplains.Headtakingwasanimpor-tantfeature of warfareamongtheNagagenerally,andweap-onsincludedspears,shields,andguns(acquiredinlargepartafterthecoming of theBritish).InitialBritishincursionsintoNaga-heldterritoriesmetwithsubstantialresistance.TheAngamiinparticularwereactivelyinvolvedinanti-Britishre-sistance,frequentlyconductingguerrillaraidsonBritishout-posts.Intime,theconduct of warwasaugmentedbydiplo-maticeffortstoresolveissues of territorialsovereigntyandindependence.Asaresult,armedresistanceseasonedwithdi-plomacyhasbeentheNagamethod of conflictresolution,firstwiththeBritishcolonialauthoritiesandthenwiththeIndiangovernment.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.ChristianityhastakenrootinsomeNagatribes,butithasbynomeanseclipsedtraditionalreli-giousbeliefs.TheAngamireligioussystemfeaturesbeliefinanumber of spiritsandsupernaturalforcesassociatedwiththecycle of life.Animateandinanimateobjectsmayberegardedasembodiedspirits,andthereisadistinctiondrawnbetweenthegodsandthesouls of deadhumans.Amongthevastnum-ber of terhoma("deities")thefollowingshouldbenoted:Kenopfu(thecreatorgod);Rutzeh(thegiver of suddendeath);Maweno(god of fruitfulness);Telepfu(amischie-vousgod);TsukoandDzurawu(husbandandwifedwarfgodspresidingoverwildanimals);Metsimo(guardian of thegateleadingtoparadise);Tekhu-rho(god of tigers);andAyepi(agodwholivesinAngamihousesandbringsprosperity).Su-pernaturalforcesarebelievedtopossessbothbenevolentandmaliciousqualitiesand,whenoccasiondemands,Angamibe-liefprovidesforprayertobemadetothemandfortheirpropi-tiationorchallengebyhumans.ReligiousPractitioners.Angamireligiouspractitionersincludethefollowing:thekemovo(whodirectspubliccere-moniesandistherepository of historicaltraditionsandgene-alogicalinformation);thezhevo(whofunctionsasintegralpart of theperformance of personalgennas,andwhoalsoiscalledonintimes of sicknesstoadviseanappropriatecere-monialcourse of actiontocurethedisease);thetsakro(anoldmanwhoinauguratesthesowing of crops);andthelidepfu(anoldwomanwhoinauguratesthereaping of crops).All of thesepractitionersarepublicfunctionaries.Otherreli-giousspecialists,whoserealm of activityisconfinedtotheprivatedomain,areknownaswell.Theseinclude:thethem-uma,whoseknowledgemayrangefromcompetenceinpartic-ularkinds of divinationtoknowledge of poisons;thezhumma("invulnerables"),whoreportedlycanbeharmedneitherbybulletnorspear;thekihupfuma(individualsgiftedwithpow-erstocauseillnessandbadfortune);andtheterhope(womenwhodreaminordertoforetelltheoutcome of variousendeav-Nagas191ors).Asimilarhierarchy of practitionersobtainsinmanyotherNagatribes.Ceremonies.Angamireligiouslifecentersonaseries of elevengennas(magicoreligiousceremoniesaccompaniedbybehavioralrestrictionsbindinguponcommunityand/orin-dividual)performedduringtheyear.Theseareconnectedwithagriculturaleventsthataffectthelife of thecommu-nity.Gennas of lessfrequentoccurrenceincludethoseforwardancing,interclanvisitation,andpreparation of anewvillagedoor.Individualgennas(i.e.,thoseassociatedwiththenormalcycle of eventsinaperson'slife)includethoseforbirth,marriage,anddeath.Somesevensocialgennasmaybeperformedinordertogainstatus.Miscellaneousgennasforillness,rainmaking,headtaking,andhuntingmayalsobeperformed.Angamireligiouslifealsoincludestheobservance of certainrestrictionsonindividualbehavior(calledkennas)andcorporatebehavior(calledpennas).Theceremonyaccompanyingthegenna(callednanu)involvestheoffering of flesh(part of whichisofferedtothespirits),thewearing of ceremonialgarments,singing,dancing,thepounding of dhan(unhuskedgrain of thericeplant),theab-stentionfromwork,andtheprohibition of anycontactwithstrangers.Similarityinthestructure of ritesandceremoniesobtainsinotherNagatribes.Arts.MusicanddancingareimportantcomponentsinAngamigennas.Oralliteratureincludesnumerousmythsandlegends(whicharealsoaccompaniedbysong).Images of spiritsandgodsarelackinginAngamivisualart,buttherep-resentation of thehumanforminAngamiwoodworkisknown.Woodendolls of thehumanfigureinminiaturearemadeanddressedintraditionalclothing.Originallythesewereproducedforartisticpurposesbuttheirvaluewasper-ceivedbythosewhoproducedthem,makingthemsubjecttosale.Life-sizehumanfiguresaremanufacturedandplacedovergraves.Therepresentation of thehumanheadisacom-monfeature of Angamiwoodcarving(e.g.,onvillagedoors,housegables,andwoodenbridges),asarethehead of thegayal,thepig'shead,andanimagerepresentingeitherahumanbreastorthetop of adhanbasket.ProficiencyinwooddoesnotobtainamongallNagatribes.Medicine.MagicoreligiousceremoniesarethemajorcureprescribedforillsamongtheAngami.Inadditiontotheserites,anumber of medicinalherbsareusedfortheircurativeproperties.Thebrain of thekhokhefish,thebile of thetoad,thecasts of earthworms,adog'seyesandhairs,raweggs,andthemarrow of theserowareamongtheanimalpartsandby-productsusedformedicinalpurposesbytheAngami.AmongotherNagatribes(e.g.,theAo),magicoreligiousmeansforthecure of illnessesarealsopreferred,buttheuse of plantandanimalby-productsformedicinalpurposesalsoobtains.DeathandAfterlife.Attitudestowardtheburial of thedeadvaryamongthevariousNagatribes.TheAngamiplaceresponsibilityfortheburial of thedeadonthemalerelatives of thedeceased.Burialusuallytakesplacewithinthevillage.Agraveispreparedeitherbesideone of thevillagepathsorinfront of thedeceased'shouse.Thebody of amanisinterredinacoffincoveredbyawhitecloth.Withitareburiedafirestick,oneortwospears,adao,ayoungchicken(alive),andagadzosiseed(placedbetweentheteeth of thecorpse).Thegadzosiseedisprovidedsothatthedeceased'sencounterwithMetsimointheafterlifewillbeasuccessfulone.Awomanisburiedwithafewbeads,anewunder-petticoat,areapinghook,ayoungchicken(live),andthegadzosiseed.Onceburied,thecoffiniscoveredwithflatstones.Ontothestonesispouredthecontents of thedeceased'sceremonialkang("carryingbasket"):seedforwetrice,Job'stears,millet(andeveryotherkind of ediblegrain),zu(ricebeer),andthedeceased'sdrinkingcup.Thegraveisthencoveredwithearthandleveled.Atopthegraveareplacedpersonalimplementsoncebelongingtothedeceased.Angamieschatologydistin-guishesbetweenthefatesintheafterlife of thosewholivegoodlivesandthosewhodonot.TheformerjointheskygodUkepenopfu,whilethelatterarecondemnedtopassthroughsevenexistencesbeneaththeEarth.Lifewiththeskygodispresumedtobeanextension of earthlylifewithhunting,headhunting,drinking,andfeasting.Themajorrequirementforentryintothisblessedstateisthatonehaveperformedthezhathogennaandabstainedfromuncleanmeatthereafter.AngamimalesmuststrugglewithMetsimoonthenarrowpassagethatleadstothegate of theskygod'sdomain.Failureresultsinthedeceased'sbeingforcedtowanderbetweenHeavenandEarthasawanderingspirit.SimilaritiesbetweentheAngamiandotherNagatribesregardingeschatologydoobtain.BeliefinthenarrowroadleadingtoParadiseisvirtu-allyuniversalamongtheNaga.BibliographyAnand,V.K.(1969).NagalandinTransition.NewDelhi:As-sociatedPublishingHouse.Elwin,Verrier,ed.(1969).TheNagasintheNineteenthCen-tury.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Fuchs,Stephen(1973).TheAboriginalTribes of India.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Fuirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1969).TheKonyakNagas:AnIndianFrontierTribe.NewYork:Holt,Rinehart&Winston.Fiurer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1976).ReturntotheNakedNagas.NewDelhi:VikasPublishingHouse.Ganguli,Milada(1984).APilgrimagetotheNagas.NewDelhi:OxfordandIBHPublishingCo.Horam,M.(1977).SocialandCulturalLife of Nagas.NewDelhi:B.RPublishingCorp.Hutton,JohnHenry(1921).TheSemaNagas.London:Macmillan.2nded.1968.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Hutton,JohnHenry(1921).TheAngamiNagas.London:Macmillan.2nded.1969.London:OxfordUniversityPress.LeBar,FrankM.(1964).EthnicGroups of Mainland South- east Asia. NewHaven,Conn.:HRAFPress.Majumdar,D. N. (1944).Racesand Cultures of India.Allaha-bad:Kitabistan.4thed.1961.NewYork: Asia PublishingHouse.NambudiriBrahman193theirsubsistencefromtheincome of theirmediumtolargelandedholdings.Theywerenotexpectedtoparticipateinthelife-crisisceremonies of casteslowerthanthemselves,apartfromthecoronationsinafew of therulinghouses.Theyallhadatleastafewservantsintheirhomes.SomeNambudiris,slightlylowerinrank,performedritualsatwell-knowntem-ples(thoughmany of thesealsohadritualsperformedbyEm-brandiriBrahmansfrom South KanaraDistrict of KarnatakaStateandbyPattarBrahmansfromTamilNadu).Traditionally,theNambudiriBrahmanslivedoffthein-comefromtheirlands,althoughafewalsoworkedinlargetemples.Theyspentconsiderableamounts of timelearningandrecitingSanskritslokasandmany of themwerefamousscholarsandteachers of theVedas.Theyalsoparticipatedinsacrifices.Underthetraditionallandtenuresystem,theNambudiriBrahmansheldlandprimarilyastherulersorasadirectgrantfromaruler.Theydidnotdealwiththatlanddirectly,prefer-ringtoleaveagriculturalmanagementtotenantsandsubten-ants.Theirlandwasheldasanimpartibleinheritancebytheeldestson,thoughyoungersonsandunmarrieddaughterswereeligibletobesupportedbytheincomefromtheprop-erty.Thelandtenurelawspassedinthe1920sand1930smadetheNambudiripropertypartible.Themajorlandre-formlawmeasurespassedintheearly1970splusaseries of Supremecourtdecisionsthatprovidedforpermanency of tenurefortheirtenantsandgaveownershiprightstothelow-estrung of tenantshavehadtheeffect of causingmany of theNambudiriBrahmanhouseholdstobeseverelyimpoverished.KinshipTheNambudiriBrahmanswerepatrilinealandpracticedpri-mogeniture.Theyweredividedintovariousstatusgroups,themostsignificantonebeingthedivisionbetweentheAdhyansandtheAsyans.TheAdhyans(recognizedbythesuffix-padattheend of theirnames)werethewealthiestandmostpow.erful.Therewasatendencyfortheeightmostpowerful of theAdhyanstobeendogamous.Thehighest-rankingAsyansweretheoneswhohadtherighttorecitetheVedas.Kinshipterminologyfollowsamodification of theDra-vidianpattern.Thereisastrikingabsence of termstorefertoaffinesnotactuallylivinginone'sillam,indicatingthataffin-itywasnotacriticalprinciple of thesystem.Onceagirlwasmarriedshewastotallyamalgamatedintoherhusband'sfam-ilyandusedthesametermsthatheused.Theonlyaffinesevengivenatermarethemother'sbrotherandmother'sbrother'swife.Theothersignificantdifferencefromtherest of south Indiaistheabsence of adistinctionbetweencrossandparallelcousins.AmongNambudirisbothareconsideredtobesimilartoone'sownbrothersandsistersandbothareforbiddenasmarriagepartners.MarriageandFamilyOnlytheeldestsonwasallowedtotakeawifeorwivesfromhisowncaste.Theyoungersonseitherremainedcelibateorelseformedpermanentorsemipermanentliaisonswithwomenfromthesomewhatlowermatrilinealcastes(seethearticleonNayars).Althoughonlytheoldestsoncouldmarry,hewasal-loweduptothreewivesatatime.Girlstendedtobemarriedtohouseholdswithinatwo-tothree-days'walkfromtheirna-tiveillam.Postpubertalmarriagewasmostfrequent.Dowrieswerequitehigh,andgettingagirlmarriedwasconsideredaburdentoherfamily.Sometimesamanmighttakeasecondwifeinexchangeinordertosaveonthedowryforhisdaugh-ter.Aftermarriageagirlhadnorightsinhernatalhome,andwhethershewashappyormiserableshesimplyhadtobearit.ManyNambudiriwomenfeltthatbeingaNambudiriwomanwastheworstfateanyhumanbeingcouldhave,andtheysometimesprayedthatnooneshouldever"bebornaNam-budiriwoman."Thesizeandcomposition of thedomesticunithasvariedovertime.Traditionallyitincludedamanandhiswifeorwivesandtheirchildren,hisunmarriedbrothers,andanyun-marriedsistersthatmightremain.Itwasoftenathree-generationunitwithpowerandauthorityalwaysvestedintheoldestlivingmale.Whenlawswerepassedpermittingyoungersonstomarry,householdssometimescametoincludethewivesandchildren of brothers,thoughbythentheselargehouseholdshadbeguntopartition.Traditionalinheritancewasinthemalelineandpropertywaskeptintactthroughtherule of primogenitureandimpar-tibility.Thishasgreatlychangedsincethe1920sand1930s.SociopoliticalOrganization(SeethearticleonNayarsforgeneralbackgroundinforma-tion.)Whenattheend of theeighteenthcenturytheBritishtookoverdirectpoliticalcontrolinMalabarandcametoplayamajorroleasadvisersinCochinandTravancoretoo,theNambudiris,deprived of theirpoliticalrolebutstillmaintain-ingtheirstatusasreligiousauthorities,withdrewtotheires-tates.Theyremainedaloof,preferringtoreemphasizetheirspiritualsanctityandpurity.Inthefirstquarter of thetwenti-ethcenturysome of theNambudiriyouthbecameinvolvedintheNambudirireformmovement.Throughthisactivitytheybecamedirectlyinvolvedinpolitics,withmany of theoldersonsaligningthemselveswiththeCongresspartybutmost of theyoungersonsandwomenjoiningtheCommunists.Thehead of theCommunistParty of India(Marxist)forthepasttwenty-fiveyears,E.M.S.Namboodiripad,cameout of theearlierNambudirireformmovement.Traditionally,socialcontrolwasexercisedthroughfearandshaming.Traditionallyconflictswerehandledbythecasteelders.Aspecialkind of courtwasheldforfemaleswhowereevensuspected of committingadultery.ThesecourtscametoanabruptendwhenoneNambudiriwomannamedsixty-fourmen(somequitewellknown)withwhomsheclaimedtohavecommittedadultery.Today,localconflictsarehandledbythevillagepanchayatsandmoreseriousandwide-reachingmattersbythecivilauthorities.ReligionandExpressiveCultureTheNambudirisareHindus.Thehigher-rankingNambudirisperformpujas(individualworshiprituals)andsacrificesintheirownhomesbutdonotworkasritualspecialistsforoth-ers.Themainpujaris(templepriests)areTamilBrahmansorBrahmansfrom South Kanara,thoughinafewtemplestherearealsoNambudiriorKeralaBrahmans.Keralahasbeenin-novativeinprovidingtrainingandcertificationforwell-trainedlower-castepujaris.ThemostimportantceremoniescelebratedinKeralaamongHindusareVishu,Onam,andThiruvathira.Inaddi-200Nayar.beeninnovativeinprovidingtrainingandcertificationforwell-trainedlower-castepujaris.Ceremonies.ThemostimportantceremoniescelebratedinKeralaamongHindusareVishu,Onam,andThiruvathira.Traditionally,thesewerethethreeceremonialoccasionswhena"visitinghusband"wasexpectedtobringnewclothestohiswife.VishuoccursatthesametimeastheTamilNewYearinmid-April.Itisatimeforwearingnewclothesandalsoisconsideredthebeginning of thesummer.Thefirstthingsapersonseesthatmorninguponarisingaresaidtoin-fluencehisorherlifethroughouttheyear.Onam(inAugust-September)istheharvestfestivalassociatedwiththefirstpaddyharvest.ItisalsotheMalayaliNewYear.ForNayarsitisextremelyimportantnotonlyasatimeforgettingnewclothesbutalsobecause of themanyritualsassociatedwithit.ThiruvathiraisinDecember,andit...

... hadanestimatedpop-ulation of 19,000,000in1990.Kathmanduisthecapital,withotherlargecitiesbeingPatan,Morung,andBhaktapur.One of thefewAsiancountriesneverunderEuropeancon-trol,Nepalisanabsolutemonarchy,dividedintofourteenad-ministrativezonesandseventy-fivedistricts.ThenationallanguageisNepaliandHinduismisthenationalreligion.Pakistan(IslamicRepublic of Pakistan)isthewestern-mostnationin South Asia andisborderedbyIndiaontheeast,ChinaandAfghanistanonthenorth,andIranonthewest.Itoccupiesabout800,000squarekilometersandin1990hadanestimatedpopulation of 113million.Islamabadisthecapital,withthelargestcitiesbeingKarachi,Lahore,Faisalabad,Rawalpindi,Hyderabad,andMultan.Urduisthenationallanguage,withEnglishusedinbusinessandgovem-mentandprovinciallanguagescommonlyusedaswell.Islamistheofficialstatereligionand97percent of thepeopleareMuslims.Pakistanisdividedadministrativelyintosixprov-inces(includingGilgitandAzadKashmir),theFederalCapi-talTerritory,andthetribalareas of thenorthwest.SriLanka(DemocraticSocialistRepublic of SriLanka),formerlyCeylon,isanislandlocatedoffthesoutheastcoast of India.Itoccupiessome65,610squarekilometers.In1990thepopulationwasestimatedat17,135,000.Colomboisthecapitalcity,withothermajorurbancentersbeingDehiwela-MountLavinia,Jaffna,Trincomalee,Kandy,andKotte.SriLankaisdividedintonineadministrativedistricts.Sinhala(spokenbytheSinhalesemajority)andTamilaretheofficiallanguages,withEnglishalsobeingwidelyspoken.TheFlux of CivilizationsButwhatunityisthereamidstthisdiversity?Tropicalgeogra-phyhascertainlybeenacrucialandlimitingfactor,determin-ingwhichstaplecropscanbegrownineachregion;butal-mostasinfluentialhasbeenthelongandinsidiousthrust of civilizationemanatingfromempiresandkingdomsalike.For South Asia hasbeenthehometoseveralmajorcivilizationsinsuccession,eachbeingthehistoricalandculturalelabora-tion of a world religion of greatantiquityandwidepopularappeal.Notall of thesecivilizationalinfluenceswereindige-noustothearea,butall of themhadgreatimpact.FirsttherewastheIndusCivilization,coveringavasterareathananyotherempire of ancienttimes.Weknowpracti-callynothing of itslanguage,religion,orphilosophy,butitisquiteevidentthatthiswell-organizedurbancivilizationowedmuchtoearlyBronzeAgeMesopotamia.Probablyaproto-Dravidianlanguagewasspoken,andthereisevidence of theworship of Shivaintheform of alinga(phallicemblem).Ifcorrectlyunderstood,thesefactorswouldmaketheIndusCivilizationanancestor of theDravidianCivilizationinthesouthernparts of India.NextwemayidentifytheHinduphase.ArisingfromtheearlierBrahmanism of Vedicandpost-VedicIndia,HinduismasitisnowtobefoundthroughoutIndia,Nepal,andSriLankatookitsrecognizableformaroundthesixthtoseventhcenturiesA.D.AtaboutthesametimeIndianmarinershadembarkedontheironlyphase of foreignventures,spreadingtheirinfluenceeastwardtotouch,ifnotactuallyestablish,themedievalkingdoms of Burma,Thailand,Malaya,Cambo-dia,southernVietnam,southernBorneo,Sumatra,Java,Bali,andLombok.AnothermajorIndianphilosophicalandreligioussys-tem,HinayanaBuddhism,wasevenmoreinfluentialinthosecountries,yetparadoxicallyithadallbutdisappearedfromitshomelandbyaboutthesixthcenturyA.D.NepalandTibet,incontrast,hadallalongretainedaMahayanaform of Bud-dhism,albeitintermingledwithHinduandanimisticprac-tices.Buddhismwastoprovideapermanentphilosophicalframeworkformost of themainland cultures thatstretchedbetweenTibetinthewestandVietnamintheeast;indeed,itsinfluencehasstretchedbeyondthepurview of thisparticular volume tobecomeone of themainreligiousandphilosophi-calstrandsinthecivilizations of ChinaandJapan.TheBud-dhism of SriLanka,Myanmar,andThailandoweslittletoChinabecauseitwascarriedtothoselandsbymonkscomingfromIndia,anditstextswereinthePalilanguage,writteninascriptderivedfromthatusedforSanskrit.Forthepastthousandyearsanothergreatcivilizingforce,comingfromwellbeyondthesubcontinent,hasbeenassoci-atedwiththespread of Islam.ReachingourareafirstwiththeArabinvasions of whatisnowPakistaninA.D.711,IslamspreadacrossIndiaandSoutheast Asia notonlybytheswordbutalsowiththetradingvesselsthatlinkedthenorthernhalf of theIndianOceanwiththewesternPacificOcean.TodaythemostpopulousIslamiclandsinthe world aretobefoundin South andSoutheast Asia, namelyPakistan,India,Ban-gladesh,Malaysia,andIndonesia.OtherreligionsthatlefttheirmarkonIndiancivilization-JainismandSikhism-were of noimportancefarthereast,butintheirseveralerastheycertainlycontributedmuchtoIndianlifeandthought.ThefifthandfinalinfluencetobenotedhasbeenthemorerecentEuropeanone:iteffectivelybeganwithVascodaGama'svoyageto south IndiafromPortugalinA.D.1498.OnehesitatestoidentifythisasaChristianinfluence,eventhoughthatwasthereligion of thesecolonialconquerors,be-causetheimpact of Christianevangelistsinmostareashasnotbeenverygreat.InfacttodayChristiansin South Asia numbersome24million,alwayscoexistingwiththeneigh-boringHindusorMuslims.Therealimpact of Europeancivi-lizationhasbeenadministrative,educational,technical,andcommercial,andtherecentlyendedcolonialperiodin South Asia saweverycountry of thisregion-withtheexceptions of Afghanistan,Nepal,andsomeprincelystatesinIndia-underfairlydirectimperialadministration.Thisstate of af-fairshadendedbefore1950;butthemodeminfrastructure of highways,railways,ports,governmentbuildings,airservices,postalservice,schools,universities,politicalandcommercialinstitutions,andavastcivilservicewasfirmlyinplacebythattimeandhasalteredtheface of thesecountriesforever.Thispicture of anareaundertheinfluence of somanyhistoricallydistinctcivilizationsmustberecognizedasapar-tialone:itisnotthewholestory.Thefactisthathere,inan-cienttimesandinrecent,manypeoplehavecommonlysub-sistedthroughsimplefarmingorfood-collectingstrategies,Introductionxxiii(withBengaliandEnglish),whileSriLankausesSinhalese,Tamil,andEnglish.ButPakistanigovernmentisalsoencum-beredwithatotal of 6officiallanguages,includingEnglish.Forthewhole South Asiansubcontinentatleast150lan-guageshavebeenenumeratedbycensuses,alongwithseveralhundredmoremutuallyintelligibledialects.Some20 of thelanguageshaveahighlydeveloped,oftenvenerable,literarytradition.The South Asianlanguagesbelongtofourdifferentfam-ilies:Indo-Aryan,whichisabranch of theIndo-EuropeanFamily,roughlydistributedthroughPakistan,Nepal,north-ernIndia,Bangladesh,andSriLanka;Dravidian,foundinsouthernIndia,westernPakistan,andSriLanka;Tibeto-Burman,foundamongtheHimalayanpeoples of Nepal,Bhu-tan,andnortheastIndia;andMunda,foundmainlyinthecentralIndianhillswhereIndo-AryanabutsontheDravidianzone.Inthepastscholarsoftentreatedtheselanguagefami-liesasracialcategories,whichwasfallacious.Butitisnone-thelesstrue ... IntroductionxxviiWilliams,L.F.Rushbrook,ed.(1975).AHandbookfo'rTravellersinIndia,Pakistan,Nepal,Bangladesh&SriLanka(Ceylon).22nded.London:JohnMurray.Yule,Henry,andA.C.Burnell(1903).Hobson-Jobson,AGlossary of ColoquialAnglo-IndianWordsandPhrases,and of KindredTerms,Etymological,Historical,Geographical,andDiscursive.Rev.ed.London:JohnMurray.Reprint.1968.NewYork.HumanitiesPress;numerousreissues.PAULHOCKINGSPrefacexviitheproject,andnotjustfortheirownvolumesbutalsofortheprojectasawhole.TimothyO'Leary,TerenceHays,andPaulHockingsdeservespecialthanksfortheircommentsonthisprefaceandtheglossary,asdoesMelvinEmber,presi-dent of theHumanRelationsAreaFiles.Members of the of- ficeandtechnicalstaffalsomustbethankedforsoquicklyandcarefullyattendingtothemanytasksaproject of thissizeinevitablygenerates.TheyareErlindaMaramba,AbrahamMaramba,VictoriaCrocco,NancyGratton,andDouglasBlack.AtMacmillanandG.K.Hall,the encyclopedia hasbenefitedfromthewiseandcarefuleditorialmanagement of EllyDickason,ElizabethKubik,andElizabethHolthaus,andtheeditorialandproductionmanagement of AraSalibian.Finally,IwouldliketothankMelvinEmberandtheboard of directors of theHumanRelationsAreaFilesfortheiradministrativeandintellectualsupportforthisproject.DAVIDLEVINSONReferencesMurdock,GeorgePeter(1967).EthnographicAtlas.Pitts-burgh,Penn.,University of PittsburghPress.Murdock,GeorgePeter(1983).Outline of World Cultures. 6threv.ed.NewHaven,Conn.,HumanRelationsAreaFiles. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD CULTURES DavidLevinsonEditorinChiefNorthAmericaOceania South Asia Europe(Central,Western,andSoutheasternEurope)EastandSoutheast Asia SovietUnion(EasternEuropeandRussia)andChina South AmericaMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanAfricaandtheMiddleEastBibliographyThe Encyclopedia of World Cultures waspreparedundertheauspicesandwiththesupport of theHumanRelationsAreaFilesatYaleUniversity.HRAF,theforemostinternationalresearchorganizationinthefield of cul-turalanthropology,isanot-for-profitconsortium of twenty-threesponsor-ingmembersand300participatingmemberinstitutionsintwenty-fivecoun-tries.TheHRAFarchive,establishedin1949,containsnearlyonemillionpages of informationonthe cultures of the world. xContributorsTrilokiNathMadanInstitute of EconomicGrowthUniversity of DelhiDelhiIndiaL.K.MahapatraSambalpurUniversitySambalpur,OrissaIndiaClarenceMaloneyLouisBerger,International,Inc.NewDelhiIndiaJoanP.MencherDepartment of AnthropologyHerbertH.LehmanCollegeCityUniversity of NewYorkBronx,NewYorkUnitedStatesW.D.MerchantDepartment of SocialandBehavioralSciences South SuburbanCollege South Holland,IllinoisUnitedStatesPromodeKumarMisraDepartment of AnthropologyNorth-EasternHillUniversityShillong,MeghalayaIndiaBrianMorrisDepartment of SocialAnthropologyGoldsmiths'CollegeUniversity of LondonLondonUnitedKingdomNilsFinnMunch-PetersenLouisBerger,International,Inc.NewDelhiIndiaSerenaNandaDepartment of AnthropologyJohnJayCollege of CriminalJusticeCityUniversity of NewYorkNewYork,NewYorkUnitedStatesWilliamA.NobleDepartment of GeographyUniversity of MissouriColumbia,MissouriUnitedStatesPandit of KashmirOriyaDivehi;TamilNambudiriBrahman;NayarBania;Castes,Hindu;Maratha;ParsiPeripateticsHillPandaramDivehiHijraIruLaProjectStaffEditorialBoardResearchSaraJ.DickJayDiMaggioAlliyaS.ElahiSarwatS.ElahiNancyE.GrattonLeShonKimbleSaidehMoayed-SanandajiHughR.Page,Jr.AngelitoPalmaEditorialandProductionEllyDickasonEvaKitsosAbrahamMarambaVictoriaCroccoElizabethHolthausAraSalibianLindaA.BennettMemphisStateUniversityEuropeFernandoCamaraBarbachanoInstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCityMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanNormaJ.DiamondUniversity of MichiganChinaPaulFriedrichUniversity of ChicagoSovietUnionTerenceE.HaysRhodeIslandCollegeOceaniaCartographyRobertSullivanRhodeIslandCollegePaulHockingsUniversity of IllinoisatChicago South andSoutheast Asia RobertV.KemperSouthernMethodistUniversityMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanKazukoMatsuzawaNationalMuseum of Ethnology,OsakaEast Asia JohnH.MiddletonYaleUniversityAfricaTimothyJ.O'LearyHumanRelationsAreaFilesNorthAmericaAmalRassamQueensCollegeandtheGraduateCenter of theCityUniversity of NewYorkMiddleEastJohannesWilbertUniversity of CaliforniaatLosAngeles South AmericaviContributorsxiAlfredPach III Department of MedicalEducationUniversity of IllinoisatChicagoChicago,IllinoisUnitedStatesHughR.Page,Jr.Department of ReligiousStudiesCaliforniaStateUniversitySacramento,CaliforniaUnitedStatesVishvajitPandyaWestminsterCollegeFulton,MissouriUnitedStatesRobertParkinInstitutfurEthnologieFreieUniversititzuBerlinBerlinGermanyRobertPaulDepartment of AnthropologyEmoryUniversityAtlanta,GeorgiaUnitedStatesBryanPfaffenbergerDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of VirginiaCharlottesville,VirginiaUnitedStatesMohammedHabiburRahmanDepartment of SociologyUniversity of DhakaDhakaBangladeshAparnaRaoInstitutfurV6lkerkundeUniversititzuKolnKolnGermanySankarKumarRoyDepartment of AnthropologyGauhatiUniversityGuwahati,AssamIndiaGhanshyamShahCentreforSocialStudies South GujaratUniversitySurat,GujaratIndiaNepaliAbor;Baiga;Bondo;Burusho;Khasi;Lakher;Nagas;Purum;SadhuAndamaneseMundaSherpaSinhalese;Tamil of SriLankaChakmaJatGaroGujaratiMEASUREMENTCONVERSIONS1992bytheHumanRelationsAreaFiles,Inc.Firstpublishedin1991byG.K.Hall&Co.1633Broadway,NewYork,NY10019,6785Allrightsreserved.Allrightsreserved.Nopart of thisbookmaybereproducedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,orbyanyinformationstorageorretrievalsystemwithoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.10Library of CongressCataloginginPublicationData(Revisedfor volume 3) Encyclopedia of world cultures. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindexes.Filmography:v.1,p.40 7-4 15.Contents:v.1.NorthAmerica/TimothyJ.O'Leary,DavidLevinson, volume editors ... coversmuchthesamesubjectmat-terisTheWealth of India(194 8-) .Twoexcellentguidebookstothehistoricalmonuments of South Asia, equallyusefultothetouristandthescholar,havebeeneditedbyWilliams(1975)andMichellandDavies(1989).Numerousbibliographies of South Asiantopicsareavailable.Ausefulbibliography of bibliographiesforthere-gionisbyDrewsandHockings(1981).Patterson(1981)hasprovidedthemostdetailedbibliographyforthewholesub-continent.ForSriLanka,however,onemayconsultGoone-tileke(1970).AcknowledgmentsTheeditorthanksthemanydozens of contributors-European,Asian,andAmerican-whohaveorganizedtheirspecialknowledgeintotheformatweproposedforthisency-clopedia.WilliamJ.Alspaugh,a South AsianbibliographerattheRegensteinLibrary,University of Chicago,kindlypro-videdmany of thereferenceslistedintheappendix.Inaddi-tion,thehelp of JoyceDrzal,attheUniversity of IllinoisinChicago,providedup-to-dateinformationonthedistributorsforallfilmslistedinthefilmography.Theirassistance,to-getherwiththat of numerousanthropologystudentsattheUniversity of Illinois,isgratefullyacknowledged.ReferencesBasham,A.L.(1963).TheWonderThatWasIndia.Rev.ed.NewYork:HawthornBooks.Numerousreprints.Basham,A.L.,ed.(1975).ACulturalHistory of India.Ox-ford:ClarendonPress.Reprints.London:OxfordUniversityPress,1983,1989.Benoist,Jean(1978).L'ileMaurice-laReunion."InEth-nologieRigionale.Vol.2,Asie-Amirique-Mascareignes,ed-itedbyJeanPoirier,186 7-1 899.Paris:EncyclopidiedelaPliade,EditionsGallimard.Berreman,GeraldD.(1979).CasteandOtherInequities:Es-saysonInequality.NewDelhi:ManoharBookService.Bishop,DonaldH.,ed.(1975).IndianThought:AnIntroduc-tion.NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons.Codrington,H.W.(1939).AShortHistoryof...

... Tomeanethnologistwhospeaks of theAryanrace,Aryanblood,Aryaneyesandhair,isasgreatasinnerasalinguistwhospeaks of adolichocephalicdictionary,orabrachyce-phalicgrammar."FormanycenturiesaftertheirarrivalintheIndo-GangeticPlain,theAryanslivedashorsemenandcattleherders,clearingpatchesintheforestsandinhabitingsmallvillages,ratherthanlivingintheancienttownsthattheiran-cestorshadprobablyhelpedbringtoruin.Onlywiththestart of theIndianIronAge(about700B.C.)didAryantownsbegintoemerge;thisdevelopmentpresumesabackground of settledfarmingintheplainsbythatera.Therehasbeenmuchspeculationaboutthesubsequentdevelopment of northernIndiansocietyandtheAryans'fur-thercolonization of thesubcontinent;aboutrelationsbe-tweenthemandtheconquered"Dasas"or"Dasyu"(namesmeaning"slaves"andprobablyreferringtoremnants of theearlierIndusValleypopulation);andabouttherise of thecastesystem.DuringtheVedicperiod(about1500to800B.C.)theAryansdevelopedtheenormouslyelaboraterituals of Brahmanism,theforerunner of Hinduism;andtheyformedastratifiedsocietyinwhichtherudiments of thecastesystemwerealreadyapparent.Thustherewasapriestlycaste(Brahmana),arulingnoblecaste(Rajanya),awarriorcaste(Kshatriya),andthemenialcaste(Sudra).PriortotheMauryanEmpire(321to185B.C.)therewasnoorganizedAr-yangovernmentwithaclass of bureaucratstoadministerthelandthroughoutIndia.Instead,therewerenumerousrulingchieftains(rajan)whocommandedtheirarmiesandwereas-sistedbypurohitas,menwhocounseledandprotectedtherul-erswiththeirmagicalskills.Aslargerkingdomsemergedthepurohitabecamelikeacombinedarchbishopandprimemin-ister,consecratingtheking,givinghimpoliticalcounsel,andperformingmajorsacrificesforhim.Theintroduction of irontechnologyledtourbanization,andby500B.C.many of thesekingdomshadanimportantmerchantclassinthetownswhowerealreadyusingcopperandsilvercoins.SiddharthaGautama,theBuddha,camefromtherulingfamily of onesuchkingdom(Kosala,nowinBiharState).SeealsoCastes,HinduBibliographyBurrow,Thomas(1975)."TheEarlyAryans."InACulturalHistory of India,editedbyA.L.Basham,2 0-2 9.Oxford:ClarendonPress.Childe,VereGordon(1926).TheAryans:AStudy of Indo-EuropeanOrigins.London:KeganPaul,Trench,Triibner&Co.,Ltd.Reprint.1987.NewYork:DorsetPress.Thapar,Romila(1980)."IndiabeforeandaftertheMauryanEmpire."InTheCambridge Encyclopedia of Archaeology,ed-itedbyAndrewSherratt,25 7-2 61.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.PAULHOCKINGSAssameseETHNONYMS:noneTheterm"Assamese"isoftenusedtorefertothosewhoarecitizens of Assam:Mymensinghysettlers(fromBangladesh)andtea-gardenlaborersarethusincludedinitscoverage.Thetermcanalsobeusedtodescribetheindigenousorlong-settledinhabitants of thisnortheastIndianstate.TheBrahmaputraValleypopulationreached12.5mil-lionin1971;atthetime of the1961censustherewere16,307inhabitedvillagesinAssamwithanaveragepopulation of alittlemorethan500.About12millionpeoplespokeAssa-mesein1981.Thepeople of Assamhavebeendescribedassmallinstaturewithdarkyellowcomplexion,anindication of theirMongoloidorigin.Theirlanguagewasinpremoderntimestheeasternmostmember of theIndo-EuropeanFamily.TheAssameseforcenturieshaveoccupiedaperipheralposition,bothgeographicallyandpolitically,inrelationtotherest of India.ThecountrywasoriginallyruledbytheAhoms,aShanpeoplewhomigratedfromupperMyanmar(Burma),atthebeginning of thethirteenthcentury.Thesepeoplevariouslyappliedtheterms"Assam,""Asam,"or"Aham"totheircountry.TheAhomsmaintainedchronicles of themainevents of theirreign.Assamoriginallyconsisted of sixdistricts of thelowerBrahmaputraorAssamValley.Butwhenin1822achiefcommissionership of AssamwascreatedbytheBritishitwasextendedtoincludetwodistrictsintheSurmaValley,sixhillareas,andtwofrontiertracts.Villagersassociateonthebasis of membership of alocalcenter of de-votionalworshipcalleda"namehouse"(namghar),whosemembersdescribethemselvesas"onepeople"(raij).Thereareusuallyseveralnamehousesinavillage.Assamesehouse-holdscanbegradedintofiveeconomiccategories,chieflyonthebasis of income.Villagesarealsomadeup of familiesfromanumber of distinctcastes.RiceisthestapleinAssam.Ifaharvestisgoodthepeo-plemayrelaxandenjoytheirabundanceforthemonths8AnavilBrahmanstrivetomarrytheirdaughterstoDesaimenbutatthecost of largedowries.Hypergamyisalsopracticed.Thissystemper-mitsawomantomarryaman of ahigherbutnotalowerso-cialstatusthanherown.AnavilBrahmanshaveapreferenceforpatrilocality,patrilinealsystems of inheritance,andresi-denceinjointfamilygroups.Brahmanicidealsleadtoapreferencefordowrymarriage.Thelaws of Manudistinguisheightdifferentforms of marriage, of whichfourareactuallyvariations of thedowrymarriage;anditisthesefourthataretheoreticallyrecommendedtoBrahmans.BibliographyMarriot,McKim(1968).'CasteRankingandFoodTransac-tions:AMatrixAnalysis."InStructureandChangeinIndianSociety,editedbyMiltonSingerandBernardS.Cohn,13 3- 171.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.VanderVeen,KlaasW.(1972).1GiveTheeMyDaughter.Assen:VanGorcum&Comp. N. V.LeSHONKIMBLEAndamaneseETHNONYM:MincopieOrientationIdentification.TheAndamanesearetheindigenoustribes of Negritohuntersandgatherers of theAndamanIslands.In1908,theterm"Andamanese"referredtothirteendistincttribalgroups,eachdistinguishedbyadifferentdialectandgeographicallocation.Todayonlyfourtribesremainandarereferredtocollectivelyas"Andamanese."ThefourextanttribesaretheOngees of LittleAndamanIsland,theSentine-lese of NorthSentinelIsland,theJarwas of theMiddleAndamans,andtheGreatAndamanese of StraitIsland.Location.TheAndamanIslands,whichcompriseanar-chipelago of 348islands,arelocatedintheBay of Bengalbe-tween10°30'and13°30' N and92°20'and93°0'E.Thetotallandareais8,293squarekilometers, of whichabout7,464squarekilometersarecoveredwithtropicalrainforests.Thenorthernandcentralislandsarehilly,whilethesouthernislandsaresurroundedbyoffshorecoralreefsandarecriss-crossedwithtidalcreeks.Thesouthwesternandnorthwesternmonsoonscreatearainyseasonthatlastsapproximatelyninetotenmonthseachyear;annualprecipitationis275to455centimeters.TheonlydryseasonontheislandsbeginsinFebruaryandendsinMarch.Demography.In1800,thetotaltribalpopulationontheislandswasestimatedatapproximately3,575.In1901,theestimatedroppedto1,895,andin1983,thetotaltribalpopu-lationwas269. Of the1983estimateonlythecount of 9GreatAndamaneseand98Ongeeswasaccurate.TheJarwasandtheSentineleseareisolatedbytopographyandbyeachtribe'shostilitytowardoutsiders.Since1789,thepopulation of nontribalpeoplesontheislandshassteadilyincreased.Thetotalnumber of outsidersontheislandswas157,552in1983comparedtothe269tribals.Theintrusion of outsidersanddiseasesintroducedbythem,suchasmeasles,ophthal-mia,andvenerealdisease,hascontributeddirectlytotheoveralldeclineintribalpopulationanditsdisproportionatemale/femaleratio.Theislands'expandingtimberindustryandthesettlement of increasingnumbers of nontribals,pri-marilyfrommainlandIndia,alsohavereducedthetotalareaavailableforusebythetribal.LinguisticAffiliation.Areallinguisticconnection of An-damanesewith South andSoutheastAsianlanguageareashasnotbeensystematicallyestablished.Andamaneseasalanguagefamilyiscomposed of twomaingroups:Proto-LittleAndamanese,whichincludesOngee,Jarwa,andSentinelese;andProto-GreatAndamanese.Proto-GreatAndamaneseisfurthersubdividedintothreegroups:BeaandBaie of South Andamans;Puchikwar,Kede,Juwoi,Koi,andJko of MiddleAndamans;andBo,Chari,Jeru,andKora of NorthAnda-mans.Earlyethnographicaccountssuggestthateach of thetribalgroupsontheislandsspokemutuallyunintelligiblelan-guages.Yetlinguisticrecords,compiledbytheisland'sad-ministratorsandmorerecentresearch,suggestagreatdegree of overlapintermsusedbyeachgroup.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheAndamanesearebelievedtoshareaculturalaffinitywithsome of theOrangAslis of insularSoutheast Asia. IthasbeenarguedthattheAndamanesearrivedfromtheMalayandBurmesecoastsbylandinlatequaternarytimesor,atalatertime,bysea.ThereisalsospeculationthattheAnda-manesecamefromSumatraviatheNicobarIslands.How-ever,thepreciseorigins of theAndamaneseremainscholarlyspeculationsthathavenotbeenthoroughlyinvestigatedandresearched.Theearlyrecordedhistory of theislandsbeganinearnestwiththeBritishin1788.Rapidchangesintradewindsinthearea,monsoons,andcoralreefssurroundingtheislandscausedmanyshipwrecks;thosefewwhosurvivedship-wreckswerekilledbytheAndamanese.Inaneffortto ... ProvincesandBerarin1911,rankingasthesixth-largestcasteinterms of numbers.Inmanycastesthereisaseparatedivision of Ahirs,suchastheAhirSunars,Sutars,Lohars,Shimpis,Salic,Guraos,andKolis.Thename"Ahir"isderivedfrom"Abhira,"atribementionedseveraltimesininscriptionsandtheHindusacredbooks."Goala,"meaningacowherdor'aprotector of cows,"istheBengalinameforthecaste,andtheterm"Gaoli"isnowusedinMadhyaPradeshStatetosignifyadairyworker.SomedialectsnamedaftertheAbhiraorAhirsarestillspoken.One,knownasAhirwati,isspokenintheRohtalsandGurgaondistricts,thePunjab,andnearDelhi.TheMalwi.dialect of RajasthaniisalsoknownasAhiri;thereisadialect of GujaraticalledKhandeshi,alsoknownasAhirani.TheselinguisticsurvivalsareanindicationthattheAhirswereearlysettlersintheDelhicountry of thePunjab,andinMalwaandKhandesh.TheAhirwereapparentlyone of theimmigranttribesfromcentral Asia whoenteredIndiaduringtheearlyChris-tianera.TheAhirhavebeenforcenturiesapurelyoccupa-tionalcaste,mainlyrecruitedfromtheindigenoustribes.Ascattlemustgrazeintheforestduringhotweather,thereisacloserelationshipbetweenAhirsandmany of theforesttribes.ManyAhirinMandla,forexample,arebarelyconsid-eredHindus,becausetheyliveinGondvillages(aforesttribe).Onlyabout30percent of theAhirsarestilloccupiedinbreedingcattleanddealinginmilkandbutter.About4per-centaredomesticservants,andnearlyalltheremainderwerecultivatorsandlaborersin1931.FormerlytheAhirshadtheexclusiverighttomilkcows,sothatonalloccasionsanAhirhadtobehiredforthispurposeevenbythelowestcaste.Thecastehasexogamoussections,whichare of theusuallow-castetype,withtitularortotemnisticnames.Themarriage of personsbelongingtothesamesectionand of firstcousinsisprohibited.Amanmaymarryhiswife'syoungersisterwhilehiswifeisliving.Thepractice of exchanginggirlsbetweenfamiliesispermissible.TheAhirhaveaspecialrelationtotheHindureligion,owingtotheirassociationwiththesacredcow,whichisitselfreveredasagoddess.Amongthespecialdeities of theAhirsisKharskDeo,whoisalwayslocatedattheplace of assembly of thecattle.MaterDeoisthegod of thepen.AfavoritesaintisHaridasBaba.ThemainfestivalistheDiwali,fallingaboutthebeginning of November.Allpeopleobservethisfeastbyilluminatingtheirhouseswithmanysmallsaucer-lampsandwithfireworks.BibliographyBlunt,E.A.H.(1931).TheCasteSystem of NorthernIndia.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1969.Delhi:S.Chand.Darling,Malcolm(1947).ThePunjabPeasantinProsperityandDebt.4thEd.Bombay:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1977.NewDelhi:Manohar.Rose,H.A.(1911).AGlossary of theTribesandCastes of thePunjabandNorth-WestFrontierProvinces.Vol.1.Lahore:Su-perintendent,GovernmentPrinting.Reprint.1970.Patiala:LanguagesDepartment,Punjab.Russell,R.V.,andHimLal(1916)."Ahir."InTheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India,byR.V.RussellandHimLal.Vol.2,1 8-3 8.Nagpur.GovernmentPrintingPress.Reprint.1969.Oosterhout:AnthropologicalPublications.SirajulHassan,Syed(1920)."Ahir."CastesandTribes of H.E.H.theNizam'sDominions.Vol.1, 1-7 .Bombay:Reprint.1990.NewDelhi:VintageBooks.JAYDiMAGGIOAnavilBrahimanETHNONYM:GrhasthaBrahmanAnavilBrahmansaregrhasthaor"homeowner"Brah-mans,whichmeanstheycannotperformpriestlyfunctions.Theyaretraditionallylandowners.TherearealsobhikshukaormendicantpriestsamongAnavilBrahmans.Thereseemstobeacleardistinctionbetweenthesetwokinds of AnavilBrahmans,alongwithacertainamount of ambivalencethatresultsfromthecontrastbetweentheindependence of theAnavilBrahmansasself-supportinglandownersandthevil-lagepriest's"obligation"tobeg.TheAnavilBrahmanshavebeenlargelandownersforatleastthreecenturies.ItisnotclearfromhistoricalsourceswhentheAnavilBrahmanssettledinGujarat.Inthenine-teenthcenturysomeAnavilBrahmansleftthecentralpart of thestateandmovedtothesparselypopulatedhillsintheeast(Mahuva,Vyara)wheretheyemployedtheaboriginal,tribalpopulation of theareaaslaborers.Therearetwotypes of agriculturalland:irrigatedandnonirrigated.Inthesouthernpart of theSuratDistrictinGu-jarat,thelandiswellirrigated,andhencethisisthetradi-tionalrice-growingregion.Anothercultivatedcashcropfromthedistrictisginger,aswellasvariousotherspices.Inthenorthcottonisthemaincashcrop.Withintheendogamousunit,thejati,aretwodistin-guishablegroups of unequalsocialstatus:theDesaidescen-dants of taxfarmers,andthenon-Desai.Non-Desaifarmers12AndamaneseBibliographyCipriani,Lidio(1966).TheAndamanIslanders.NewYork:Praeger.Man,E.H.(1885).OntheAboriginalInhabitants of theAn-damanIslands.London:AnthropologicalInstitute.Pandya,Vishvajit(1897)."AbovetheForest:AStudy of An-damaneseEthnoanemology,Cosmology,andthePower of Ritual."Ph.D.dissertation,University of Chicago.Portman,M.V.(1859).History of OurRelationswiththeAn-damanese.Calcutta:GovernmentPrintingPress.Radcliffe-Brown,A.R(1922).TheAndamanIslanders.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.VISHVAJITPANDYAAnglo-IndianETHNONYMS:Castee,EastIndian,Eurasian,Goan,Goanese,MusteeFromthenuntilnow,theseAnglo-Indianshavebeencharacterizedby(1)Christianreligion,(2)Englishmothertongue,(3)Europeanlife-styleathome,(4)Westerndress,and(5)employmentinparticularadministrativeandserviceprofessionsthattypicallyrequirefluencyinEnglishandahigh-schooleducation(e.g.,thepostoffice,railways,teach-ing,police,andnursingprofessions).ThepopularsingerEn-gelbertHumperdinckisanAnglo-Indian.InGoaandotherPortugueseenclaveswithintheIndiansubcontinent,therewasfromthesixteenthuntilthetwenti-ethcenturyfreeandregularintermarriage of settlerswithlocalKonkani-speakingwomen.Thehistory of theirdescen-dantsparalleledthat of otherEurasiansinIndia.PortuguesebornonIndiansoilwerecalled"Castees"(fromthePortu-guesecastico,atermnolongerused);whereasCreoleswerecalled"Mustees"or"Mestiz"(fromthePortuguesemistices).InrecentdecadestheseGoanese of partialEuropeanancestryhavebeenassimilatedintotheAnglo-Indiancommunity,thoughnotwithoutsomeresentmentonthepart of color-consciousAnglo-Indians.GoanesespeakEnglish,liveincit-ies,andareRomanCatholics.ItisoftennotrecalledthattheGoanesehadanotherkind of linkwithAnglo-Indians:untiltheearlynineteenthcenturyonecouldbuyslavegirlsinGoa,andsomeBritishresidents of Indiadidjustthat.BibliographyGaikwad,VijaySinghRameshwarRao(1967).TheAnglo-Indians:AStudyintheProblemsandProcessesInvolvedinEmotionalandCulturalIntegration.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.Thistermhasbeenusedintwodistinctsenses.Uptoabout1900itmeantaBritishperson(whether of English,Scottish,IrishorWelshancestry)whohadbeenborninIndia('countrybom")andresidedthere.Butsince1900theterm"Anglo-Indian"hasbeenappliedtothosepreviouslyknownasEurasianswhowere of mixedEuropeanandIndiandescent(theyhadbeenknowninearliertimesas"EastIndians").Anglo-Indiansinthislattersensearefoundtodayinallcities of India,aswellasinBritain,Canada,andAustralia.Thelastcensuscount of them,in1951,identified11,637intheRe-public of India.TheEnglishhavebeengoingtoIndiafor1,000years.PossiblythefirstEnglishvisitorwasSwithelmorSigelinus,anenvoysentbyKingAlfredtovisitthetomb of St.ThomasinA.D.884.Heissaidtohavereturnedhomesafely.Anequallydramaticjourneywasthat of ThomasCoryate,whosecele-bratedwalkfromSomersettoAjmeretookthreeyears.Butby1615,whenhereachedIndia,EnglishvisitorswerebecomingcommonplaceduetoexpandingtradewiththeMogulEm-pire.WhilethereisnoevidencethatSwithelmleftanyprog-enyinIndia,manylaterEuropeanvisitorsdid.Itwascustom-aryinIndianinnsintheMiddleAgestoprovideafemalecompanionforthepleasure of distinguishedtravelers.Bythenineteenthcentury,thenumber of Britishresidentswasintothethousands,andmostweremale.Until ... ProvincesandBerarin1911,rankingasthesixth-largestcasteinterms of numbers.Inmanycastesthereisaseparatedivision of Ahirs,suchastheAhirSunars,Sutars,Lohars,Shimpis,Salic,Guraos,andKolis.Thename"Ahir"isderivedfrom"Abhira,"atribementionedseveraltimesininscriptionsandtheHindusacredbooks."Goala,"meaningacowherdor'aprotector of cows,"istheBengalinameforthecaste,andtheterm"Gaoli"isnowusedinMadhyaPradeshStatetosignifyadairyworker.SomedialectsnamedaftertheAbhiraorAhirsarestillspoken.One,knownasAhirwati,isspokenintheRohtalsandGurgaondistricts,thePunjab,andnearDelhi.TheMalwi.dialect of RajasthaniisalsoknownasAhiri;thereisadialect of GujaraticalledKhandeshi,alsoknownasAhirani.TheselinguisticsurvivalsareanindicationthattheAhirswereearlysettlersintheDelhicountry of thePunjab,andinMalwaandKhandesh.TheAhirwereapparentlyone of theimmigranttribesfromcentral Asia whoenteredIndiaduringtheearlyChris-tianera.TheAhirhavebeenforcenturiesapurelyoccupa-tionalcaste,mainlyrecruitedfromtheindigenoustribes.Ascattlemustgrazeintheforestduringhotweather,thereisacloserelationshipbetweenAhirsandmany of theforesttribes.ManyAhirinMandla,forexample,arebarelyconsid-eredHindus,becausetheyliveinGondvillages(aforesttribe).Onlyabout30percent of theAhirsarestilloccupiedinbreedingcattleanddealinginmilkandbutter.About4per-centaredomesticservants,andnearlyalltheremainderwerecultivatorsandlaborersin1931.FormerlytheAhirshadtheexclusiverighttomilkcows,sothatonalloccasionsanAhirhadtobehiredforthispurposeevenbythelowestcaste.Thecastehasexogamoussections,whichare of theusuallow-castetype,withtitularortotemnisticnames.Themarriage of personsbelongingtothesamesectionand of firstcousinsisprohibited.Amanmaymarryhiswife'syoungersisterwhilehiswifeisliving.Thepractice of exchanginggirlsbetweenfamiliesispermissible.TheAhirhaveaspecialrelationtotheHindureligion,owingtotheirassociationwiththesacredcow,whichisitselfreveredasagoddess.Amongthespecialdeities of theAhirsisKharskDeo,whoisalwayslocatedattheplace of assembly of thecattle.MaterDeoisthegod of thepen.AfavoritesaintisHaridasBaba.ThemainfestivalistheDiwali,fallingaboutthebeginning of November.Allpeopleobservethisfeastbyilluminatingtheirhouseswithmanysmallsaucer-lampsandwithfireworks.BibliographyBlunt,E.A.H.(1931).TheCasteSystem of NorthernIndia.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1969.Delhi:S.Chand.Darling,Malcolm(1947).ThePunjabPeasantinProsperityandDebt.4thEd.Bombay:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1977.NewDelhi:Manohar.Rose,H.A.(1911).AGlossary of theTribesandCastes of thePunjabandNorth-WestFrontierProvinces.Vol.1.Lahore:Su-perintendent,GovernmentPrinting.Reprint.1970.Patiala:LanguagesDepartment,Punjab.Russell,R.V.,andHimLal(1916)."Ahir."InTheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India,byR.V.RussellandHimLal.Vol.2,1 8-3 8.Nagpur.GovernmentPrintingPress.Reprint.1969.Oosterhout:AnthropologicalPublications.SirajulHassan,Syed(1920)."Ahir."CastesandTribes of H.E.H.theNizam'sDominions.Vol.1, 1-7 .Bombay:Reprint.1990.NewDelhi:VintageBooks.JAYDiMAGGIOAnavilBrahimanETHNONYM:GrhasthaBrahmanAnavilBrahmansaregrhasthaor"homeowner"Brah-mans,whichmeanstheycannotperformpriestlyfunctions.Theyaretraditionallylandowners.TherearealsobhikshukaormendicantpriestsamongAnavilBrahmans.Thereseemstobeacleardistinctionbetweenthesetwokinds of AnavilBrahmans,alongwithacertainamount of ambivalencethatresultsfromthecontrastbetweentheindependence of theAnavilBrahmansasself-supportinglandownersandthevil-lagepriest's"obligation"tobeg.TheAnavilBrahmanshavebeenlargelandownersforatleastthreecenturies.ItisnotclearfromhistoricalsourceswhentheAnavilBrahmanssettledinGujarat.Inthenine-teenthcenturysomeAnavilBrahmansleftthecentralpart of thestateandmovedtothesparselypopulatedhillsintheeast(Mahuva,Vyara)wheretheyemployedtheaboriginal,tribalpopulation of theareaaslaborers.Therearetwotypes of agriculturalland:irrigatedandnonirrigated.Inthesouthernpart of theSuratDistrictinGu-jarat,thelandiswellirrigated,andhencethisisthetradi-tionalrice-growingregion.Anothercultivatedcashcropfromthedistrictisginger,aswellasvariousotherspices.Inthenorthcottonisthemaincashcrop.Withintheendogamousunit,thejati,aretwodistin-guishablegroups of unequalsocialstatus:theDesaidescen-dants of taxfarmers,andthenon-Desai.Non-Desaifarmers12AndamaneseBibliographyCipriani,Lidio(1966).TheAndamanIslanders.NewYork:Praeger.Man,E.H.(1885).OntheAboriginalInhabitants of theAn-damanIslands.London:AnthropologicalInstitute.Pandya,Vishvajit(1897)."AbovetheForest:AStudy of An-damaneseEthnoanemology,Cosmology,andthePower of Ritual."Ph.D.dissertation,University of Chicago.Portman,M.V.(1859).History of OurRelationswiththeAn-damanese.Calcutta:GovernmentPrintingPress.Radcliffe-Brown,A.R(1922).TheAndamanIslanders.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.VISHVAJITPANDYAAnglo-IndianETHNONYMS:Castee,EastIndian,Eurasian,Goan,Goanese,MusteeFromthenuntilnow,theseAnglo-Indianshavebeencharacterizedby(1)Christianreligion,(2)Englishmothertongue,(3)Europeanlife-styleathome,(4)Westerndress,and(5)employmentinparticularadministrativeandserviceprofessionsthattypicallyrequirefluencyinEnglishandahigh-schooleducation(e.g.,thepostoffice,railways,teach-ing,police,andnursingprofessions).ThepopularsingerEn-gelbertHumperdinckisanAnglo-Indian.InGoaandotherPortugueseenclaveswithintheIndiansubcontinent,therewasfromthesixteenthuntilthetwenti-ethcenturyfreeandregularintermarriage of settlerswithlocalKonkani-speakingwomen.Thehistory of theirdescen-dantsparalleledthat of otherEurasiansinIndia.PortuguesebornonIndiansoilwerecalled"Castees"(fromthePortu-guesecastico,atermnolongerused);whereasCreoleswerecalled"Mustees"or"Mestiz"(fromthePortuguesemistices).InrecentdecadestheseGoanese of partialEuropeanancestryhavebeenassimilatedintotheAnglo-Indiancommunity,thoughnotwithoutsomeresentmentonthepart of color-consciousAnglo-Indians.GoanesespeakEnglish,liveincit-ies,andareRomanCatholics.ItisoftennotrecalledthattheGoanesehadanotherkind of linkwithAnglo-Indians:untiltheearlynineteenthcenturyonecouldbuyslavegirlsinGoa,andsomeBritishresidents of Indiadidjustthat.BibliographyGaikwad,VijaySinghRameshwarRao(1967).TheAnglo-Indians:AStudyintheProblemsandProcessesInvolvedinEmotionalandCulturalIntegration.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.Thistermhasbeenusedintwodistinctsenses.Uptoabout1900itmeantaBritishperson(whether of English,Scottish,IrishorWelshancestry)whohadbeenborninIndia('countrybom")andresidedthere.Butsince1900theterm"Anglo-Indian"hasbeenappliedtothosepreviouslyknownasEurasianswhowere of mixedEuropeanandIndiandescent(theyhadbeenknowninearliertimesas"EastIndians").Anglo-Indiansinthislattersensearefoundtodayinallcities of India,aswellasinBritain,Canada,andAustralia.Thelastcensuscount of them,in1951,identified11,637intheRe-public of India.TheEnglishhavebeengoingtoIndiafor1,000years.PossiblythefirstEnglishvisitorwasSwithelmorSigelinus,anenvoysentbyKingAlfredtovisitthetomb of St.ThomasinA.D.884.Heissaidtohavereturnedhomesafely.Anequallydramaticjourneywasthat of ThomasCoryate,whosecele-bratedwalkfromSomersettoAjmeretookthreeyears.Butby1615,whenhereachedIndia,EnglishvisitorswerebecomingcommonplaceduetoexpandingtradewiththeMogulEm-pire.WhilethereisnoevidencethatSwithelmleftanyprog-enyinIndia,manylaterEuropeanvisitorsdid.Itwascustom-aryinIndianinnsintheMiddleAgestoprovideafemalecompanionforthepleasure of distinguishedtravelers.Bythenineteenthcentury,thenumber of Britishresidentswasintothethousands,andmostweremale.Until...

... hemustlearntoreadtheclassicalArabiclanguage)caneventuallybecometheworshipleader(mullahorimam) of alocalmosqueifsochosenbythecongregation.Furtherstudy of theQuranand of Muslimlaw(thesharia)mayqualifyamantobeareligiousleaderwithawiderfollowing,greaterstature,andsometimessignificantpoliticalinfluence.Bengali29Roland,Joan(1989).JewsinBritishIndia.Waltham,Mass.:BrandeisUniversityPress.Strizower,Schifra(1971)."VerbalInteractionamongtheBeneIsrael."InternationalJournal of theSociology of Language13:7 1-8 5.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1988)."TheInfluence of CasteIdeologyinIsrael."InCulturalTransition,editedbyM.Gottesman,15 0- 161.Jerusalem:MagnesPress.SHALVAJ.WEILBengaliETHNONYMS:Bangali,Bangladeshi(formerlyBengalee,Baboo)OrientationIdentification.TheBengalipeoplespeaktheBengali(Bangla)languageandliveintheBengalregion of theIndiansubcontinentlocatedinnortheastern South Asia, andmostfolloweithertheHinduortheMuslimfaith.TheBengalre.gionisdividedpoliticallybetweenthenation of BangladeshandtheIndianstate of WestBengal.BengalisthemselvesrefertotheirregionasBangladesh,meaningsimply'theBen-galihomeland,"atermadoptedbythepeople of easternBengalwhentheywonsovereignindependenceforthenation of Bangladeshin1971.ThenativeethnictermforthemselvesisBangli -of which"Bengali"isananglicization.However,Bengaliswhoarecitizens of BangladeshwillalsomostreadilycallthemselvesBangladeshi.Location.Lyingatthenorth of theBay of Bengalandroughlybetween22"and26° N and86°and93°E,theBengalregionconsistslargely of avastalluvial,deltaicplain,builtupbytheGangesRiverandwateredalsobytheBrahma-putraRiversystemoriginatingintheeasternHimalayaMountains.Asinmuch of South Asia, monsoonwindsbringarainyseasonthatcanlastfromApriltomid-November.Bengal'stotalareaisapproximately233,000squarekilo-meters, of whichabout38percent(justunder89,000squarekilometers)isinIndia,theremaining62percent(144,000squarekilometers)constitutingthenation of Bangladesh.Demography.Accordingtothelastavailable(1981)cen-suses,India'sWestBengalcontainedsome47millionpeople(35percent)andBangladesh86millionpeople(65percent)claimingtobeprimaryspeakers of theBengalilanguage,withthetotal of around133millionconstitutingthe"cope"ethnicBengalipopulation.Tothistotalmustbeaddedatleastan-other7millionBengalispeakerslivinginadjacentornearbystates of India-Assam,3million;Bihar,2million;Tripura,1.4million;Orissa,378,000;Meghalaya,120,000;andNaga-land,27,000-formingakind of "Bengalidiaspora"that,al-thoughconcentratedinnortheastern South Asia, isactuallyworldwide,withlargenumbers of Bengalislivingasimmi-grantsintheUnitedStates,UnitedKingdom,andCanada.Insum,Bengaliscomprisedapopulation of about140mil-lionin1981,onewhichcanbeexpectedtohavegrownbyatleast25percentbythetimedatafrom1991censusesbe-comesavailable.Bengalispeakersmakeup85percent of thepopulation of WestBengal,whichotherwiseishometoanadditional9millionnon-Bengalipeople.Most of thesearefromotherparts of India,livinginthemetropolis of Calcutta,thestatecapital,buttherearesignificantnumbers of non-Bengalipeoplelocallyclassedas'tribals"inruralWestBengalaswell.Bangladeshisfarmorehomogeneous;allbut1percent of itspeopleidentifythemselvesasBengali.Most of theremaining900,000consist of non-Bengaliethnicgroupsalsolocallydesignatedas"tribal,"andthemajority of thesearespeakers of Tibeto-Burmanandotherminoritylanguages,oftenlivinginborderareas of thecountry.Somespeakers of dialects of Hindi-UrduremaininBangladeshaswell.OverallpopulationdensitiesinWestBengalwererecordedat615peoplepersquarekilometerin1981,rangingfrom466insomeruralareasto56,462inurbanlocalities(especiallyCal-cutta).InBangladeshoveralldensitiesreached624personspersquarekilometerby1981,risingto2,179intheurbanareas(especiallyDhaka,thenation'scapital),butalsoregis-teringaquitehigh693personspersquarekilometerinpart of thecountryside.LinguisticAffiliation.Likemost of thelanguages of northern South Asia, BengalibelongstotheIndo-Iranian(sometimesalsocalledIndo-Aryan)Branch of theIndo-EuropeanFamily.DescendedfromancientSanskrit,Bengalicontainsforty-sevensounds:elevenvowels,twenty-fivecon-sonants,foursemivowels,andseven"breathsounds"(includ-ingsibilantsandaspirates).Itsscript,alsoSanskrit-derived,containsfifty-sevenlettersymbols.TheBengalilanguageisassociatedwithalongliterarytradition,prideinwhichisamajorfactorinBengaliethnicandnationalidentity.ABen-gali,RabindranathTagore,wasthefirstAsiantoreceivetheNobelPrizeforliterature(in1913).Theliterarylanguagewithwhicheducatedspeakersarefamiliaris,however,quitedistinctfromtheurbanandruralspeech of thelesswelledu-cated.Theeasterndialects of Bengali,notablythosespokenintheSylhetandChittagongdistricts of Bangladesh,differquitenoticeablyfromthoseheardinWestBengal.HistoryandCulturalRelationsBengalismentionedasadistinctregion of South Asia insome of theearliestHindutexts,andthroughoutthefirstmil-lenniumAD.itwasgovernedbyasuccession of BuddhistandHindurulers.Islamicarmiesarrivedintheregioninthelatetwelfthandearlythirteenthcenturies,andgradualMuslimconquest-culminatinginMughalruleafter1576-setthestageforwidespreadconversion of thelocalpopulationtoIslam,especiallyineasternBengal.Notlongthereafter,Euro-peancontactwith,andcompetitionforpoweron,theIndiansubcontinentbegan,andtheBritishperiod of India'shistoryisusuallydatedfromEngland'stakeover of theadministra-tion of Bengalin1757.Lastinguntil1947,BritishrulehadaprofoundimpactonBengalicultureandsociety,especiallywiththeintroduction of Englishasthemedium of highered-ucationafter1835.HindusrespondedmorerapidlythandidMuslimstoopportunitiesprovidedbyEnglisheducation,and56Burushoherhusbanddivorceher.Childrenremainwiththemother(untiltheyreachtheage of 10)ifadivorceisgranted.Duringthistime,thehusbandisrequiredtoprovidechildsupport.Widowsmustwaitthreemonthsandsevendaysafterthedeath of aspousebeforeremarrying.Thewaitforawidoweristwomonthsandsevendays.Polygynyisnotprohibited.DomesticUnit.Smallextendedfamilies(theprocreatedfamily of oneindividualintheseniorgenerationandthose of atleasttwointhenextgeneration)withlimitedpolygynyarethenorm.Inheritance.Thefather of afamilyownsall of thefamilyproperty.Hemaychoosetodividehispropertyamonghisoff-springbeforehisdeathoritmaybedividedafterhedies.Uponhisdeath,hisestateisdividedequallyamonghissons.Sonsmaychoosetoworkanylandinheritedtogether(i.e.,asagroup)ortheymaydivideitamongthemselves.Sonsbysec-ondwivesinheritagrandson'sshare.Theyoungestsoninher-itsthefamilydwelling.Provisionisusuallymadesothattheeldestsoninheritsthebestland.Adaughterisnotpermittedtoinheritproperty.Shemaybeallowedtheuse of certainpropertyduringherlifetime.Unmarrieddaughtersmustbecaredfor(includingtheprovision of adowry)bytheestate of adeceasedfather.Apricottrees(andtheirproduce)areoftenwilledtodaughters.Socialization.Thesocialization of childrenisaresponsi-bilitysharedbybothparents,withthebulk of itbeingas-sumedbythemother.Siblingsalsoshareinthistask.In1934,apublicschoolsystemwasdonatedandputintoplacebytheAgaKhan,thusplacingpart of theburdenforchildrearingonteachers.SociopoliticalOrganizationBurushosocietycontainsfiveclasses:theThamo(royalfam-ily);theUyongko/Akabirting(thosewhomayoccupyoffices of state);theBar/Bare/Sis(landcultivators);theShadarsho(servants);andtheBaldakuyo/Tsilgalasho(bearers of bur-densfortheThamoandUyongko).TheBericho(Indianblacksmithsandmusicians),whomaintaintheirowncus-tomsandspeaktheirownlanguage(Kumaki),arealsoanim-portantpart of Burushosocialstructure.AgeandgenderstratificationdonotobtainamongtheBurusho.Thehead of stateisthemir,whoseauthorityinallmat-tersisabsolute.Heisassistedinthedispatch of hisdutiesbyagrandvizier.Mirsareresponsibleforthedistribution of jus-ticeaswellasthemaintenance of localcustomsandtribalfes-tivals.Avillagearbob(chief)andchowkidar(sergeantatarms)areappointedforeachvillage.Khalifasareappointedbythemirtopresideatimportantoccasionsinthelife of theindividualandthecommunity.IthasbeennotedthatatonetimeretainerstocertainvillagerswerepaidbytheBritishgov-emmentforoccasionalservicesandthatcertainofficialswithinavillagewerechargedwiththecare of visitors.Thethreat of deportation(forthepurpose of engaginginpublicservicetothemirorforthecompletion of publicworks)andtheimposition of finesaretheprimarymeans of maintainingsocialcontrol.ExternalrelationsbetweentheBurushoandotherpeopleshavebeenstable.Intervillageri-valryischannelednonviolentlyintopolomatches.Althoughtheattitudes of theBurushotowardtheirneighborsinNagirarelessthanfriendly,armedconflictisfarfromnormal.BothHunzaandNagirsupportedthemilitaryactionthatledtotheannexation of theregiontoPakistan.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefsandPractices.TheBurushohavebeenMuslimformorethan300years.Theyareadherents of theIs-mailisect(headedbytheAgaKhan)andhavemadesuchmodificationsinreligiousbeliefandpracticeastorenderthissystem of Islamicbeliefpracticablewithintheirsocialanden-vironmentalsetting.NosystematizedeschatologicalsystemexistsamongtheBurusho.Itisgenerallybelievedthatatsomepointinthefuturethelivingandthedeadwillbere-united.Bitaiyo(maleandfemaleprognosticators)foretellthefuturebyinhalingthesmoke of burningjunipertwigs.NoprofessionalpriesthoodexistsamongtheBurusho.Themirappointsseveralliteratemenaskhalifastoofficiateatburials,weddings,andnamingceremonies.Theseindividualsdonotperformthesedutiesonafull-timebasis.Religiousceremonyplayslittlepartinthedailylife of theBurusho.Ritualprayerandfastingarepracticedbysome.Whilelittleisknown of pre-Islamicreligiouspractices,itisbelievedthatatonetimesacrificewasofferedtotheboyo(divinitiesthoughttooccupyaplaceabovethefortatHini).Thecommunalweddingcere-monyheldon21Decemberisalsoanimportantpart of theBurushoritualcycle.Arts.Embroideryandwoodcarvingmaybenotedasexam-ples of Burushovisualart.Dancingandmusic(bothbeingimportantcomponents of Burushoceremoniallife)areat-tested.Thesamecanbesaid of dramaticart,performancesbeingsponsoredoncertainspecialoccasions.Burushooralliteraturecontainsfolklore(indigenousandborrowed),anec-dotes,andsongs.Medicine.Avariety of naturalsubstances(roots,herbs,andberries)isusedformedicinalpurposes.Accesstoscientificmed-icineisalsoavailable.ThebeliefisstillheldbysomeBurushothatsupernaturalsplayamajorroleinthecause of humanill-ness.Indigenousmedicalpractitionersarelacking.BibliographyClark,J.(1963)."HunzaintheHimalayas:StoriedShangri-LaUndergoesScrutiny."NaturalHistory72:3 8-4 5.Lorimer,DavidL.(193 5-1 938).TheBurushaskiLanguage.3vols.InstituttetforSammenlignendeKulturforskning,SerieB:Skifter,29, 1-3 .Oslo:H.Aschehoug&Co.(W.Nygaard):Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress.Lorimer,E.0.(1938)."TheBurusho of Hunza."Antiquity12: 5-1 5.Lorimer,E.0.(1939).LanguageHuntingintheKarakoram.London:GeorgeAllen&Unwin.O'Leary,TimothyJ.(1965)."BurushoCulturalSummary."NewHaven,Conn.:HumanRelationsAreaFiles.Tobe,JohnH.(1960).AdventuresinaLand of Paradise.Emmaus,Pa.:RodaleBooks.HUGHRPAGE,JRBengali31Trade.Asnotedabove,periodiclocalmarketsdottheBengalcountryside,andtheseinturnarelinkedtoperma-nent,dailymarketsinlargerprovincialtownsandultimatelytomajorurbancommercialcenters.Manypeasantsengageinpettymarketingtosupplementtheirprimaryoccupation,butlarge-scaleaccumulationandtransportation of majorcrops,especiallyriceandjute,andartisanproductsaretypicallycar-riedoutbywholesalerswhomovefrommarkettomarket.Aselsewherein South Asia, someHinducastegroupsspecializeincertainkinds of tradeandcommercialtransactions(e.g.,thoserelatedtogoldandotherjewelryorspecificconsump-tionitemsotherthanrice).BecauseBengalpossessesalaby-rinthinenetwork of rivers,providingboattransportationtoandbetweenriversidecentersisamajoractivityformany.Commerceisoverwhelminglymale-dominated,sinceadultwomenareusuallyrequiredtolimittheiractivitiestotheirhomesteadsandimmediatesurroundingsandthusarenotpermittedtoengageinsignificanttradingactivity.Division of Labor.Thedivision of laborbybothgenderandoccupationalspecializationishighlymarkedthroughout South Asia, includingBengal,particularlysointheruralareas.Regardless of aruralfamily'soccupationalspecialty,menengageinactivitiesthattakeplaceoutsidethehome,whilewomenarelimitedtothosethatcanbeperformedwithinitsconfines.Thus,forexample,inrice-farmingfami-liesmenperformalltheworkinthefields-plowing,plant-ing,weeding,andharvesting-andoncethecropisbroughtintothehomesteadwomentakeupthetasks of threshing,drying,andhuskingthecrop.Asimilarkind of intra-(versusextra-)homesteaddivision of laborbygenderoccursinfami-lieswithnonagriculturaloccupationalspecializations.Notsurprisingly,domesticandchild-rearingtasksfallwithinthewomen'sdomainaswell.Thedegreetowhichwomenareper-mittedtoworkoutsidethehomeis,however,relatedtotheeconomicandsocialstatus of thefamily.Apoororlandlessfarmer'swifemayspendpart of herdayprocessingagricul-turalgoodsinawealthierhousehold,forexample,tosupple-mentherfamily'smeagerincome,andamongthelower-rankedservicecastes(seebelow)thetabooonwomenworkingoutsidethehomeisconsiderablylessstrict.In ... areprominentingovernmentservice,financialserv-ices,andpolitics.IndustrialArts.AnyneedsthatBrahmansandChhetrisexperienceforcraftandindustrialproductsaremetbylower-rankedartisancastes,suchasblacksmiths,tailors,andleatherworkers.Trade.InruralareasBrahmansandChhetristypicallyrelyonothers,suchasNewarshopkeepers,fortheircommercialrequirements.Division of Labor.OnlyBrahmanmalesmayactaspriests,butmuch of thedailyhouseholdpuja(worship)isdonebywomen.Theday-to-dayagropastoralactivities of BrahmanandChhetrifamiliesaresharedbetweenmenandwomen.Bothsexesworkinthefields,butoverallwomenspendmorehoursperdayinagriculturalanddomesticlaborthanmen.Theyperformmost of thechildcare,preparationandcooking of food,andweedingandtending of crops.Mendotheplowingandmaintaintheterracewalls.Bothareactiveatharvesttime.LandTenure.BrahmansandChhetrisareoftenlandown.ers.Fieldsareoftenterracedandmostlyhavebeenfraction-atedintosmallplotsthroughinheritanceovergenerations.Large-scaleabsenteelandlordismisnotcommoninthehills of Nepal.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.BrahmansandChhetrisaremembers of twokinds of clans,thethaT(indicatedasasur-name)andthegotra;theformerisexogamousifarelationcanbetraced,butthelatterisstrictlyexogamous.Descentandinheritancefollowthemalelineexclusively.KinshipTerminology.Allfirstcousinsareaddressedbysiblingterms.Siblingsaredesignatedaseitherolderoryoungerbrothersorsisters:thereisnogenerictermforbrotherorsister.Unrelatedpersons,includingstrangers,arealsooftenaddressedbykinshipterms.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Mostmarriagesaremonogamous,butpoly-gynousunionsweretraditionallyfrequentandarestillocca-sionallyfound.Secondandsubsequentwivesareoftenmem-bers of otherethnicgroups,suchastheGurungs,Magars,Tamangs,Sherpas,andNewars,butnotlow-casteartisangroups.Withtheexception of Thakuris,theself-proclaimedaristocratsamongtheChhetriswhopracticematrilateralcross-cousinmarriage,cousinmarriageisnotpracticed.Brah-mangirlstraditionallymarriedbytheage of 11,andChhetrigirlsafewyearslater,buteducatedurbandwellersnowmarryintheirlateteensorearlytwenties.Groomsarenormallyafewyearsolderthantheirbrides.Villageexogamyisusuallyobserved,andparentsarrangetheirchildren'smarriageswiththehelp of anintermediary.Anastrologeralsoisconsultedtoensurethatthecouplemakeagoodmatch.Theboy'sfamilypriest,inconsultationwiththebride'sfamily,setsanauspi-ciousdateandtime,basedonthelunarcalendar(severalmonths of theyearareinauspiciousformarriage).Theentireweddingceremonylastsafullday,fromthetimethemembers of thegroom'spartyarriveatthebride'shometilltheyleavethenextdaywiththebride.Themostimportantpart of the34BengaliCeremonies.TheBengaliHindureligiouscalendarisre-pletewithworshipceremonies(puja)devotedtothedeities of boththeGreatandLittleTraditions.Especiallyimportantistheannualfestival(orgajan) of theLordShiva,asarethose of hiscounterpartgoddesses,KaliandDurga.ThegoddessesLakshmi (of wealthandgoodfortune)andSaraswati (of learningandculture)alsohaveannualceremonies.Impor-tantfolkdeitiespropitiatedbyHindusandMuslimsalikein-cludethe"goddesses of thecalamities"-Sitala,goddess of smallpox;Olabibi,goddess of cholera;andManasa,goddess of snakes-all of whomhavetheirannualfestivals.BengaliMuslimscelebratethemajorfestivals of Islam:theIdal-Fitr,whichmarkstheend of theMuslimmonth of fasting(Rama-dan);theIdal-Adha,or"feast of thesacrifice,"coterminouswiththeannualpilgrimage(haj)toMeccaandcommemorat-ingthestory of theprophetIbrahim'swillingnesstosacrificehissonatGod'scommand.EventhoughBengaliMuslimsareSunnis,theyalsoobservethefestival of Muharram,usu-allyassociatedmoreprominentlywiththeShiadivision of Islam,inwhichthedeath of Hussain,grandson of theProphetMohammedandmartyr of thefaith,ismourned.Bengalisalsocelebratethewell-knownHindurite of springcalledHoli;formembers of allreligiousfaiths,theannualnewyearceremonyonthefirstday of theHindu(andBen-gali)month of Baisakh,comingbetweenAprilandMayandmarkingtheonset of spring,isajoyousoccasion.Arts.UrbanBengalieliteculturehasproducedone of South Asia& apos;sfinestliterarytraditions,includingnotonlythenovel,shortstory,andpoetrybutdramaandfilmaswell.Some of India'sbestclassicalmusiciansandgreatestexpo-nents of thedancehavebeenBengalis.BengalishavealsomademajorcontributionstoIndianand world cinema.RuralBengalhasanoldandwell-developedfolkliterature,includ-ingnarrativepoetry(puthi),drawnfromhistory,myth,andlegend,aswellasaverypopularitineranttheater(calledjatra).Thereisalsoastrongtradition of religiousfolkmusic,particularlyassociatedwiththemoredevotionalandmysticalpractices of popularHinduism(e.g.,worship of thegoddessKaliandtheLordKrishna)and of popularIslam(e.g.,thede-votionalgatherings of thevariousSufiorders).Terra-cottatempleandmosquearchitecturethroughoutBengalismuchadmired,andthereisafolktradition of painting,seeninHindureligiousscrollsandintheflowery,andoftenobscure,religioussymbols(alipana)commonlydaubedinwhitericepasteonthewallsandfloors of homesteadsbyHinduvillagewomen.Finally,despiteindustrializationandthespread of commerciallymanufacturedproductsthroughouttheregion,theBengaliruraleconomystilldependsontheservices of tra-ditionalcraftspeople-weavers,potters,carpenters,black-smiths,metalworkers,andthelike-whosewaresoftenrepre-sentahighquality of bothtechniqueandaestheticdesign.Medicine.AlthoughmodemscientificmedicinehaslongbeenknownandacceptedinBengal,thehomeopathic,allo-pathic,andtheHinduAyurvedicandMuslimUnanimedicaltraditionscontinuetoexistasalternatives.Therealsore-mainsahost of folkbeliefsandcuringpracticesamongboththeurbanimmigrantpoorandthepeasantryasawhole.Folkhealers(ojhaorfakir)arecommonlycalledupontotreateverythingfromtemporaryillnessesandchronicdiseasestobonefracturesandsnakebite,aswellastocounteractethno-psychiatricafflictionsresultingfromsorceryandghostpos-session.Folkcuringpracticesstresstheuse of magicalverses(mantras),oftencombinedwithindigenousmedicinalcon-coctions.Traditionalhealersalsoprovideamuletsforprotec-tionagainstdevilryandsorcery,thewearing of whichisubiq-uitousnotonlyamongthepeasantryandtheurbanpoorbutalsoamongtheBengalimiddleclassesaswell.DeathandAfterlife.BengaliHindus, of course,acceptthedoctrine of samsara,orthetransmigration of soulsfromoneearthlylifetoanother.Funerarycremations,practicedbynearlyallHinducastes,arethoughttoreleasetheindividual'sspiritualessenceorsoulfromitstransitoryphysicalbody.Bearingtheinfluence(karma) of alltheactions of itsjustter-minatedearthlyembodiment,thesoulthenisreincarnatedintoanewworldlyformandway of lifeshapedbythosepastactions.Normallyaman'seldestsoncarriesoutthefuneraryrites,lightingthefuneralpyreafterfirstplacingaburningstickinthemouth of thedeceased.Muslimbeliefsrequirethatatdeaththepersonberituallybathed,shrouded,andburiedinacoffinwiththeheadfacingtheholycity of Mecca,afterwhichtherefollowsafuneraryprayerceremonyideallyledbyeitherarelativeorarecognizedleader of thelocalMus-limcommunity.Thedeadarethoughttoenteranindefinitetransitionalstate-duringwhichthewickedbegintoexperi-encepunishmentandthevirtuousto ... areprominentingovernmentservice,financialserv-ices,andpolitics.IndustrialArts.AnyneedsthatBrahmansandChhetrisexperienceforcraftandindustrialproductsaremetbylower-rankedartisancastes,suchasblacksmiths,tailors,andleatherworkers.Trade.InruralareasBrahmansandChhetristypicallyrelyonothers,suchasNewarshopkeepers,fortheircommercialrequirements.Division of Labor.OnlyBrahmanmalesmayactaspriests,butmuch of thedailyhouseholdpuja(worship)isdonebywomen.Theday-to-dayagropastoralactivities of BrahmanandChhetrifamiliesaresharedbetweenmenandwomen.Bothsexesworkinthefields,butoverallwomenspendmorehoursperdayinagriculturalanddomesticlaborthanmen.Theyperformmost of thechildcare,preparationandcooking of food,andweedingandtending of crops.Mendotheplowingandmaintaintheterracewalls.Bothareactiveatharvesttime.LandTenure.BrahmansandChhetrisareoftenlandown.ers.Fieldsareoftenterracedandmostlyhavebeenfraction-atedintosmallplotsthroughinheritanceovergenerations.Large-scaleabsenteelandlordismisnotcommoninthehills of Nepal.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.BrahmansandChhetrisaremembers of twokinds of clans,thethaT(indicatedasasur-name)andthegotra;theformerisexogamousifarelationcanbetraced,butthelatterisstrictlyexogamous.Descentandinheritancefollowthemalelineexclusively.KinshipTerminology.Allfirstcousinsareaddressedbysiblingterms.Siblingsaredesignatedaseitherolderoryoungerbrothersorsisters:thereisnogenerictermforbrotherorsister.Unrelatedpersons,includingstrangers,arealsooftenaddressedbykinshipterms.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Mostmarriagesaremonogamous,butpoly-gynousunionsweretraditionallyfrequentandarestillocca-sionallyfound.Secondandsubsequentwivesareoftenmem-bers of otherethnicgroups,suchastheGurungs,Magars,Tamangs,Sherpas,andNewars,butnotlow-casteartisangroups.Withtheexception of Thakuris,theself-proclaimedaristocratsamongtheChhetriswhopracticematrilateralcross-cousinmarriage,cousinmarriageisnotpracticed.Brah-mangirlstraditionallymarriedbytheage of 11,andChhetrigirlsafewyearslater,buteducatedurbandwellersnowmarryintheirlateteensorearlytwenties.Groomsarenormallyafewyearsolderthantheirbrides.Villageexogamyisusuallyobserved,andparentsarrangetheirchildren'smarriageswiththehelp of anintermediary.Anastrologeralsoisconsultedtoensurethatthecouplemakeagoodmatch.Theboy'sfamilypriest,inconsultationwiththebride'sfamily,setsanauspi-ciousdateandtime,basedonthelunarcalendar(severalmonths of theyearareinauspiciousformarriage).Theentireweddingceremonylastsafullday,fromthetimethemembers of thegroom'spartyarriveatthebride'shometilltheyleavethenextdaywiththebride.Themostimportantpart of the34BengaliCeremonies.TheBengaliHindureligiouscalendarisre-pletewithworshipceremonies(puja)devotedtothedeities of boththeGreatandLittleTraditions.Especiallyimportantistheannualfestival(orgajan) of theLordShiva,asarethose of hiscounterpartgoddesses,KaliandDurga.ThegoddessesLakshmi (of wealthandgoodfortune)andSaraswati (of learningandculture)alsohaveannualceremonies.Impor-tantfolkdeitiespropitiatedbyHindusandMuslimsalikein-cludethe"goddesses of thecalamities"-Sitala,goddess of smallpox;Olabibi,goddess of cholera;andManasa,goddess of snakes-all of whomhavetheirannualfestivals.BengaliMuslimscelebratethemajorfestivals of Islam:theIdal-Fitr,whichmarkstheend of theMuslimmonth of fasting(Rama-dan);theIdal-Adha,or"feast of thesacrifice,"coterminouswiththeannualpilgrimage(haj)toMeccaandcommemorat-ingthestory of theprophetIbrahim'swillingnesstosacrificehissonatGod'scommand.EventhoughBengaliMuslimsareSunnis,theyalsoobservethefestival of Muharram,usu-allyassociatedmoreprominentlywiththeShiadivision of Islam,inwhichthedeath of Hussain,grandson of theProphetMohammedandmartyr of thefaith,ismourned.Bengalisalsocelebratethewell-knownHindurite of springcalledHoli;formembers of allreligiousfaiths,theannualnewyearceremonyonthefirstday of theHindu(andBen-gali)month of Baisakh,comingbetweenAprilandMayandmarkingtheonset of spring,isajoyousoccasion.Arts.UrbanBengalieliteculturehasproducedone of South Asia& apos;sfinestliterarytraditions,includingnotonlythenovel,shortstory,andpoetrybutdramaandfilmaswell.Some of India'sbestclassicalmusiciansandgreatestexpo-nents of thedancehavebeenBengalis.BengalishavealsomademajorcontributionstoIndianand world cinema.RuralBengalhasanoldandwell-developedfolkliterature,includ-ingnarrativepoetry(puthi),drawnfromhistory,myth,andlegend,aswellasaverypopularitineranttheater(calledjatra).Thereisalsoastrongtradition of religiousfolkmusic,particularlyassociatedwiththemoredevotionalandmysticalpractices of popularHinduism(e.g.,worship of thegoddessKaliandtheLordKrishna)and of popularIslam(e.g.,thede-votionalgatherings of thevariousSufiorders).Terra-cottatempleandmosquearchitecturethroughoutBengalismuchadmired,andthereisafolktradition of painting,seeninHindureligiousscrollsandintheflowery,andoftenobscure,religioussymbols(alipana)commonlydaubedinwhitericepasteonthewallsandfloors of homesteadsbyHinduvillagewomen.Finally,despiteindustrializationandthespread of commerciallymanufacturedproductsthroughouttheregion,theBengaliruraleconomystilldependsontheservices of tra-ditionalcraftspeople-weavers,potters,carpenters,black-smiths,metalworkers,andthelike-whosewaresoftenrepre-sentahighquality of bothtechniqueandaestheticdesign.Medicine.AlthoughmodemscientificmedicinehaslongbeenknownandacceptedinBengal,thehomeopathic,allo-pathic,andtheHinduAyurvedicandMuslimUnanimedicaltraditionscontinuetoexistasalternatives.Therealsore-mainsahost of folkbeliefsandcuringpracticesamongboththeurbanimmigrantpoorandthepeasantryasawhole.Folkhealers(ojhaorfakir)arecommonlycalledupontotreateverythingfromtemporaryillnessesandchronicdiseasestobonefracturesandsnakebite,aswellastocounteractethno-psychiatricafflictionsresultingfromsorceryandghostpos-session.Folkcuringpracticesstresstheuse of magicalverses(mantras),oftencombinedwithindigenousmedicinalcon-coctions.Traditionalhealersalsoprovideamuletsforprotec-tionagainstdevilryandsorcery,thewearing of whichisubiq-uitousnotonlyamongthepeasantryandtheurbanpoorbutalsoamongtheBengalimiddleclassesaswell.DeathandAfterlife.BengaliHindus, of course,acceptthedoctrine of samsara,orthetransmigration of soulsfromoneearthlylifetoanother.Funerarycremations,practicedbynearlyallHinducastes,arethoughttoreleasetheindividual'sspiritualessenceorsoulfromitstransitoryphysicalbody.Bearingtheinfluence(karma) of alltheactions of itsjustter-minatedearthlyembodiment,thesoulthenisreincarnatedintoanewworldlyformandway of lifeshapedbythosepastactions.Normallyaman'seldestsoncarriesoutthefuneraryrites,lightingthefuneralpyreafterfirstplacingaburningstickinthemouth of thedeceased.Muslimbeliefsrequirethatatdeaththepersonberituallybathed,shrouded,andburiedinacoffinwiththeheadfacingtheholycity of Mecca,afterwhichtherefollowsafuneraryprayerceremonyideallyledbyeitherarelativeorarecognizedleader of thelocalMus-limcommunity.Thedeadarethoughttoenteranindefinitetransitionalstate-duringwhichthewickedbegintoexperi-encepunishmentandthevirtuousto...

... eldersisstressed.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Chakmasocietyishierarchicallyor-ganizedonthebasis of age,sex,occupation,power,religion,wealth,andeducation.Anolderpersonisinvariablyre-spectedbyayoungerperson.Thehusbandismorepowerfulthanthewifeinthefamily;andamanisaffordedmorestatusoutsidethefamily.PowerisunequallydistributedinChakmasociety(seebelow).Thesocietyisalsohierarchicallyor-ganizedonthebasis of religiousknowledgeandpracticeasfollows:monks,novices,religiouslydevotedlaymen,andcommoners.Educatedpersonswhoareengagedinnonagri-culturalworkareespeciallyrespected.Wealthalsoinfluencesbehaviorindifferentaspects of sociallife.PoliticalOrganization.Theentirehillregion of south- easternBangladesh(whichisdividedintothethreepoliticalandadministrativedistricts of Rangamati,Khagrachhari,andBandarban)isalsodividedintothreecircles,eachhavingitsownindigenousname:MongCircle,ChakmaCircle,andBohmangCircle.Eachcircle,withamultiethnicpopulation,isheadedbyarajaorindigenouschief,whoisresponsibleforthecollection of revenueandforregulatingtheinternalaf-fairs of villageswithinhiscircle.TheChakmaCircleisheadedbyaChakmaraja(theMongandBohmongcirclesbyMarmarajas).Unlikethesituationintheothertwocircles,ChakmaCircle'schieftaincyisstrictlyhereditary.Eachcircleissubdividedintonumerousmouzaor"reve-nuevillages"(alsoknownasgram,or'villages"),eachunderaheadman.Heisappointedbythedistrictcommissioneronthebasis of therecommendation of thelocalcirclechief.Thepost of headmanisnotintheoryhereditary,butinpracticeusuallyitis.Theheadmanhas,amongotherthings,tocollectrevenueandmaintainpeaceanddisciplinewithinhismouza.Finally,eachmouzacomprisesaboutfivetotenpara(alsocalledadam).Thesearehamlets,eachwithitsownkarbariorhamletchief.Heisappointedbythecirclechief,inconsulta-tionwiththeconcernedheadman.Thepost of karbarialsoisusuallyhereditary,butnotnecessarilyso.Eachhamletcom-prisesanumber of clusters of households.Thehead of ahouseholdorfamilyisusuallyaseniormalemember,thehus-bandorfather.Inadditiontothesetraditionalpoliticalarrangements(circle,village,andhamlet,eachhavingachieforhead),thelocalgovernmentsystem(imposedbythecentralgovem-ment)hasbeeninoperationsince1960.Fortheconvenience of administration,Bangladeshissplitintofourdivisions,eachunderadivisionalcommissioner.Eachoneisfurthersubdividedintozila,ordistricts.Theadministrativehead of azilaiscalledadeputycommissioner.Eachzilaconsists of sev-eralupazilaorsubdistricts,headedbyanelectedupazilachairman(electedbythepeople).Heisassistedbyagovern-mentofficerknownasupazilanirbahi,theofficerwhoisthechiefexecutivethere.Eachupazilaconsists of severalunionparishadorcouncils.AnelectedChairmanheadsaunionparishad.Severalgrammakeupaunionparishad.Thisad-ministrativesetupisalsofoundinthedistricts of thehillre-gion.TheChakmaandotherethnicminorityhillpeopleareincreasinglyacceptingthislocalgovernmentalsystembe-causethegovernmentundertakesdevelopmentprojectsthroughthisstructure.SocialControl.Traditionallythevillageheadmanwouldsettledisputes.Ifcontendingpartieswerenotsatisfiedwiththearbitration,theymightmakeanappealtotheChakmaraja,thecirclechief.Traditionallyhewasthehighestauthor-itytosettlealldisputes.Todaytheycanmovetothegovem-mentcourtsiftheyarenotsatisfiedwiththeraja'sjudgments.AlthoughChakmawereusuallyexpectedtogettheirdisputessettledeitherbytheheadmanorraja,theyarenowatlibertytogotothesecourts.Inrecenttimes,dependingonthena-tureandseriousness of disputes,theChakmaareincreasinglydoingthisratherthansettlingdisputeslocally.Conflict.Inthepast,theChakmafoughtagainsttheBrit-ishimperialgovernmentseveraltimesbutfailed.Inrecenttimes(since1975),theyhavebecomeaware of theirrights.Theydonotliketheinflux of thenontribalpopulationinthehillregion,andtheyconsideritanimportantcause of theirgrowingeconomichardships.Therefore,since1975,someChakma(andafewfromothertribes)havefoughttobanishnontribalpeoplefromthehillregion.Thegovernmentistry-ingtonegotiatewiththeChakmaandothertribalelitestosettlethismatter.Ithasalreadygivensomepolitical,eco-nomic,andadministrativepowerstoelectedrepresentatives of theChakmaandotherhillpeople.Theserepresentatives(whoaremostlyhillmen)aretryingtonegotiatewiththeChakma(andother)agitatorsonbehalf of thegovernment.Manydevelopmentprojectshavealsobeenundertakenbythegovernmentinthehillregion,sothattheeconomiccondition of theChakmaandotherethnicpeoplesmightimprovegradually.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheChakmaareBuddhists.ThereisaBuddhisttemple(kaang)inalmosteveryChakmavillage.TheygivegiftstothetempleandattendthedifferentBud-dhistfestivals.TheChakmafollowTheravadaBuddhism,theirofficialandformalreligion.Buddhismdominatestheirlife.Indeed,itisnowaunifyingforceinthesoutheasternhillregion of Bangladesh,asBuddhismisthecommonreligion of Chakma,Marma,Chak,andTanchangya.TheseethnicgroupscelebratetogetheratoneannualBuddhistfestivalcalledKathinChibarDan,inwhichtheymakeyam(fromcotton),giveitcolor,drytheyam,weavecloth(formonks),andformallypresentthiscloth(aftersewing)tothemonksinafunction.TheChakmaalsobelieveinmanyspiritbeings,includingafewHindugoddesses.Some of thesearemalevo-lentwhileothersarebenevolent.Theytrytopropitiatemalev-olentspiritsthroughtheexorcistsandspiritdoctors(baidyo).Theyalsobelieveinguardianspiritsthatprotectthem.Themalevolentspiritsarebelievedtocausediseasesanddestroycrops.ReligiousPractitioners.ManyChakmagotothetemplestolistentothesermons of themonksandnovices.Theyalsogivefoodtothemonks,novices,andtheBuddha'saltar.Themonksreadsermonsandparticipateinlife-cyclerituals,buttheydonottakepartinvillagegovernmentaffairs.Inaddi-tiontothemonks,exorcistsandbaidyoarebelievedtomedi-atebetweenhumansandthe world of spiritsthroughincanta-tions,charms,possession,andsympatheticactions.ChitpavanBrahman69ityinmanyChitpavans'speech.Thelasttracesmaybeseeninthepopulardidacticbook of shortsketchesbySaneGuruji(189 9-1 950),ShyamchiAi(Shyam'sMother),publishedin1933andstillreadforenjoyment,moraltales,anditsculturalimportance.HistoryandCulturalRelationsFromthebeginning of theeighteenthcenturytothecontem-poraryperiod,Chitpavanshaveplayedapartinthehistory of Indiafarbeyondtheirnumbers.Unheard of beforethelateseventeenthcentury,theChitpavansbegantheirrisetofamewiththeappointment of BalajiVishwanathBhataspeshwa(primeminister)toShahu,thegrandson of thefounder of theMarathaKingdom,Shivaji.Balajiraisedtheoffice of thepeshwatodefactorule of theMarathaEmpire,andfrom1713untiltheirdefeatbytheBritishin1818,thepeshwasruledone of thelastlargeindependentkingdomsinIndia.Duringthisperiod,ChitpavansfromtheKonkanjoinedthemilitaryandadministrativeranks of theMarathaEmpireinlargenumbers.Chitpavansservednotonlyinthecities of theMarathi-speakingareabutalsointheotherkingdoms of theMarathaexpansion:Gwalior,Baroda,Indore.EvenaftertheBritishvictoryoverthepeshwa,one of theimportantChitpavanadministrativefamilies,that of thePatwardhans,waslefttorulesevensmallprincelystatesinsouthernMarathaterritory.Thepeshwahimselfwasexiledtothenorthlestheformanucleus of rebellion,andtheBritishruledwhatthenbecamepart of BombayPresidency.NanaSaheb,theheir of thepeshwa,becamefromhisexilenearKanpur(Cawnpore)one of theimportantfiguresinthe1857rebel-lionagainsttheBritish.UnderBritishrule,theChitpavansquicklytooktoEng-lisheducation,andmost of thefamousnames of Marathahistoryfromthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesarefromthiscaste:theearlyreformerandessayistHariGopalDeshmukh(Lokahitawadi)(182 3-1 892);reformersandna-tionalistsonanall-IndiascaleMahadeoGovindRanade(184 2-1 901)andGopalKrishnaGokhale(186 6-1 915),whomGandhicalledone of hisgurus;themostfamousMaharashtrianwoman of thenineteenthcentury,educatorandChristianconvertPanditaRamabai(185 8-1 922);theradicalpatriotBalGangadhar(Lokamanya)Tilak(185 6- 1920);theHindurevivalistVinayakDamodarSavarkar(189 3-1 966);orientalistsPandurangVamanKane(188 0- 1972)andRamchandraNarayanDandekar(b.1909);econ-omistD.R.Gadgil(190 1-1 971);MahatmaGandhi's"spiri-tualsuccessor,"VinobaBhave(189 5-1 982);anthropologistIravatiKarve(190 5-1 970);cricketerD.B.Deodhar(b.1891);andmanyothers.EvenMaharashtra's"terrorists"wereChitpavan,fromthenineteenth-centuryrebelWasudeoBalwantPhadke,throughtheChapekarbrothersinthe1890s,toNathuramVinayakGodse,Gandhi'sassassinin1948.Thenationalistactivities of theChitpavans,bothradi-calandmoderate,causedconsiderablehatredandfearonthepart of someBritons,andtherearemanyreferencestothear-rogantand"untrustworthy"ChitpavansintheRajliterature.Maharashtrianstodayarejustifiablyproud of themanycon-tributionstoIndiannationalismmadebyChitpavans.Withtherise of Gandhiafter1920,theMaharashtraareaceasedtobeamaincenter of Indianpoliticallife,andsuchChitpavanpoliticalfiguresasTilak'ssuccessor, N. C.Kelkar,hadlittlepoweronthenationalscene.Thenon-Brahmanpoliticalmovementbroughtthelargecaste of theMarathastothefore,anditisclaimedthatChitpavan N. R.Gadgilbroughtthenon-BrahmanleadershipintotheIndianNationalCongresstostrengthenthat chiefnationalistgroup.Thenon-Brahmansthendominatedbysheernumbersandanewfoundsense of theirimportanceinthepreviouslyBrahman-dominatedpoliticalarena.Bythetime of Indianindependence,noBrahmanwasimportantintheCongressparty.LaterChitpavanpoliticalskillwasexertedontheLeftandontheRight,notinthemoderateIndianNationalCon-gress.ImportantSocialistsareS.M.Joshi(b.1904), N. G.Goray(b.1907),andcurrentlyMadhuLimaye(b.1922),al-thoughthesehavenotbeenaswellknownonthenationalstageaswereTilak,Gokhale,orRanade.ChitpavansdominatedtheMarathi-speakingareaad-ministratively,culturally,economically,andeducation-ally-infact,ineveryfieldexceptritualreligion-sincetheirfirstappearanceinwesternIndiainthelateseventeenthcen-turyuntilthedecadesjustbeforeIndianindependence.Thisdominanceeventuallyresultedinastronganti-Brahmanfeel-ingthatsurfacedviolentlyafterthedeath of Gandhiin1948atthehands of aChitpavanBrahman.Riotinganddestruc-tioninBombay,Nagpur,andabeltfromPunetoKolhapurdroveChitpavans(andoftenotherBrahmans)tolargecities,out of governmentservice,andintostillmorenewpursuits.MostChitpavanfamiliesnowhaveatleastonememberwork-inginprofessionallifeinEuropeortheUnitedStates.EconomyTheoccupation of theChitpavansintheiroriginalterritory of theKonkanwasfarming,withsomeincomefromperform-ingritualamongtheirowncaste.However,theyoftenwerethekhots of aKonkanivillage,apositioncombiningthehead-manshipandthefinancialwork of thevillage.Inotherareas of Maharashtra,Brahmanswerethevillageaccountants,butthehead of thevillagewas of aMarathacaste.Thecombina-tion of thetworesponsibilitiesputpowerintothehands of asinglehead,andthereweremanyeffortstoreformthekhotisysteminthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies.Chit-pavansrarelytookupagriculturalworkaftertheirmigration,nordidtheybecomeritualpriestsexceptwithintheirowncaste.Many,however,becameteachersandrecognizedSan-skritscholars.Some of thebestknownBrahmanscholarsinthesacredcity of VaranasiwereChitpavanmigrants.Fromthenineteenthcenturyontheyhaveenteredtheprofessionsinlargenumbers.Theearlyentrance of theChitpavansintonewoccupationsandpursuitscausedtheRatnagiriDistrictGazetteer of thelatenineteenthcenturytodescribethemas.averyfrugal,pushing,active,intelligent,well-taught,astute,self-confidentandoverbearingclass[following]almostallcallingsandgenerallywithsuccess."A1920censuslist of theiroccupationsreads:governmentservice,lawyers,engi-neers,doctors,bankers,priests,writers,landowners,andhusbandmenn"(farmers).One of thefirstMaharashtrianin-dustrialistswasVishnuRamchandraVelankar(b.1890),founder of GajananWeavingMills.RecentlyChitpavanshaveenteredhigh-techindustryandbusiness.Chin65itistosomeextentatleastconveyableinmarriage-pricesorbysale,andyetitisfarfromanabsoluteparamountright.Forinstance,itisarguablewhetherconveyance of ownershipthroughmarriagepaymentsorsalecaneverbeoutrightalien-ationsratherthanmerelong-termmortgagings.AtleastintheHaka(Lai)area of centralChinState,individualhouse-holdsandpersonscanhaveheritable,evenconveyablerights(withinvillagelimits,perhaps)overindividualcultivationplotsinoneormorecultivationtracts,forwhichtheownerowespaymentstothechieflyparamountownerthatareinthenature of bothtaxandrent.Yetshouldthesepaymentsnotbemade,thefieldownertechnicallycannotbeevicted-thoughhemaybeexiled,physicallyassaulted,orevenkilled,becausethefailure of paymentisarejection of constitutedauthority.Fruittrees,honeybeehives,andotherexploitableitemsonthelandmayalsobeindividuallyownedandconveyed.Housesitesareownedsubjecttotheright of residenceinthevillageatthepleasure of constitutedvillageauthority.Nowa-daysmuch of thelandhaspassedintotrueprivateownership,especiallywheremodemcommercialcropsorapatch of irri-gatedricearegrown,moresoperhapsontheIndianside of theborderthaninMyanmar.Butinbothcountriestherearelegalrestrictionsontheright of nonnativeinhabitantstoownlandintheChin-Lushaicountry.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Descentisagnatic,withepony-mousclansandlineagesthattendtosegmentfrequently:ingeneralonefindsmaximallineagesandmajorandminorseg-ments,theminorsegmentoftenbeingcoextensivewiththehousehold.Oftenonlytheminimallineagesegmentisstrictlyexogamous-andtherapidity of segmentationcanoftenoverrideeventhatproscription,sothatmarriagebetweenevenhalf-siblingsisinparts of ChinStatenotnecessarilypenalized-thoughatleastthelegalfictionthatclansarethemselvesexogamousiscommonlymaintained.Postnuptialresidenceisusuallyvirilocal,anditisviripatrilocalinthecase of thesonwhowillinherithisparent'shouse.Daughtersal-waysmarryout of thehouseholdandnoninheritingsonsmarryneolocally.Althoughpolygynyisallowed,it ... chiefnationalistgroup.Thenon-Brahmansthendominatedbysheernumbersandanewfoundsense of theirimportanceinthepreviouslyBrahman-dominatedpoliticalarena.Bythetime of Indianindependence,noBrahmanwasimportantintheCongressparty.LaterChitpavanpoliticalskillwasexertedontheLeftandontheRight,notinthemoderateIndianNationalCon-gress.ImportantSocialistsareS.M.Joshi(b.1904), N. G.Goray(b.1907),andcurrentlyMadhuLimaye(b.1922),al-thoughthesehavenotbeenaswellknownonthenationalstageaswereTilak,Gokhale,orRanade.ChitpavansdominatedtheMarathi-speakingareaad-ministratively,culturally,economically,andeducation-ally-infact,ineveryfieldexceptritualreligion-sincetheirfirstappearanceinwesternIndiainthelateseventeenthcen-turyuntilthedecadesjustbeforeIndianindependence.Thisdominanceeventuallyresultedinastronganti-Brahmanfeel-ingthatsurfacedviolentlyafterthedeath of Gandhiin1948atthehands of aChitpavanBrahman.Riotinganddestruc-tioninBombay,Nagpur,andabeltfromPunetoKolhapurdroveChitpavans(andoftenotherBrahmans)tolargecities,out of governmentservice,andintostillmorenewpursuits.MostChitpavanfamiliesnowhaveatleastonememberwork-inginprofessionallifeinEuropeortheUnitedStates.EconomyTheoccupation of theChitpavansintheiroriginalterritory of theKonkanwasfarming,withsomeincomefromperform-ingritualamongtheirowncaste.However,theyoftenwerethekhots of aKonkanivillage,apositioncombiningthehead-manshipandthefinancialwork of thevillage.Inotherareas of Maharashtra,Brahmanswerethevillageaccountants,butthehead of thevillagewas of aMarathacaste.Thecombina-tion of thetworesponsibilitiesputpowerintothehands of asinglehead,andthereweremanyeffortstoreformthekhotisysteminthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies.Chit-pavansrarelytookupagriculturalworkaftertheirmigration,nordidtheybecomeritualpriestsexceptwithintheirowncaste.Many,however,becameteachersandrecognizedSan-skritscholars.Some of thebestknownBrahmanscholarsinthesacredcity of VaranasiwereChitpavanmigrants.Fromthenineteenthcenturyontheyhaveenteredtheprofessionsinlargenumbers.Theearlyentrance of theChitpavansintonewoccupationsandpursuitscausedtheRatnagiriDistrictGazetteer of thelatenineteenthcenturytodescribethemas.averyfrugal,pushing,active,intelligent,well-taught,astute,self-confidentandoverbearingclass[following]almostallcallingsandgenerallywithsuccess."A1920censuslist of theiroccupationsreads:governmentservice,lawyers,engi-neers,doctors,bankers,priests,writers,landowners,andhusbandmenn"(farmers).One of thefirstMaharashtrianin-dustrialistswasVishnuRamchandraVelankar(b.1890),founder of GajananWeavingMills.RecentlyChitpavanshaveenteredhigh-techindustryandbusiness.Chin65itistosomeextentatleastconveyableinmarriage-pricesorbysale,andyetitisfarfromanabsoluteparamountright.Forinstance,itisarguablewhetherconveyance of ownershipthroughmarriagepaymentsorsalecaneverbeoutrightalien-ationsratherthanmerelong-termmortgagings.AtleastintheHaka(Lai)area of centralChinState,individualhouse-holdsandpersonscanhaveheritable,evenconveyablerights(withinvillagelimits,perhaps)overindividualcultivationplotsinoneormorecultivationtracts,forwhichtheownerowespaymentstothechieflyparamountownerthatareinthenature of bothtaxandrent.Yetshouldthesepaymentsnotbemade,thefieldownertechnicallycannotbeevicted-thoughhemaybeexiled,physicallyassaulted,orevenkilled,becausethefailure of paymentisarejection of constitutedauthority.Fruittrees,honeybeehives,andotherexploitableitemsonthelandmayalsobeindividuallyownedandconveyed.Housesitesareownedsubjecttotheright of residenceinthevillageatthepleasure of constitutedvillageauthority.Nowa-daysmuch of thelandhaspassedintotrueprivateownership,especiallywheremodemcommercialcropsorapatch of irri-gatedricearegrown,moresoperhapsontheIndianside of theborderthaninMyanmar.Butinbothcountriestherearelegalrestrictionsontheright of nonnativeinhabitantstoownlandintheChin-Lushaicountry.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Descentisagnatic,withepony-mousclansandlineagesthattendtosegmentfrequently:ingeneralonefindsmaximallineagesandmajorandminorseg-ments,theminorsegmentoftenbeingcoextensivewiththehousehold.Oftenonlytheminimallineagesegmentisstrictlyexogamous-andtherapidity of segmentationcanoftenoverrideeventhatproscription,sothatmarriagebetweenevenhalf-siblingsisinparts of ChinStatenotnecessarilypenalized-thoughatleastthelegalfictionthatclansarethemselvesexogamousiscommonlymaintained.Postnuptialresidenceisusuallyvirilocal,anditisviripatrilocalinthecase of thesonwhowillinherithisparent'shouse.Daughtersal-waysmarryout of thehouseholdandnoninheritingsonsmarryneolocally.Althoughpolygynyisallowed,it ... chiefnationalistgroup.Thenon-Brahmansthendominatedbysheernumbersandanewfoundsense of theirimportanceinthepreviouslyBrahman-dominatedpoliticalarena.Bythetime of Indianindependence,noBrahmanwasimportantintheCongressparty.LaterChitpavanpoliticalskillwasexertedontheLeftandontheRight,notinthemoderateIndianNationalCon-gress.ImportantSocialistsareS.M.Joshi(b.1904), N. G.Goray(b.1907),andcurrentlyMadhuLimaye(b.1922),al-thoughthesehavenotbeenaswellknownonthenationalstageaswereTilak,Gokhale,orRanade.ChitpavansdominatedtheMarathi-speakingareaad-ministratively,culturally,economically,andeducation-ally-infact,ineveryfieldexceptritualreligion-sincetheirfirstappearanceinwesternIndiainthelateseventeenthcen-turyuntilthedecadesjustbeforeIndianindependence.Thisdominanceeventuallyresultedinastronganti-Brahmanfeel-ingthatsurfacedviolentlyafterthedeath of Gandhiin1948atthehands of aChitpavanBrahman.Riotinganddestruc-tioninBombay,Nagpur,andabeltfromPunetoKolhapurdroveChitpavans(andoftenotherBrahmans)tolargecities,out of governmentservice,andintostillmorenewpursuits.MostChitpavanfamiliesnowhaveatleastonememberwork-inginprofessionallifeinEuropeortheUnitedStates.EconomyTheoccupation of theChitpavansintheiroriginalterritory of theKonkanwasfarming,withsomeincomefromperform-ingritualamongtheirowncaste.However,theyoftenwerethekhots of aKonkanivillage,apositioncombiningthehead-manshipandthefinancialwork of thevillage.Inotherareas of Maharashtra,Brahmanswerethevillageaccountants,butthehead of thevillagewas of aMarathacaste.Thecombina-tion of thetworesponsibilitiesputpowerintothehands of asinglehead,andthereweremanyeffortstoreformthekhotisysteminthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies.Chit-pavansrarelytookupagriculturalworkaftertheirmigration,nordidtheybecomeritualpriestsexceptwithintheirowncaste.Many,however,becameteachersandrecognizedSan-skritscholars.Some of thebestknownBrahmanscholarsinthesacredcity of VaranasiwereChitpavanmigrants.Fromthenineteenthcenturyontheyhaveenteredtheprofessionsinlargenumbers.Theearlyentrance of theChitpavansintonewoccupationsandpursuitscausedtheRatnagiriDistrictGazetteer of thelatenineteenthcenturytodescribethemas.averyfrugal,pushing,active,intelligent,well-taught,astute,self-confidentandoverbearingclass[following]almostallcallingsandgenerallywithsuccess."A1920censuslist of theiroccupationsreads:governmentservice,lawyers,engi-neers,doctors,bankers,priests,writers,landowners,andhusbandmenn"(farmers).One of thefirstMaharashtrianin-dustrialistswasVishnuRamchandraVelankar(b.1890),founder of GajananWeavingMills.RecentlyChitpavanshaveenteredhigh-techindustryandbusiness.Chin65itistosomeextentatleastconveyableinmarriage-pricesorbysale,andyetitisfarfromanabsoluteparamountright.Forinstance,itisarguablewhetherconveyance of ownershipthroughmarriagepaymentsorsalecaneverbeoutrightalien-ationsratherthanmerelong-termmortgagings.AtleastintheHaka(Lai)area of centralChinState,individualhouse-holdsandpersonscanhaveheritable,evenconveyablerights(withinvillagelimits,perhaps)overindividualcultivationplotsinoneormorecultivationtracts,forwhichtheownerowespaymentstothechieflyparamountownerthatareinthenature of bothtaxandrent.Yetshouldthesepaymentsnotbemade,thefieldownertechnicallycannotbeevicted-thoughhemaybeexiled,physicallyassaulted,orevenkilled,becausethefailure of paymentisarejection of constitutedauthority.Fruittrees,honeybeehives,andotherexploitableitemsonthelandmayalsobeindividuallyownedandconveyed.Housesitesareownedsubjecttotheright of residenceinthevillageatthepleasure of constitutedvillageauthority.Nowa-daysmuch of thelandhaspassedintotrueprivateownership,especiallywheremodemcommercialcropsorapatch of irri-gatedricearegrown,moresoperhapsontheIndianside of theborderthaninMyanmar.Butinbothcountriestherearelegalrestrictionsontheright of nonnativeinhabitantstoownlandintheChin-Lushaicountry.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Descentisagnatic,withepony-mousclansandlineagesthattendtosegmentfrequently:ingeneralonefindsmaximallineagesandmajorandminorseg-ments,theminorsegmentoftenbeingcoextensivewiththehousehold.Oftenonlytheminimallineagesegmentisstrictlyexogamous-andtherapidity of segmentationcanoftenoverrideeventhatproscription,sothatmarriagebetweenevenhalf-siblingsisinparts of ChinStatenotnecessarilypenalized-thoughatleastthelegalfictionthatclansarethemselvesexogamousiscommonlymaintained.Postnuptialresidenceisusuallyvirilocal,anditisviripatrilocalinthecase of thesonwhowillinherithisparent'shouse.Daughtersal-waysmarryout of thehouseholdandnoninheritingsonsmarryneolocally.Althoughpolygynyisallowed,it...

... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0' N, withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0' N, withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0' N, withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of theEurasianchain of thatlanguagestock.Thereisanunderlyingcomponent of Tamil-Malayalam.SinceconversiontoIslam,numerousAra-bicandPersianwordshavebeenborrowed.Thebounds of thelanguageareclear,butthethreesouthernatollsandMalikuhavetheirowndialects.Thescriptisunique,inventedforDivehithreecenturiesagofromacombination of ArabicandIndianprinciples of script.Itsuitsthelanguagewellandiseasytolearn.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheMaldiveswereknowntoveryearlyIndianseafarers,suchassailedfromGujaratinthemiddle of thefirstmillenniumB.c.andsettledinSriLanka,andarementionedinearlyworkssuchastheBuddhistJdtakatalesandtheSriLankanepics.EarlysettlementwasevidentlyfromKerala,diffusedthroughtheLakshadvip(Laccadive)Islandsbyfishermenandbythekings of Keralawhomadeconquestsbysea,accordingtoTamilliterature of theearlycenturiesA.D.TheMaldiveswereperhapstouchedbyIndonesianculture(whichpassedthroughtoMadagascar)roughlyatthesametime,andtheis-landswerewellknowntoclassicalGreekgeographers.Per.siansbegantradingabouttheseventhcentury.ThecountrywasconqueredseveraltimesbyTamilandKeralakingsinmedievalcenturies.ThemostsignificantsettlementwasbySinhalasfromSriLanka,perhapsbypoliticalexiles,whichgavetheMaldivestheirlanguage,theoldSinhalascript,TheravadaBuddhism,andSriLankanbeliefsandfoods.This...

... herdeceasedhusband.Socialization.Theambition of everyGondwomanistobearason.Barrennessinawomanisconsideredacurse.Preg-nancyandbirtharesurroundedwithprotectiveritesagainstmagicspellsandevilinfluences.Childrenaregenerallywel-comeandtreatedwithaffection.Althoughsonsarepreferred,daughtersarewelcometoo.Childrengrowupwithoutmuchrestriction,butthecommunityteachesthemcorrectbehav-ior.Childrenareearlyinvitedtotakeoversometasks,firstplayfully,theninearnest.Boysspontaneouslyseemtoprefermalecompany,whilegirlsseemtogravitatenaturallytowardotherfemales.Thechangetoadulthoodisgradual;thereisnoinitiationceremony.Thefirstmenstruation of agirlisnotspeciallycelebrated,butshedoeslearninadvancewhatpro-hibitionsshehastoobserve.OnlythreeGondsectionsinthe south haveyouthdormitories,andonlytheMuriasusethedormitoryfortheeducation of youthinmarriedandciviclife.TheotherGondsectionshavenodormitorysystem.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.SincetheGondsarespreadoverawidearea,therearemanylocalsubsectionsthathavenoso-cialcontactwitheachother.ThemoreSanskritizedthesesec-tionsare,thehigheristhesocialranktheyclaim.Butthehighestrankisgiventothedescendants of theGondrajasandtheirretainers,theRaj-GondsandKatholias.Amongthesetwosectionswefindthegreatestnumber of Gondswithsubstantiallandholdings.OtherGondsectionsoutside of GondavanaaretheKisans,inthe south of Biharandintheneighboringdistricts of Orissa.TheGondsreachedeventhehillsalongthesouthernbank of theGanges.TheretheyareknownasMajwarsorMajhis(headmen).AkintotheGondsareanumber of othertribes,suchastheBhattras,Koyas,KondaKapus,KondaDeras,andHalbas.TheKhonds of Orissa,anotherimportanttribe,alsomayoriginallyhavebeenGonds.PoliticalOrganization.TheentireGondtribewasneverapoliticalunit.Tribalsolidaritydoesnotextendbeyondtheconfines of asubsection.ThebasicpoliticalunitistheGondvillagecommunity.Itisademocraticorganizationinwhichtheheadmanandotherofficialsarechosenbythevillagers.Eachvillagehasitscouncil,withofficialsliketheheadman,thepriest,thevillagewatchman,andfourorfiveelders.Moreimportantaffairsarediscussedanddecideduponbyallthemen of thecommunity.Avillagehasalsoitsservantcastes,suchastheAhir(cowherds),Agaria(blacksmiths),Dhulia(drummers),andPardhan(bardsandsingers).Atthetowns of Garha-Mandla,Kharla,Deogarh,andChanda,theleadingheadmenmanagedtorisetotherank of rulers(rajas)andtoestablishdynastiesthatlastedforcenturies.ButtheveryfactthattheserajassurroundedthemselveswithHinduofficialsandeagerlyadoptedHinduorMogulmethods of administra-tionprovesthatroyaltywasalientotribaldemocracy.InthepresentpoliticalsituationtheGondsare,despitetheirnum-bers,politicallypowerless,whichispartlybecause of thistri-baldisunitybutalsobecause of theircomparativelack of edu-cationanddrive,andtheirgreatpoverty.ThosefewGondswhoaremembers of thelegislativeassembliesoreventhena-tionalparliament(LokSabha)areeitheralienatedfromtheirtribalcultureoreasilymanipulatedbyotherpoliticians.ConflictandSocialControl.Insettlingdisputesthecourt of firstinstanceisthevillagecouncil(panch),whichispre-sidedoverbytheheadman.Usuallyitstrivestorestorehar-monybetweenthelitigantsratherthantoimplementcus-tomarylaw.Asettlementcommonlyinvolvesafine,orex-communicationinvaryingdegrees.Thosewhooffendagainsttherule of clanexogamyincursupernaturalsanctions.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thereligion of theGondsdoesnotdif-fermuchfromthat of thenumerousothertribesincentralIndia.Likethem,theGondsbelieveinahighgodwhomtheycalleitherbyhisHinduname,"Bhagwan,"orbyhistribalname,"BaraDeo,"the"GreatGod."Butheisanotiosedeityandisrarelyworshiped,thoughhisnameisofteninvoked.Heisapersonalgod-eternal,just,merciful,maker of thefertileearthand of man-thoughtheuniverseisconceivedascoex-istingwithhim.IntheGondbeliefsystem,besidesthishighgodtherealsoexistagreatnumber of maleandfemaledeitiesandspiritsthatpersonifyvariousnaturalfeatures.Everyhill,river,lake,tree,androckisinhabitedbyaspirit.Theearth,water,andairareruledbydeitiesthatmustbeveneratedandappeasedwithsacrificesandofferings.Thesedeitiesandspir-itsmaybebenevolent,butoftentheyarecapricious,malevo-lent,andpronetoharminghumanbeings,especiallyindivid-ualswhohavemadethemselvesvulnerablebybreakingarule of thetribalcode.Thedeitiesandspirits,especiallytheances-torspirits,watchoverthestrictobservance of thetribalrulesandpunishoffenders.ReligiousPractitioners.Gondsdistinguishbetweenpriestsandmagicians.Thevillagepriestisappointedbythevillagecouncil;however,hisappointmentisoftenhereditary.Hisresponsibilityistoperformallthesacrificesheldatcer-tainfeastsforthevillagecommunityforwhichhereceivesaspecialremuneration.Sacrificesandreligiousceremoniesonfamilyoccasionsareusuallyperformedbythehead of thefamily.Thedivinersandmagicians,ontheotherhand,areunofficialcharismaticintermediariesbetweenthesupernat-ural world andhumanbeings.TheGonds,liketheothertri-bals of centralIndia,believethatmostdiseasesandmisfor-tunesarecausedbythemachinations of evilspiritsandoffendeddeities.Itisthetask of thesoothsayersanddivinerstofindoutwhichsupernaturalagencieshavecausedthepres-entsicknessormisfortuneandhowtheycanbeappeased.Ifsoothsayersanddivinerscannothelp,magiciansandsha-mansmustbeemployed.Magiciansbelievethatbymagicfor-mulasanddevicestheycanforceaparticulardeityorspirittocarryouttheircommands.Shamansarepersonswhoeasilyfallintotrancesandarethenbelievedtobepossessedbydei-tiesorspiritsthatprophesythroughtheirmouths.Thesefre-quentecstasiesdonotseemtohaveanydetrimentalmentalorphysicaleffectsontheshamans,whomaybemaleorfe-male.Magicmaybe"white"or"black":itiswhiteifitcoun-teractsblackmagicoreffectsacurewhenasicknesshasbeenGaro83thebeginningsilentbarterwaspossiblebecauseeachpartyunderstoodfromlonginvolvementtherespectivevalues of theirgoods.Thisprocesshascontinuedtothepresent,withincreasinginvolvement of tradersfromneighboringareas,andhasnowbecomefullymonetized.Cotton,ginger,anddriedchiliesproducedbytheGarosaresoldtothetraders.TheGarosinturnpurchasepottery,metallictools,andotherindustrialgoodssuchasclothfromthetraders.Division of Labor.Thedivision of laborbetweenmembers of thehouseholdisasfollows:themalesareresponsibleforclearingjungleandsettingfiretothedebrisforshiftingculti-vation,whilewomenareresponsibleforplanting,weeding,andharvesting.Duringthepeak of theagriculturalopera-tionsthemensometimeshelpthewomen.Constructionandrepair of thehousearemaleduties.Menmakebaskets,whilewomencarrycropsfromthefieldandfirewoodfromjungle.Womenlookafterthekitchenandpreparebeer,andmenservethebeertoguests.Womenrearthechildrenandkeepthedomesticanimals.Bothmenandwomensellfirewoodandvegetablesinthemarket.LandTenure.Landforshiftingcultivationisownedbytheclan.Eachvillagehasatraditionallydemarcatedarea of itsowntermedadok.Thisareaissubdividedintoplotsthatareusedforcultivationinacyclicorder.Theplotsaredistrib-utedtothefamilies.Allotment of thegeneralplotsisdonebycommonconsensus of thevillageelders,buttheflatareaforpermanentwetcultivationisownedbyindividuals.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheGarosreckontheirkinshipthroughthemother.Individualsmeasurethedegree of theirrelationshiptooneanotherbythedistance of theirmatrilin-eages.Formen,children of theirsistersorsisters'daughtersareveryimportantkin.Forwomen,children of theirsisters'daughtersareequivalenttothose of theirowndaughters.KinshipTerminology.ThekinshiptermsusedbytheGarosformaset,whichisbroadenoughsothateachGarocanbeassignedaterm.Thetermsarearrangedinasystemthatclassifiesthekin.Thisclassificationisbasedonnineprinciples,asfollows:(1)sex,(2)generation,(3)relativeage,(4)moietymembership,(5)collaterality,(6)inheritance,(7)type of wife,(8)intimacy of relationship,(9)speaker'ssex.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Descentismatrilineal,residenceuxorilocal.Themother'sbrother'sdaughtertype of cross-cousinmar-riageisthemostwidelyacceptedandprevalentamongthepeople.Itisarigidcustomthatamanmustmarryawomanfromtheoppositechatchi(moiety).Therule of chatchiexogamystipulatesthataman'smother'sfatherwillbeintheoppositechatchiandaman'swife'spotentialhusbandswillbeinhisownchatchi.Aftermarriageamankeepsuphisrela-tionwithhismachong(clan).Hisrelationwithreferencetohiswife'smachongisdesignatedasgachi.Marriageestab-lishesapermanentrelationbetweentwomachong,knownasakim.Aftermarriage,amalemovestotheresidence of hiswife.Inthecase of anokrom(husband of theheiress of prop-erty),marriagedoesnotcreateanewhouseholdbutratheraddsanewleaseonlifetoanoldhousehold.Evenafterthedeathordivorce of aspousetheakimrelationcontinues.Itistheresponsibility of thedeceased'smachongtoprovideare-placementspousetothesurvivingpartner.DomesticUnit.Thehouseholdistheprimaryproductionandconsumptionunit.AGarohouseholdcomprisesparents,unmarriedsonsanddaughters,amarrieddaughter(heiress),andherhusbandandtheirchildren.Inprincipleamarriedgranddaughterandherchildrenshouldbeincluded,butinre.alitygrandparentsrarelysurvivetoseetheirgrandchildrenmarried.Somehouseholdsmay-forshortperiodsonly-includedistantrelativesornonrelatedpersonsforvariousreasons.Inheritance.PropertyamongtheGarosisinheritedinthefemaleline.One of thedaughtersisselectedbytheparentstobetheheiress.Ifthecouplehavenofemalechild,agirlbe-longingtothemachong of thewife(preferablythedaughter of hersister,whetherrealorclassificatory)isadoptedtobeanheiress.Sheisnotconsideredtobetheabsoluteowner of theproperty.Decisionaboutthedisposal of propertyistakenbyherhusband,whoisconsideredtobethehouseholdauthority(nokniskotong).Afterthedeath of thefather-in-lawresponsi-bilitytransferstotheson-in-law.Ifadeadmanissurvivedbyawidow,shestaysinthefamily of herdaughterandissome-timesreferredtoasanadditionalwife(Uk) of herdaughter'shusband.Socialization.Childrenstarthelpingtheirmothertolookaftertheinfantswhentheirmotherisbusywithwork.Todaytherearedifferenteducationalinstitutions-namely,themis-sionschoolsandotherIndianestablishments-thatactasmajoragents of education.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InGarosocietythemostimportantsocialgroupisthemachong(clan).Amachongisanexoga-mousmatrilinealdescentgroupwhereinaGaroisautomati-callyassignedbybirthtotheunilinealgroup of hismother.Achatchi(moiety)isdividedintomanymachong.Eachmar-riedcouplechoosesonedaughter-or,iftheyhavenone,theyadoptacloserelative of themother-tobeheiress(noknadongipikamechik) of thefamily.Herhusbandtradi-tionallyisselectedfromthelineagegroup of thefatherandisacceptedasthenokrom of thehouse.Heresideswithhiswifeinherparents'house.Hehastotakeontheresponsibility of lookingafterhisparents-in-lawduringtheiroldage,andhiswifeinheritstheproperty.PoliticalOrganization.Traditionally,theGaroswerenotapoliticallyorganizedsociety,andeventodaythereexistsnoclear-cutpoliticalstructure.Chieftainshipinvolvesreligiousfunctionsonly.SocialControl.Thekinshipsystem,thekinshipbond,andtherelatedvaluesystemactasaneffectivemeans of socialcontrol.Formerlythebachelors'dormitorieswereimportantagents of socialcontrol.Conflict.AmongtheGarosmostdisputesariseovertheis-sues of property,inheritance,anddomesticquarrelswithinthefamily.Suchproblemsaretoalargeextentsettledbythemahari(lineage) of theoffendedandtheoffender.Anewsit-uationdevelopswhensomeone'scattlecausedamagetoan-other'scrops.Insuchasituationthenokma(villagehead-man)actsasanintermediaryonly.IfhefailstosettletheGurung95PoliticalOrganization.Until1962theGurungvillagesweregovernedbyhereditaryclanleadersandvillagehead-men.In1962thenationalgovernmentinstitutedanelectoralsystemwherebyvillagesaregroupedtogetherinunits of five,calledpanchayats,anddividedintoneighborhoodsorwardsfromwhichlocalcouncillorsareelected.Theelectoratealsochoosesapradhanpancheanduperpradhan(likeamayorandvicemayor,respectively)toleadthepanchayat.SocialControl.Gossipandfear of witchattackarecom-monmeans of socialcontrol.Thelocalcouncilisabletolevyfinesagainstpanchayatresidents,andforseriouscrimesgov-ernmentpolicemaybecalledin.Conflict.Disputesareoftenresolvedbyelderstrustedbythepartiesinvolved.Ifthisdoesnotprovideasolutionthentheymaybebroughtbeforethevillagecouncilor,asalastre-sort,tothedistrictcourt.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheGurungspracticeaform of TibetanBuddhismstronglyinfluencedbythepre-Buddhistreligion of Tibet,andtheyalsoobservemajorHindufestivals,suchasDasain.Theybelieveinsometenets of BuddhismandHindu-ism,suchaskarma,yettheyhaveaset of beliefsaboutanaf-terlifeintheLand of theAncestorsandinlocaldeitiesthatarepeculiarlyGurung.Gurungsbelievetheirlocaletobein-habitedbysupernaturalforestcreaturesandbyavariety of formlesswraithsandspirits.Some of theseexistinand of themselves,whileothersarebelievedtobethespirits of hu-manswhohavediedviolentdeaths.GurungsbelieveinthemajorHindudeitiesandintheBuddhaandbodhisattvas.Particularvillageshavetheirowndeities,whicharefelttobeespeciallypowerfulintheirimmediatesurroundings.ReligiousPractitioners.Practitioners of thepre-BuddhistGurungreligion,calledpanjuandklihbri,areactiveintheperformance of exorcismsandmortuaryrites.Buddhistlamasarealsoimportantinfuneraryrituals,aswellasperformingpurificationritesforinfantsandsomeseasonalagriculturalrituals.WealthierGurungsoccasionallycalllamasintoper-formhouse-blessingceremonies.Brahmanpriestsaresum-monedtocasthoroscopesandperformdivinationsattimes of misfortune.Dammisfromthelocalservicecastesarebelievedtobeparticularlypotentexorcistsandareoftencalledincases of illness.Arts.Gurungsmakenothingthattheywouldidentifyasart.Thegoodsthattheyproduce,suchasbasketsandblan-kets,areusefulandtendtobe of aconventionalplaindesign.Theartistry of Gurungsisexpressedintheirfolkmusicanddanceandespeciallyintheevanescentform of songex-changesbetweenyoungmenandwomen.Medicine.Gurungsoftenemployexorcistsaswellassci-entificdrugswhensufferingfromanillness.Scientificmedi-cineishighlyvalued,butitiscostlyandisnoteasilyavailableinruralareas.Herbsandplantsarealsousedintreatingill-nessandinjury.DeathandAfterlife.Deathis of centralsymbolicimpor-tanceforGurungs.Thefuneraryritual(pae)isthemaincere-monialoccasioninGurungsociety,involvingtwonightsandthreedays of ritualactivity.Itisattendedbykin,villagers,andalargenumber of peoplewhocomefortheconvivialityandspectacle.Buddhistlamasandthepanjuandklihbripriests of thepre-Buddhistreligionmayofficiateatthepae.Deathisbelievedtoinvolvethedissolution of elementsthatmakeupthebody,sothattheearthelementreturnstoearth,airtoair,firetofire,andwatertowater.Thisprocessleavestheplahorsouls(nineformenandsevenforwomen),whichmustbesentthroughtheperformance of thepaetotheLand of theAncestors.Therelifecontinuesmuchasitdoesinthepresent world, andfromtherethespiritcantakeotherrebirths.SeealsoGurkha;NepaliBibliographyMacfarlane,Alan(1976).ResourcesandPopulation:AStudy of theGurungs of Nepal.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Messerschmidt,DonaldA.(1976).TheGurungs of Nepal.Warminister:Aris&Phillips.Pignede,Bernard(1966).LesGurungs:UnePopulationhinalayenneduNepal.TheHague:Mouton.ERNESTINEL.McHUGH82GaroHajong,theKoch,theRabha,theDalau,andtheBanaiswhoresideontheadjacentplains of theneighboringdistrict.Thereremainsanobscurityabouttheorigin of theword"Garo."Theyareknownas"Garos"tooutsiders;buttheGarosalwaysdesignatethemselvesas"Achik"(hillmen).TheGarosaredividedintoninesubtribes:theAwe,Chisak,Matchi-Dual,Matabeng,Ambeng,Ruga-Chibox,Gara-Gan.ching,Atong,andtheMegam.Thesearegeographicsub-tribes,buttheyarealsodialectalandsubculturalgroups.Ac-cordingtotheirbeliefsandreligion,theGarosaredividedintothe"Songsarek"(thosewhofollowindigenousbeliefsandpractices)andtheChristians.Location.ThetwoGaroHillsdistrictsaresituatedbe-tween25°9'and26°1&apos ;N and89°49'and91°2'E,coveringanarea of 8,000squarekilometers.ThedistrictsborderBangla-deshonthe south andwestandAssamonthenorth.Hillscovermost of thedistrict,withsomeadjacentfringes of plainsborderingthemonsoonarea,producingthickvegetationonthehills.Thereareanumber of hillystreamsandrivers;ex-ceptfortheSimsangRiver,whichformsawidefloodplain,noneisnavigable.Demography.Accordingtothecensus of Indiafor1971,Garosnumbered342,474.ChristianGaroswere54.3percent of thetotalGaropopulation;nowtheymaybemorethan60percent of thetotalGaropopulation.LinguisticAffiliation.AccordingtoSirGeorgeGrierson'sclassificationinTheLinguisticSurvey of India,GarobelongstotheBodoSubsection of theBodo-NagaSection,undertheAssam-BurmaGroup of theSino-TibetanorTibeto-BurmanLanguageFamily.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThereremainsnorecord of whentheGarosmigratedandset-tledintheirpresenthabitat.Theirtraditionallore,asre-cordedbyA.Playfair,indicatesthattheymigratedtotheareafromTibet.Thereisevidencethattheareawasinhabitedbystone-usingpeoples-PaleolithicandNeolithicgroups-inthepast.Aftersettlinginthehills,Garosinitiallyhadnocloseandconstantcontactwiththeinhabitants of thead-joiningplains.In177 5-1 776theZamindars of MechparaandKaraibari(atpresentintheGoalparaandDhuburidis.tricts of Assam)ledexpeditionsintotheGarohills.ThefirstcontactwithBritishcolonialistswasin1788,andtheareawasbroughtunderBritishadministrativecontrolintheyear1873.SettlementsThepopulationinaGarovillagemayrangefrom20to1,000persons.Thepopulationdensitytendstodecreaseasonemovestowardtheinteriorareasfromtheurbanareas of thedistricts.Villagesarescatteredanddistantfromoneanotherintheinteriorareas.Thesevillagesaregenerallysituatedonthetop of hillocks.Thehousesarebuilt,togetherwithgrana-ries,firewoodsheds,andpigsties,onpilesaroundtheslope of thehillock,usinglocallyavailablebamboo,wood,grass,etc.Theapproachtotherectangularhouseisalwaysbuiltfacingtheleveledsurface of thetop,whiletherearpart of thehouseremainshorizontaltotheslope.Nowadaysnewpile-typebuildingsusingwoodandironasmajorcomponentsarebeingmadeinsometraditionalvillagesalso.Inaddition,buildingssimilartothose of theneighboringplainsareconstructed.Thevillagesmayremaindistantfromagriculturalfields(hum).Inordertoguard ... thattheiriden-titywiththeGondtribeisnotalwaysclear.Demography.ThelatestavailableCensusfiguresarefrom1971,whentherewere4,728,796Gonds-one of thelargesttribalgroupsonearth.Infact,thenumber of Gondsisreallymuchhigher,sincemanyGondcommunitieshavebeenfullyacceptedintotheHinducastesystem,haveadoptedanothername,andhavecompletelyabandonedtheiroriginaltribalways of life.WhilesomeGondsubsectionsthushavebeenlosttothetribe,somecommunities of differentoriginmayhavebeenincorporatedintotheGondtribe.TheBisonhornMarias of Bastarmaybesuchatribe.LinguisticAffiliation.IftheGondseverhadalanguage of theirown,theyhavelostitcompletely.Half of theGondsspeakaDravidianlanguagecalledGondiatpresent,whichismoreakintoTelugathantoKarmada.Inthesouthernparts of GondavanatheGondsspeakalanguagecalledParsiorParji(Persian),also of theDravidianfamily.InthenorthernregionstheGondsoftenspeakthelocallanguage,adialect of HindiorMarathi.Gujarati916percent of cultivatorshold10hectaresormore of land,whichaltogetherconstitutesnearly25percent of thetotalholdings.ThePatidarsandtheBrahmansarerichpeasants.TheKolis,theScheduledCastes(or'SC,"viewedas"Un-touchables"),thetribals,andtheMuslimsarepoorpeasantsandagriculturallaborers.Kinship,MarriageandFamilyKinGroupsandDescent.Descentisagnaticandpatrilineal.Marriage.AmongtheHinduGujaratis,marriageisasac-rament.Itisarrangedbyparents.Certaincastes(jatis)followtheprinciple of endogamyinwhichamanmustmarrynotonlywithinhisjatibutalsowithinhissubjati,whichisdi-videdintoekdasandgols(i.e.,circles).However,amongcer-taincastesexogamyrestrictsthecirclewithinwhichmarriagecanbearranged.Itforbidsthemembers of aparticulargroupinacaste,usuallybelievedtobedescendedfromacommonancestororassociatedwithaparticularlocality,tomarryany-onewhoisamember of thesamegroup.AnothercustomamongtheRajputs,Patidars,andBrahmansishypergamy,whichforbidsawoman of aparticulargrouptomarryaman of agrouplowerthanherowninsocialstandingandcompelshertomarryintoagroup of equalorsuperiorrank.DomesticUnit.Thefamilyisgenerallyconsideredtobetheparents,marriedaswellasunmarriedsons,andwidowedsisters.Thejointfamilyisanormparticularlyamongthetrad-ingandlandedcastesandalsoamongtheMuslimsinruralareas.Inthetraditionaljointfamily,threegenerationsliveto-gether.Allthefamilymemberseatfromonekitchenandcul-tivatelandjointly.Evenifthekitchensbecomeseparate,co-operativefarmingcontinuesinmanycases.Ajointfamilymayhavemorethanthirtymembers,althoughsuchcasesareexceptional.Atypicaljointfamilyhasfromeighttotwelvemembersinruralareasandsixtoeightmembersinurbanareas.Jointfamiliesarebecominglesscommon.Thehead of thefamily-thefatherorgrandfather-exercisesauthorityoverallfamilymembers.Womenandevenmarriedsonshavenoindependenceandcandolittlewithoutfirstobtainingconsentorapprovalfromthehead.Thissituationisnowchanging.Inheritance.AmongtheHindus,consanguinityistheguidingprinciplefordeterminingtheright of inheritance.Thefollowingareheirsinorder of precedence:sons,sons'sons,sons'grandsons,thewidow of thedeceased,daughters,daughters'sons,mother,father,brothers,brothers'sons.Alhoughinheritanceisbasedonpatrilinealprinciples,twowomen-thewidowandthedaughter-areveryhighonthescale of priority.Socialization.Infantsandchildrenareraisedbythemotherandgrandparents,thoughtherole of thefatherinbringingupthechildrenhasrecentlyincreased.Agirlisnotcloselylookedafterandsheisinvolvedinhouseholdchoresfromaveryyoungage,whereasaboyisprotectedandindulged.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Gujaratisaredividedintoanumber of socialgroups.TheHinduswhoconstitutethelargestgrouparedividedintoanumber of jatis,whichhaveahierarchicalorderbasedontheprinciples of purityandpollution.TheBrahmansareinthehighestposition,whiletheScheduledCastesoccupythelowestpositioninthehierarchy.TheSCsconstitute7percent of ... isnotnecessaryforhimtomarryforcompanionshiporevenforhelpincultivation,astheaverageholding of aGrasiaissmallandheisabletodoallagricul-turalworkevenifhehasasmallfamily.Themainreasonsforamantotakemorethanonewifeareeitherthathisfirstwifecannotbearchildrenorthatshehasonlyfemalechildren.SociopoliticalOrganizationTheGrasiasworkwithinajoint-familysystemwherethesonsstaywiththefamilyuptothetimetheirchildrenbecomeadults.Onlyonrareoccasionsdothesonsliveseparatelyfromtheirparentsduetodomesticquarrels.Separationusu-allyoccurs,however,afterthefather'sdeath.Onlyunmarriedsistersandminorunmarriedbrotherscontinuetolivewiththefamily of one of theolderbrothers.ReligionTheGrasiasbasicallyworshiptheHindugodsandrespectthecowandarethusalmostHinduized,eventhoughtheytendtoholdontotheiroriginalbeliefinspiritsandfearghosts,spirits of thedead,andblackmagic.SeealsoBhilBibliographyDave,P.C.(1960).TheGrasiasalsoCalledDungriGrasias.Delhi:BharatiyaAdimjatiSevakSangh.LeSHONKIMBLEGujarETHNONYMS:Gujareta,Gujjar,GujjaraTheGujarsareahistoricalcastewhohavelenttheirnametotheGujaratDistrictandthetown of GujaranwalainthePunjab,thepeninsulaandstate of Gujarat,andtheareaknownasGujargashinGwalior.Theynumbered56,000per-sonsin1911, of whichthemajoritybelongedtotheHoshan-gabadandNimardistricts.(In1971therewere20,634GujarsenumeratedinHimachalPradeshalone.)InthoseprovincesthecasteisprincipallyfoundintheNarmadaValley.ThecasteisbroadlydividedalongreligiousandgeographiclinesintotheMuslimGujars(whoalsosharemanyHinducustomswiththeirHinduGujarbrethrenandarethusnotfullyac-ceptedintotheMuslimmajority)innorthernIndiaandPaki-Gujarati89stanandtheHindupopulationinthecentralregions of India.GujarsspeakGujari,adialect of Rajasthani,anIndiclanguage of theIndo-IranianSector of theIndo-EuropeanFamily.InHimachalPradeshthelanguageismixedwithWesternPahari.GujarswriteintheUrduscript.Theorigins of theGujarsareunknown;however,severaltheoriesplacethemeitherasabranch of theWhiteHunswhooverranIndiainthefifthandsixthcenturiesorasabranch of theKushandivision of theYueh-Chitribe,whichcontrolledmuch of northwesternIndiaduringtheearlycen-turies of theChristianera.InthepasttheGujarswereconsid-eredmaraudersandvagrants.Todaytheyarelaw-abidingpas-toralistsandcultivators.ManyGujarswereconvertedtoIslamatvarioustimesandindifferentplaces,beginningwiththeattack of Mahmud of GhaznionSomnathinGujaratin1026.TheGujars of OudhandMeerutdatetheirconversiontothetime of Timurin1398,whenhesackedDelhiandforci-blyconvertedthem.By1525,whenBaburinvaded,hediscov-eredthattheGujarinthenorthernPunjabhadalreadybeenconverted.Untilthe1700stheconversionscontinuedundertheMogulrulerAurangzeb,whoconvertedtheGujar of HimachalPradeshatthepoint of asword.ThePathansandBaluchidrovetheGujarconvertsfromtheirland,forcingthemintoanomadicexistence.TheGujarsaredividedintoHinduand...

... foundashouseholdservantsandcooks,andinsomecitiesinIndiatheyrunpublicbathhouses.HijrascomplainthatincontemporaryIndiatheiropportunitytoearnalivingbytherespectablemeans of performingatmarriagesandbirthshasdeclined,duetosmallerfamilies,lesselaboratelife-cycleceremonies,andageneraldeclineintherespectfortraditionalritualspecialists.Hijrashaveeffectivelymaintainedeconomicpredominance,ifnottotalmonopoly,overtheirritualrole.Definedbythelargersocietyasemasculatedmen,theyhaveclearlyseenthatitisintheirinteresttopreservethisdefinition of theirrole.Theydothisbymakingloudandpublicgesturestodenouncethe"frauds"and"fakes"whoimitatethem.Theythusreinforceinthepublicmindtheirownsolerighttotheirtraditionaloccu-pations.Whenhijrasfindotherfemaleimpersonatorsattempt-ingtoperformwhereitistheirrighttodoso,theychasethemaway,usingphysicalforceifnecessary.Hijraclaimstoexclusiveentitlementtoperformatlife-cyclerituals,tocollectalmsincertainterritories,andeventoownlandcommunallyreceivehistoricalsupportintheedicts of someIndianstatesthatoffi-ciallygrantedthemtheserights.Hijrashavealsobeensuccessfulincontrollingtheiraudi-encesintheirowneconomicinterest.Hijrasidentifywithre-nouncers(sannyasis)and,likethem,hijrashaveabandonedtheirfamilyandcasteidentitiesinordertojointheirreligiouscommunity.Likesannyasis,then,hijrastranscendnetworks of socialobligation.Theyoccupythelowestend of theIndiansocialhierarchyand,havingnoordinarysocialpositiontomaintainwithinthathierarchy,hijrasarefreedfromthere-straints of ordinarybehavior.Theyknowthattheirshame-lessnessmakesordinarypeoplereluctanttoprovokethemortoresisttheirdemandsformoneyandhencetheytradeonthefearandanxietypeoplehaveaboutthemtocoercecom-96HijraHijra100HillPandaraminusage.Apartfromconjugaltiesandclose"affinal"relation-ships(whichincontrasttothe"kin"linkshavewarmthandintimacy),kinshiptiesarenot"load"-bearinginthesense of implyingstructuredroleobligations.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Bothpolyandrousandpolygynousmarriageshavebeenrecorded,butmostmarriagesaremonogamous.Cross-cousinmarriageisthenormandmarriagesemergeal-mostspontaneouslyfrompreexistingkinshippatterns,ascampaggregatescenteronaffinallyrelatedmen.Thereislit-tleornomarriageceremonyandthereisnoformalarrange-ment of marriagepartners,althoughyoungmentendtoes-tablishpriortieswithprospectiveparents-in-law.MarriagesarebrittleandmostolderHillPandaramhaveexperiencedaseries of conjugalpartnershipsduringtheirlifetime.Acohab.itingcoupleformsanindependenthouseholdonmarriage,butthecouplemaycontinueasaunitinthecampaggregate of eitherset of parents.DomesticUnit.Theconjugalfamilyisthebasiceconomicunit.Members of afamilymayliveinseparateleafshelters(thoughspousessharethesameleafshelter)andmayformforagingpartieswithothermembers of acampaggregate,butallfoodgatheredbyanindividualbelongstohisorherownimmediatefamily,whoshareasimplehearth.Onlymeat,to-bacco,andtheproceeds of honey-gatheringexpeditionsaresharedbetweenthefamiliesconstitutingacampaggregate.Inheritance.AstheHillPandarampossessnolandandhavefewmaterialpossessions,littleemphasisisplacedoninheritance.Socialization.TheHillPandaramputanormativestressonindividualautonomyandself-sufficiency,andfromtheirearliestyearschildrenareexpectedtoassertindependence.Childrencollectforestproducefortradeandwilloftenspendlongperiodsawayfromtheirparents.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Organizedasaforagingcommunity,livinginsmallcampaggregates of twotothreefamiliesscat-teredoverawidearea,theHillPandaramexhibitnowiderstructures of sociopoliticalorganization.Therearenoritualcongregations,microcastes,noranyothercommunalassocia-tionsorcorporategroupingsabovethelevel of theconjugalfamily.Alack of widerformalorganizationiscoupledwithapervasivestressonegalitarianism,self-sufficiency,andtheautonomy of theindividual.Someindividualsinthesettle-mentsarerecognizedasmuttukani(headmen)buttheirroleisnotinstitutionalized,fortheyareessentiallyapart of thesystem of controlintroducedbyadministrativeagencies of theForestryandWelfareDepartmentstofacilitateefficientcommunicationwiththecommunity.SocialControl.TheHillPandaramhavenoformalinsti-tutionsforthesettlement of disputes,thoughindividualmenandwomenoftenactasinformalmediatorsorconciliators.Socialcontrolismaintainedtoanimportantdegreebyavaluesystemthatputsapremiumontheavoidance of aggres-sionandconflict;likeotherforagers,theHillPandaramtendtoavoidconflictbyseparationandbyflight.ReligionandExpressiveCultureAlthoughnominallyHindu,HillPandaramreligionisdis-tinctfromthat of theneighboringagriculturalistsinbeingun-iconic(i.e.,veneratingnotimages of deities,butthecrests of mountains)andfocusedonthecontact,throughpossessionrites, of localizedmaladevi(hillspirits).HillPan-darammayoccasionallymakeritualofferingsatvillagetem-ples,particularlythoseassociatedwiththegodsAiyappanandMuruganatthetime of theOnamfestival(December)oratlocalshrinesestablishedinforestareasbyTamillaborers;butotherwisetheyhavelittlecontactwiththeformalrituals of Hinduism.ReligiousBeliefs.ThespiritualagenciesrecognizedbytheHillPandaramfallintotwocategories:theancestralghostsorshades(chavu)andthehillspirits(maladevi).Thehillspiritsaresupernaturalsassociatedwithparticularhillorrockpreci-pices,andinthecommunityasawholethesespiritsarelegion,withahilldeityforaboutevery8squarekilometers of forest.Althoughlocalizedspirits,thehillspiritsarenot'familyspir-its"fortheymayhavedevoteeslivingsomedistancefromtheparticularlocality.Theancestralshades,ontheotherhand,arelinkedtoparticularfamilies,butlikethehillspiritstheirin-fluenceismainlybeneficent,givingprotectionagainstmisfor-tuneandprofferingadviceintimes of need.Oneclass of spir-its,however,isessentiallymalevolent.Thesearethearukula,thespirits of personswhohavediedaccidentallythroughfall-ingfromatreeorbeingkilledbyawildanimal.ReligiousPractitioners.Certainmenandwomenhavetheabilitytoinduceatrancelikestateandinthiswaytocontactthespirits.Theyareknownastullukara(possessiondancers,fromtullu,"tojump"),andattimes of misfortunetheyarecalleduponbyrelativesorfriendstogivehelpandsupport.Ceremonies.TheHillPandaramhavenotemplesorshrinesandthusmakenoformalritualofferingstothespirits,leadinglocalvillagerstosuggestthattheyhavenoreligion.Nordotheyritualizethelife-cycleevents of birth,puberty,anddeathtoanygreatdegree.Theimportantreligiouscere-monyisthepossessionseance,inwhichthetullukaragoesintoatrancestateinducedbyrhythmicdrummingandsing-ingandincarnatesoneormore of thehillspiritsoranances-tralshade.Duringtheseancethecause of themisfortuneisascertained(usuallythebreaking of atabooassociatedwiththemenstrualperiod)andthehelp of thesupernaturalissoughttoalleviatethesicknessormisfortune.Arts.IncontrastwithotherIndiancommunitiestheHillPandaramhavefewartforms.Nevertheless,theirsingingishighlydeveloped,andtheirsongsarevariedandelaborateandincludehistoricalthemes.Medicine.Allminorailmentsaredealtwiththroughher-balremedies,sincetheHillPandaramhaveadeepthoughunstructuredknowledge of medicinalplants.Moreseriouscomplaintsarehandledthroughthepossessionrites.BibliographyFirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1970)."NotesontheMalapantaram of Travancore."Bulletin of theInternationalCommitteeforUrgentAnthropologicalandEthnologicalRe-search3:4 4-5 1.HillPandaram99withtheirneighborsandcameunderthepoliticaljurisdiction of theearlyTamilkingdomsorlocalpettychieftains,whotaxedforestproductssuchascardamom,bamboo,ivory,honey,andwax.Theimportance of thistradeatthebegin-ning of thenineteenthcenturyishighlightedinthewritings of theAbbeDuboisandintheeconomicsurvey of theformerTravancoreStatemadeatthattimebytwoBritishofficials,WardandConner.ForesttradestillservestolinktheHillPandaramtothewiderHindusociety.SettlementsTheHillPandaramhavetwotypes of residentialgrouping-settlementsandforestcamps-althoughabout25percent of HillPandaramfamiliesliveacompletelynomadicexistenceandarenotassociatedwithanysettlement.Atypicalsettle-mentconsists of abouttenhuts,widelyseparatedfromeachother,eachhousingafamilywholivethereonasemiper-manentbasis.Thehutsaresimple,rectangularconstructionswithsplit-bambooscreensandgrass-thatchedroofs;manyarelittlemorethanroofedshelters.Aroundthehutsitesfruit-bearingtreessuchasmangoandtamarind,cassavaandsmallcultivationsmaybefound.Thesettlementsareoftensomedistancefromvillagecommunities(withtheirmulticastepopulations)andhavenocommunalfocuslikereligiousshrines.Settlementsareinhabitedonlyonanintermittentbasis.Thesecondtype of residentialgroupingistheforestcamp,consisting of twotosixtemporaryleafshelters,eachmadefromaframework of bamboothatissupportedonasin-gleuprightpoleandcoveredbypalmleaves.Theseleafshel-tershaveaconicalappearanceandareformedoverafireplaceconsisting of threestonesthatwerefoundonthesite.Rec-tangularlean-tosmayalsobeconstructedusingtwouprightpoles.Settlementsarescatteredthroughouttheforestrangesexceptintheinteriorforest,whichislargelyuninhabitedapartfromnomadiccamps of theHillPandaram.Themajor-ity of theHillPandaramarenomadicandtheusuallength of stayataparticularcampingsite(orarockshelter,whichisfrequentlyused)isfromtwotosixteendays,withsevenoreightdaysbeingtheaverage,althoughspecificfamiliesmayresideinaparticularlocalityforaboutsixtoeightweeks.No-madicmovements,inthesense of shiftingcamp,usuallyvaryoverdistancesfromahalf-kilometerto6kilometers,thoughindailyforagingactivitiestheHillPandarammayrangeoverseveralkilometers.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.AlthoughtheHillPandaramoccasionallyengageinpaidlaborforthefor-estdepartment,andasmallminority of familiesaresettledagriculturalistsontheforestperimeter,themajorityareno-madichunter-gatherers,whocombinefoodgatheringwiththecollection of minorforestproduce.Themainstaplecon-sists of variouskinds of yamcollectedbymeans of diggingsticks,togetherwiththenuts of aforestcycad,kalinga(Cycascincinalis).Suchstaplesaresupplementedwithpalmflour,andcassavaandriceareobtainedthroughtrade.Thehunting of smallanimals,particularlymonkeys,squirrels,andmonitorlizards,isimportant.Theseanimalsareob-tainedeitherduringforagingactivitiesorinahuntingpartyconsisting of twomenoramanandayoungboy,usingoldmuzzle-loadingguns.Dogs,anaidtohunting,aretheonlydomesticanimals.Trade.Thecollection of minorforestproduceisanimpor-tantaspect of economiclifeandtheprincipalitemstradedarehoney,wax,dammar(aresin),turmeric,ginger,cardamom,inchabark(Acaciaintsia,onevariety of whichisasoapsub-stitute,theotherafishpoison),variousmedicinalplants,oil-bearingseeds,andbarkmaterialsusedfortanningpurposes.Thetrade of theseproductsisorganizedthroughacontrac-tualmercantilesystem,aparticularforestrangebeingleasedbytheForestDepartmenttoacontractor,whoisnormallyawealthymerchantlivingintheplainsarea,oftenaMuslimorahigh-casteHindu.ThroughthecontractortheHillPan-daramobtaintheirbasicsubsistencerequirements:salt,con-diments,cloth,cookingpots,andtinsforcollectinghoney.Allthematerialpossessions of thecommunityareobtainedthroughsuchtrade-eventhetwoitemsthatarecrucialtotheircollectingeconomy,billhooksandaxes.Asthecontrac-tualsystemexploitedtheHillPandaram,whorarelygotthefullmarketvaluefortheforestcommoditiestheycollected,moveshavebeenmadeinrecentyearstoreplaceitbyaforestcooperativesystemadministeredbyforestryofficialsundertheauspices of thegovernment'sTribalWelfareDepartment.Division of Labor.Althoughwomenaretheprincipalgatherers of yams,whilethehunting of thelargermammalsandthecollection of honeyaretheprerogatives of men,thedivision of laborisnotarigidone.Menmaycookandcareforchildren,whilewomenfrequentlygohuntingforsmallerani-mals,anactivitythattendstobeacollectiveenterprisein-volvingafamilyaidedbyadog.Collection of forestproducetendstobedonebybothsexes.LandTenure.EachHillPandaramfamily(orindividual)isassociatedwithaparticularforesttract,butthereislittleornoassertion of territorialrightsorrightsoverparticularforestproductseitherbyindividualsorfamilies.Theforestisheldtobethecommonproperty of thewholecommunity.Nocom-plaintisexpressedattheincreasingencroachmentonthefor-estbylow-countrymenwhogatherdammarorotherforestproducts,oratincreasingincidences of poachingbythem.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Unlikethecastecommunities of Kerala,theHillPandaramhavenounilinealdescentsys-temorideologyandtherearenorecognizedcorporategroup-ingsabovethelevel of thefamily.Thesettlementsare ... foundashouseholdservantsandcooks,andinsomecitiesinIndiatheyrunpublicbathhouses.HijrascomplainthatincontemporaryIndiatheiropportunitytoearnalivingbytherespectablemeans of performingatmarriagesandbirthshasdeclined,duetosmallerfamilies,lesselaboratelife-cycleceremonies,andageneraldeclineintherespectfortraditionalritualspecialists.Hijrashaveeffectivelymaintainedeconomicpredominance,ifnottotalmonopoly,overtheirritualrole.Definedbythelargersocietyasemasculatedmen,theyhaveclearlyseenthatitisintheirinteresttopreservethisdefinition of theirrole.Theydothisbymakingloudandpublicgesturestodenouncethe"frauds"and"fakes"whoimitatethem.Theythusreinforceinthepublicmindtheirownsolerighttotheirtraditionaloccu-pations.Whenhijrasfindotherfemaleimpersonatorsattempt-ingtoperformwhereitistheirrighttodoso,theychasethemaway,usingphysicalforceifnecessary.Hijraclaimstoexclusiveentitlementtoperformatlife-cyclerituals,tocollectalmsincertainterritories,andeventoownlandcommunallyreceivehistoricalsupportintheedicts of someIndianstatesthatoffi-ciallygrantedthemtheserights.Hijrashavealsobeensuccessfulincontrollingtheiraudi-encesintheirowneconomicinterest.Hijrasidentifywithre-nouncers(sannyasis)and,likethem,hijrashaveabandonedtheirfamilyandcasteidentitiesinordertojointheirreligiouscommunity.Likesannyasis,then,hijrastranscendnetworks of socialobligation.Theyoccupythelowestend of theIndiansocialhierarchyand,havingnoordinarysocialpositiontomaintainwithinthathierarchy,hijrasarefreedfromthere-straints of ordinarybehavior.Theyknowthattheirshame-lessnessmakesordinarypeoplereluctanttoprovokethemortoresisttheirdemandsformoneyandhencetheytradeonthefearandanxietypeoplehaveaboutthemtocoercecom-96HijraHijra100HillPandaraminusage.Apartfromconjugaltiesandclose"affinal"relation-ships(whichincontrasttothe"kin"linkshavewarmthandintimacy),kinshiptiesarenot"load"-bearinginthesense of implyingstructuredroleobligations.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Bothpolyandrousandpolygynousmarriageshavebeenrecorded,butmostmarriagesaremonogamous.Cross-cousinmarriageisthenormandmarriagesemergeal-mostspontaneouslyfrompreexistingkinshippatterns,ascampaggregatescenteronaffinallyrelatedmen.Thereislit-tleornomarriageceremonyandthereisnoformalarrange-ment of marriagepartners,althoughyoungmentendtoes-tablishpriortieswithprospectiveparents-in-law.MarriagesarebrittleandmostolderHillPandaramhaveexperiencedaseries of conjugalpartnershipsduringtheirlifetime.Acohab.itingcoupleformsanindependenthouseholdonmarriage,butthecouplemaycontinueasaunitinthecampaggregate of eitherset of parents.DomesticUnit.Theconjugalfamilyisthebasiceconomicunit.Members of afamilymayliveinseparateleafshelters(thoughspousessharethesameleafshelter)andmayformforagingpartieswithothermembers of acampaggregate,butallfoodgatheredbyanindividualbelongstohisorherownimmediatefamily,whoshareasimplehearth.Onlymeat,to-bacco,andtheproceeds of honey-gatheringexpeditionsaresharedbetweenthefamiliesconstitutingacampaggregate.Inheritance.AstheHillPandarampossessnolandandhavefewmaterialpossessions,littleemphasisisplacedoninheritance.Socialization.TheHillPandaramputanormativestressonindividualautonomyandself-sufficiency,andfromtheirearliestyearschildrenareexpectedtoassertindependence.Childrencollectforestproducefortradeandwilloftenspendlongperiodsawayfromtheirparents.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Organizedasaforagingcommunity,livinginsmallcampaggregates of twotothreefamiliesscat-teredoverawidearea,theHillPandaramexhibitnowiderstructures of sociopoliticalorganization.Therearenoritualcongregations,microcastes,noranyothercommunalassocia-tionsorcorporategroupingsabovethelevel of theconjugalfamily.Alack of widerformalorganizationiscoupledwithapervasivestressonegalitarianism,self-sufficiency,andtheautonomy of theindividual.Someindividualsinthesettle-mentsarerecognizedasmuttukani(headmen)buttheirroleisnotinstitutionalized,fortheyareessentiallyapart of thesystem of controlintroducedbyadministrativeagencies of theForestryandWelfareDepartmentstofacilitateefficientcommunicationwiththecommunity.SocialControl.TheHillPandaramhavenoformalinsti-tutionsforthesettlement of disputes,thoughindividualmenandwomenoftenactasinformalmediatorsorconciliators.Socialcontrolismaintainedtoanimportantdegreebyavaluesystemthatputsapremiumontheavoidance of aggres-sionandconflict;likeotherforagers,theHillPandaramtendtoavoidconflictbyseparationandbyflight.ReligionandExpressiveCultureAlthoughnominallyHindu,HillPandaramreligionisdis-tinctfromthat of theneighboringagriculturalistsinbeingun-iconic(i.e.,veneratingnotimages of deities,butthecrests of mountains)andfocusedonthecontact,throughpossessionrites, of localizedmaladevi(hillspirits).HillPan-darammayoccasionallymakeritualofferingsatvillagetem-ples,particularlythoseassociatedwiththegodsAiyappanandMuruganatthetime of theOnamfestival(December)oratlocalshrinesestablishedinforestareasbyTamillaborers;butotherwisetheyhavelittlecontactwiththeformalrituals of Hinduism.ReligiousBeliefs.ThespiritualagenciesrecognizedbytheHillPandaramfallintotwocategories:theancestralghostsorshades(chavu)andthehillspirits(maladevi).Thehillspiritsaresupernaturalsassociatedwithparticularhillorrockpreci-pices,andinthecommunityasawholethesespiritsarelegion,withahilldeityforaboutevery8squarekilometers of forest.Althoughlocalizedspirits,thehillspiritsarenot'familyspir-its"fortheymayhavedevoteeslivingsomedistancefromtheparticularlocality.Theancestralshades,ontheotherhand,arelinkedtoparticularfamilies,butlikethehillspiritstheirin-fluenceismainlybeneficent,givingprotectionagainstmisfor-tuneandprofferingadviceintimes of need.Oneclass of spir-its,however,isessentiallymalevolent.Thesearethearukula,thespirits of personswhohavediedaccidentallythroughfall-ingfromatreeorbeingkilledbyawildanimal.ReligiousPractitioners.Certainmenandwomenhavetheabilitytoinduceatrancelikestateandinthiswaytocontactthespirits.Theyareknownastullukara(possessiondancers,fromtullu,"tojump"),andattimes of misfortunetheyarecalleduponbyrelativesorfriendstogivehelpandsupport.Ceremonies.TheHillPandaramhavenotemplesorshrinesandthusmakenoformalritualofferingstothespirits,leadinglocalvillagerstosuggestthattheyhavenoreligion.Nordotheyritualizethelife-cycleevents of birth,puberty,anddeathtoanygreatdegree.Theimportantreligiouscere-monyisthepossessionseance,inwhichthetullukaragoesintoatrancestateinducedbyrhythmicdrummingandsing-ingandincarnatesoneormore of thehillspiritsoranances-tralshade.Duringtheseancethecause of themisfortuneisascertained(usuallythebreaking of atabooassociatedwiththemenstrualperiod)andthehelp of thesupernaturalissoughttoalleviatethesicknessormisfortune.Arts.IncontrastwithotherIndiancommunitiestheHillPandaramhavefewartforms.Nevertheless,theirsingingishighlydeveloped,andtheirsongsarevariedandelaborateandincludehistoricalthemes.Medicine.Allminorailmentsaredealtwiththroughher-balremedies,sincetheHillPandaramhaveadeepthoughunstructuredknowledge of medicinalplants.Moreseriouscomplaintsarehandledthroughthepossessionrites.BibliographyFirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1970)."NotesontheMalapantaram of Travancore."Bulletin of theInternationalCommitteeforUrgentAnthropologicalandEthnologicalRe-search3:4 4-5 1.HillPandaram99withtheirneighborsandcameunderthepoliticaljurisdiction of theearlyTamilkingdomsorlocalpettychieftains,whotaxedforestproductssuchascardamom,bamboo,ivory,honey,andwax.Theimportance of thistradeatthebegin-ning of thenineteenthcenturyishighlightedinthewritings of theAbbeDuboisandintheeconomicsurvey of theformerTravancoreStatemadeatthattimebytwoBritishofficials,WardandConner.ForesttradestillservestolinktheHillPandaramtothewiderHindusociety.SettlementsTheHillPandaramhavetwotypes of residentialgrouping-settlementsandforestcamps-althoughabout25percent of HillPandaramfamiliesliveacompletelynomadicexistenceandarenotassociatedwithanysettlement.Atypicalsettle-mentconsists of abouttenhuts,widelyseparatedfromeachother,eachhousingafamilywholivethereonasemiper-manentbasis.Thehutsaresimple,rectangularconstructionswithsplit-bambooscreensandgrass-thatchedroofs;manyarelittlemorethanroofedshelters.Aroundthehutsitesfruit-bearingtreessuchasmangoandtamarind,cassavaandsmallcultivationsmaybefound.Thesettlementsareoftensomedistancefromvillagecommunities(withtheirmulticastepopulations)andhavenocommunalfocuslikereligiousshrines.Settlementsareinhabitedonlyonanintermittentbasis.Thesecondtype of residentialgroupingistheforestcamp,consisting of twotosixtemporaryleafshelters,eachmadefromaframework of bamboothatissupportedonasin-gleuprightpoleandcoveredbypalmleaves.Theseleafshel-tershaveaconicalappearanceandareformedoverafireplaceconsisting of threestonesthatwerefoundonthesite.Rec-tangularlean-tosmayalsobeconstructedusingtwouprightpoles.Settlementsarescatteredthroughouttheforestrangesexceptintheinteriorforest,whichislargelyuninhabitedapartfromnomadiccamps of theHillPandaram.Themajor-ity of theHillPandaramarenomadicandtheusuallength of stayataparticularcampingsite(orarockshelter,whichisfrequentlyused)isfromtwotosixteendays,withsevenoreightdaysbeingtheaverage,althoughspecificfamiliesmayresideinaparticularlocalityforaboutsixtoeightweeks.No-madicmovements,inthesense of shiftingcamp,usuallyvaryoverdistancesfromahalf-kilometerto6kilometers,thoughindailyforagingactivitiestheHillPandarammayrangeoverseveralkilometers.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.AlthoughtheHillPandaramoccasionallyengageinpaidlaborforthefor-estdepartment,andasmallminority of familiesaresettledagriculturalistsontheforestperimeter,themajorityareno-madichunter-gatherers,whocombinefoodgatheringwiththecollection of minorforestproduce.Themainstaplecon-sists of variouskinds of yamcollectedbymeans of diggingsticks,togetherwiththenuts of aforestcycad,kalinga(Cycascincinalis).Suchstaplesaresupplementedwithpalmflour,andcassavaandriceareobtainedthroughtrade.Thehunting of smallanimals,particularlymonkeys,squirrels,andmonitorlizards,isimportant.Theseanimalsareob-tainedeitherduringforagingactivitiesorinahuntingpartyconsisting of twomenoramanandayoungboy,usingoldmuzzle-loadingguns.Dogs,anaidtohunting,aretheonlydomesticanimals.Trade.Thecollection of minorforestproduceisanimpor-tantaspect of economiclifeandtheprincipalitemstradedarehoney,wax,dammar(aresin),turmeric,ginger,cardamom,inchabark(Acaciaintsia,onevariety of whichisasoapsub-stitute,theotherafishpoison),variousmedicinalplants,oil-bearingseeds,andbarkmaterialsusedfortanningpurposes.Thetrade of theseproductsisorganizedthroughacontrac-tualmercantilesystem,aparticularforestrangebeingleasedbytheForestDepartmenttoacontractor,whoisnormallyawealthymerchantlivingintheplainsarea,oftenaMuslimorahigh-casteHindu.ThroughthecontractortheHillPan-daramobtaintheirbasicsubsistencerequirements:salt,con-diments,cloth,cookingpots,andtinsforcollectinghoney.Allthematerialpossessions of thecommunityareobtainedthroughsuchtrade-eventhetwoitemsthatarecrucialtotheircollectingeconomy,billhooksandaxes.Asthecontrac-tualsystemexploitedtheHillPandaram,whorarelygotthefullmarketvaluefortheforestcommoditiestheycollected,moveshavebeenmadeinrecentyearstoreplaceitbyaforestcooperativesystemadministeredbyforestryofficialsundertheauspices of thegovernment'sTribalWelfareDepartment.Division of Labor.Althoughwomenaretheprincipalgatherers of yams,whilethehunting of thelargermammalsandthecollection of honeyaretheprerogatives of men,thedivision of laborisnotarigidone.Menmaycookandcareforchildren,whilewomenfrequentlygohuntingforsmallerani-mals,anactivitythattendstobeacollectiveenterprisein-volvingafamilyaidedbyadog.Collection of forestproducetendstobedonebybothsexes.LandTenure.EachHillPandaramfamily(orindividual)isassociatedwithaparticularforesttract,butthereislittleornoassertion of territorialrightsorrightsoverparticularforestproductseitherbyindividualsorfamilies.Theforestisheldtobethecommonproperty of thewholecommunity.Nocom-plaintisexpressedattheincreasingencroachmentonthefor-estbylow-countrymenwhogatherdammarorotherforestproducts,oratincreasingincidences of poachingbythem.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Unlikethecastecommunities of Kerala,theHillPandaramhavenounilinealdescentsys-temorideologyandtherearenorecognizedcorporategroup-ingsabovethelevel of thefamily.Thesettlementsare ... isinhernamethattheoperationisrit-uallyperformed.Ahijra,calleda"midwife,"performstheop-erationafterreceivingsanctionfromthegoddess.Theritual of thesurgeryandmany of thepostoperativerestrictionsin-volvingspecialdietandseclusionimitatethose of awomanwhohasjustgivenbirth.Attheend of theforty-dayisolationperiod,thenirvanisdressedasabride,istakeninprocessiontoabody of waterandsubsequentlytoaritualinvolvingfer-tilitysymbolismrelatingtomarriageandchildbirth,becomesahijra,andistheninvestedwiththepower of thegoddess.Inthehijraemasculationritual,wehaveaculmination of theparadoxesandcontradictionscharacteristic of Hinduism:im-potent,emasculatedman,transformedbyfemalegenerativepowerintocreativeascetics,becomesabletoblessotherswithfertilityandfortune.ArtandPerformance.Hijrasareperformersatpointsinthelifecyclerelatedtoreproduction,andthusmuch of theirexpressivecultureemploysfertilitysymbolism.Hijraperfor-mancesareburlesques of femalebehavior.Much of thecom-edy of theirperformancesderivesfromtheincongruitiesbe-tweentheirbehaviorandthat of ordinarywomen,restrainedbynorms of propriety.Hijrasusecoarsespeechandgesturesandmakesexualinnuendos,teasingthemalechildrenpres-entandalsomakingfun of variousfamilymembersandfam-ilyrelationships.Therearesomesongsandcomedicroutinesthatareatraditionalpart of hijraperformances,mostnotablyoneinwhichahijraactsasapregnantwomancommentingonthedifficultiesateachstate of thepregnancy.Inalltheperformancesblessingthenewbornmale,thehijrasinspecttheinfant'sgenitals.Itisbelievedthatanychildbornaher-maphroditewillbeclaimedbythehijrasfortheirown.Inad-ditiontotraditionalelementshijraperformancesalsoincludepopularsongsanddancesfromcurrentfavoritefilms.BibliographyBradford,NicholasJ.(1983)."TransgenderismandtheCult of Yellamma:Heat,Sex,andSicknessin South IndianRit-ual."Journal of AnthropologicalResearch39:30 7-3 22.Freeman,JamesM.(1979)."TransvestitesandProstitutes,196 9-7 2."InUntouchable:AnIndianLifeHistory.Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress.Nanda,Serena(1990).NeitherMannorWoman:TheHijras of India.Belmont,Calif.:WadsworthPublishers.O'Flaherty,WendyDoniger(1980).Women,Androgynes,andOtherMythicalBeasts.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.SERENANANDAHillPandaramETHNONYMS:MalaiPandaram,Malapa&tiramOrientationIdentification.TheMalapantiram(hereafteranglicizedastheHillPandaram)areaScheduledTribe of thestate of Keralain south Indiaandinhabittheforestedhills of theWesternGhatsbetweenLakePeriyarandthetown of Ten-mali,about9° N. Althoughtheysharethename"Pandaram"withacastecommunity of TamilNadu,thereappeartobenolinksbetweenthetwocommunities.Mala(mountain)referstotheirlongassociationwiththehillforests,theWesternGhats,whichformthebackbone of peninsularIndiaandrangefrom600to2,400meters.Anomadicforagingcommu-nity,theHillPandaramlooselyidentifythemselveswiththeforestandrefertoalloutsiders,whetherlocalcastecommuni-tiesorforestlaborers,asnattuharan(countrypeople).Location.CenteredonthePandalamHills,theHillPan-daramprimarilyoccupytheforestranges of Ranni,Koni,andAchencoil.TheGhatsaresubjecttotwomonsoonseasons;thesouthwestmonsoon,fallingbetweenJuneandAugust,beingresponsibleforthebulk of therain.Rainfallisvariable,averagingbetween125and200centimetersannually,precip-itationbeinghighathigherelevationsaroundSabarimalaandDevarmala.Theforesttyperangesfromtropicalever-greentomoistdeciduous.Thefoothills of theGhatsandthevalleys of themajorriversystems-Achencoil,Pamba,andAzbutta-arecultivatedandheavilypopulatedbycastecom-munitieswhomovedintotheGhatsduringthepastcentury.Demography.Asmallcommunity,theHillPandaramnumbered1,569individualsin1971,andhadapopulationdensity of 1to2personspersquarekilometer.LinguisticAffiliation.Livinginthehillsthatseparatethestates of KeralaandTamilNadu,theHillPandaramalsoliebetweentwomainlanguagegroups of south India-TamilandMalayalam.Theyspeakadialect of oneortheother of theselanguages,anddivergencesfromstandardTamilorMa-layalamseemtobemainlymatters of intonationandarticula-tion.Theirdialectgenerallyisnotunderstoodbypeoplefromtheplains,andalthoughthereisnoevidenceavailableitispossiblethattheirlanguagemaystillcontainelements of aproto-Dravidianlanguage.FewHillPandaramareliterate.HistoryandCulturalRelationsAlthoughtheHillPandaramlivewithintheforestenviron-mentandhavelittleday-to-daycontactwithothercommuni-ties,theydohavealonghistory of contactwithwiderIndiansociety.Aswiththeotherforestcommunities of south India,suchasthePaliyan,Kadar,Kannikar,andMalaUlladan,theHillPandaramhaveneverbeenanisolatedcommunity;fromearliesttimestheyappeartohavehadregularandimportanttradecontactswiththeneighboringagriculturalists,eitherthroughsilentbarteror,sincetheend of theeighteenthcen-tury,throughmercantiletrade.EarlyTamilpoetsindicatethattribalcommunitiesinhabitedtheforests of theWesternGhatsduringtheSangamperiod(aroundthesecondcenturyB.C.);andthesecommunitieshadimportanttradecontacts...

... providesthemainmeansforintroducingtheIrulaintobroadercivilization.Unfortu-nately,mostIrulahavethusfarabandonedtheformaleduca-tionalinstitutionsinthelowerstages.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Inthetribalmanner,theIrulamain-tainanopenandfreesociety.Eachhamletorvillagehasaheadman(gaundanormuppan)whoseroleisnottocontrolfromabovebuttohelpinthesolving of problemsandtoactasamediatoramonghispeopleandbetweenthemandgov-ernmentofficialsornon-Irulaneighbors.Followingthean-cientIndiantradition of thepanchayat(thehamletorvillagecouncil),theheadmancancallavaryinggroup of malesto-gethertohelphim.AsSambanpatricianmembers(orKoduvanpatricianmembers,ifaSambanpersonisinvolved)traditionallyhaveactedasmediatorsfortheIrula,aheadmancanalsoturntoone of themforcounsel.Thereisalsoalocalgo-betweenperson(bandari)whoassiststheheadman.Anydecision of ... asthebridesmaid,andthebride'sbrotherwillserveasthebestman.Thebrideisbroughtbyherrelativesandthegroom'spartytothegroom'shouseontheweddingday.Inthehouseorwithinatemporaryshelter(pandal)erectednearthehouse,thegroominthemostpertinentact of themarriageceremonyandinconformitywiththewidespreadpracticeinsouthernIndia,tiesanecklace(tali,providedbyhismaternaluncle)aroundthebride'sneck.Afeastisthenprovidedbythegroom'speople.Milletwouldinpasttimeshavebeenserved,butitisnowfashionabletoservericewithcurry.Thegroomafterwardbowstothefeet of gueststoreceivetheirblessingandisfollowedinthisactbyhiswife.Alongwiththeirbless-ing,theguestsgivemoney(typicallyRs1,2,or5)tothecou-ple.Alllatergotothebride'shouse,andthereisthenan-otherfeast(again,withriceandcurry),whichrunsintothenight.Allfeastingisaccompaniedbythedancing of malesandfemales(usuallyinseparategroupsbutinonecircle).Theconsumption of intoxicatingbeveragesisalsoliabletotakeplace.Theestablishment of aseparatepatrilocalhouse-holdaftermarriageisthenorm.Conformingwiththewide-spreadpracticeinsouthernIndia,thewifeusuallyreturnstoherpaternalhomeinherseventhmonth of pregnancyandre-mainsthereuntilafterherinfantisdelivered.Whileawom-an'sinabilitytobearachildisnotconsideredgroundsfordi-vorce,anIrulamanmaymarryanotherwomanifhisfirstwifecannotconceive.Hethenismarriedtobothwomen.Theusualgroundsfordivorceareunfaithfulnessorahusband'slack of provisionforhiswife.Whenamarriageistroubled,aIndianChristian103BibliographyChaudhuri,NiradC.(1979).Hinduism,aReligiontoLiveBy.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress;London:Chatto&Windus.Zaehner,RC.(1962).Hinduism.London:OxfordUniver-sityPress.PAULHOCKINGSStutley,Margaret,andJamesStutley(1977).Harper'sDic-tionary of Hinduism:ItsMythology,Folklore,Philosophy,Liter-ature,andHistory.NewYork:Harper&Row.IndianChristianETHNONYMS:noneIndianChristiansarebelieversinthedivinity of JesusChrist.Despitethepersistingideain South Asia thatChris-tianityisthe"whiteman'sreligion,"ithasamassivefollowingtodayinthesubcontinent.Still,itisverymuchaminorityfaith,accountingfornearly8percent of theSriLankanpopu-lationbutlessthan3percentineach of theother South Asiancountries.In1991Indiahadanestimated21millionChristians,andtheother South Asiancountriestogetherhadanother3million.TheideathatChristianitywasintroducedbythecolo-nialpowers-RomanCatholicismbythePortugueseandthenAnglicanismbytheEnglish-isnotstrictlytrue.Keralaandsomeotherparts of thewestcoasthadcertainlybeenevangelizedbyNestorianmissionariessincethesixthcentury,andmanyin south IndiabelievethattheapostleThomascametoTamilNaduandwasmartyredandburiedinwhatisnowMadrascity.TheseearlyreligiousconnectionswerewithSyria(cf.SyrianChristians).ThePortuguesebroughtPortu-gueseandItalianpriestswiththem,andin1557Goa,theirmajorIndiancolony,becameanarchbishopric.Withthefounding of theEastIndiaCompanyin1600theEnglishin-troducedtheAnglicanfaith,andastimepassedotherProtes-tantsectsappeared.Theyears185 0-1 900werethehighpoint of Protestantmissionactivityin South Asia, withmin-istersfromAmericaandvirtuallyeverycountryinEuropevyingforconverts,especiallyamongtheUntouchables,tri-bals,anddowntroddenslumdwellers.Insomeareastheyweredramaticallysuccessfulatgainingconverts:theMizos of northeasternIndiaarenearlyallChristianstoday,thankstothesomewhatobscureWelshBaptistmission.Attheotherend of thecountry,though,theBadagasare97percentHinduafterseventyyears of concertedeffortbytheBaselEvangelicalmission,followedbyanotherseventyyears of othermissionaryactivity.TheRomanCatholicmissionarieshavenotfaredanybetteramongtheBadagas;butelsewheretherearelargeCatholiccongregationsinmanytownsandcit-ies.BytheCongregationdePropagandaFide(1622)theCatholicchurchencouragedthetraining of ... Indianpriests,andalsobroughtinlargenumbers of EuropeanJesuitsinasu-pervisorycapacity.Theyear1947markedalandmarkinProtestantchurchhistory,notjustbecausethiswastheyear of independenceforbothIndiaandPakistanbutalsobecauseitwastheyearwhentheChurch of South Indiacameintobeing-thefirstunifiedProtestantchurchanywhere.It of courseabsorbedtheformerAnglican,Methodist,andseveralothersectarianinstitutions.In1970therefollowedaunifiedProtestantChurch of NorthIndiaandaProtestantChurch of Pakistan.Thesechurches,bothProtestantandCatholic,arenowentirelyinthehands of South Asianbishopsandarchbish-ops,withveryfew of theformerEuropeanmissionariesre-maining.InSriLankaand south India,thegreatestgrowthshaverecentlybeenseenamongtheRomanCatholics,notprimarilybecause of newconversionsbutratherbecause of acalculatedavoidance of familyplanning.InNepalChristianandMuslimmissionaryactivityisprohibitedbylaw.Thehistory of Christianityin South Asia hasindeedbeenacheckeredone,butithasbeenanimportantinstru-ment of Westernization.ThefirstprintingpressesandthefirstmodemcollegeswereintroducedbyEuropeanmissionar-ies.Bythemiddle of thenineteenthcenturythesepeopleweremakingimportantcontributionstothegeneralsocialuplift of thecountry(andnotonlyforChristianconverts)bytheirpromotion of ruralandurbanschooling,adultliteracy,femaleeducation,colleges,hospitalsandclinics,andmodemurbancareers.AsaresulttheChristianpopulationhaswieldedadisproportionateinfluenceinmodemIndianandSriLankanlife.Littleconversionisstilltakingplace.IndianChristianstodaytendtobeurban,arealwaysmo-nogamous,andformnuclearfamiliesuponmarriage(whichtakesplaceinachurch).TheyusuallyfollowWesternizedprofessions,becomingteachers,nurses,bankclerks,andcivilservants.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; SyrianChristian of KeralaBibliographyCoutinho,Fortunato(1958).Leregimeparoissialdesdiocesesderitelatindel'Indedesorigines(XVIesiecleanosjours).Paris:EditionsBiatrice-Nauwelaerts.Gibbs,MildredE.(1972).TheAnglicanChurchinIndia,160 0-1 970.Delhi:IndianSocietyforPromotingChristianKnowledge.Nanjundayya,H.V.,andL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer(1930)."IndianChristian."InTheMysoreTribesandCastes,editedbyH.V.NanjundayyaandL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer.Vol.3, 1-7 6.Mysore:MysoreUniversity.Neill,Stephen(1984).AHistory of ChristianityinIndia.2vols.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Thomas,AbrahamV.(1974).ChristiansinSecularIndia.Rutherford:FairleighDickinsonUniversity.PAULHOCKINGSIrula105gosa)andtamarindareoftenpresentwithinlowlandsettle-ments.ThelowlandIrulawhoherdcattleforothers,typicallyindrierareaswiththornforest,areassociatedwithadistinc-tivesettlementpatterninwhichalargecattleenclosureissur-roundedbyathornywall of piledbranches.TheIrulaalsohaveburialgroundswithancestraltemples,calledkoppamanais,inwhichstonesassociatedwiththedepartedspirits of thedeadarehoused.Eachpatricianhasaburialplaceandakoppamanai,butthetwoarenotnecessarilytogether(forexample,whileSambanpeopleareonlyburiedatKallampa-layam,thereareSambankoppamanaisatHallimoyarandKunjappanai).Althoughaburialgroundisusuallyclosetoasettlement,itcanbefartheraway.Asinmanyotherparts of Asia andintothePacificBasin,thesacredness of aburialgroundisoftenassociatedwiththepagodatree(thePolyne-sianfrangipani).Largelybecausemany of theIrulaarelandlesslaborers,most of themliveinone-roomedhouses.Nevertheless,IrulaplantationlaborersinhabitingtheNilgirislopesstilloccupybipartitehouseswiththesacredcookingareaformallyseparated(typicallynotwithawallbutwithashallowearthenplatform)fromthelivingandsleepingareas.TheKasabatothenorth of theNilgirimassif,whoherdcattleforothers(Badagasincluded),occupytripartitestructureswithlivingquartersforhumanstooneside of aroomwithanopenfront,andacalfroomtotheotherside.Theopenfront of thecenterroomfacilitatesthewatching of theenclosedcattleatnight,anditismostusefulwhenpredatorsorwildel-ephantscomenear.WhiletraditionalIrulahousesaremade of wattleanddaub,withthatchedroofs(orinsomeinstancesbananasheathsforwallingandroofing),moreIrulaarelivinginhouseswithwalls of stoneorbrickandroofswithtiles,es-peciallyifthegovernmenthasprovidedfinancialassistance.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Theearliestre-portsindicatethatthehoe-usingIrula of theeasternNilgirislopesobtainedonecrop of milletinayearfromshiftedplots,involvingagrowingperiodthatcoincidedwiththewesterlymonsoon.Theythendependedupongardenproduce,gath-erededibles,andhuntingforsurvivaloncetheharvestedgrainhadbeenconsumed.ThattheseIrulawereprobablynamedafterayamspeciesisindicative of howimportantyamsweretothemwhentheyturnedtogathering.Severalwildyamspecieswereavailable.Irulaarestillwellknownforthegatheringandsupply of honeytotheirneighbors.Despitesculpturedrepresentations of bowsandarrowsinsomeNilgiridolmensathigherelevation,itisnoteworthythattheIrulaseemalwaystohaveusednetsandspearswhentheyhunted.Ourrecord of atleasteightyspecies of plantsgrowinginIrulagardenstestifiestothepastandcontinuingsignificance of gardenstoalltheIrula.Thatatleasttwenty-five of theidenti-fiedplantshadaNew World originalsoprovesthewilling-ness of theIrulatoincorporateintroducedspeciesintotheireconomy.Thecontinuedcultivation of fingermillet(Eleusinecorocana),Italianmillet(Setariaitalica),andlittlemillet(Panicumsumatrense)andnodryricebytheIrulaonthehigherslopesmayinitselfrepresentaNeolithicsurvival,be-causethecultivation of dryricehasinSoutheast Asia widelyreplacedtheearliercultivation of theItalianandlittlemilletsfromChina.TheIrulastillcommonlygrowthesetwospecies of millettogetherandthenharvesttheItalianmilletwhenthelittlemilletisfarfrommaturation.Verysmallsicklesareusedforharvestingindividualgrainheads.Whenfingermillet(grownapartfromtheothertwo)istobeharvested,theplantsarevisitedperiodicallytopermittheremoval of grainasitripens.Anothereconomicpursuitthatmayhavecontin-uedfromNeolithictimes,duringwhichcattlerearingwaswidespreadinsouthernIndia,isthemannerbywhichlow-landIrulainforestedareaskeepcattlefortheirneighbors(Kuruvasincluded).ThefewIrulawhostillmanagetoprac-ticeshiftingagriculturesetfireinAprilorMaytothevegeta-tiontheyhavecut,sothecultivation of milletwillthentakeplaceduringthewesterlymonsoon.Thebarnyardmillet(Echinochloa),bullrushmillet(Pennisetum),commonmillet(Panicummiliaceum)andsorghummillet(Sorghum),all of thelowland,renownedfortheirdroughtresistance,andthustypicallygrownondryfields,arecultivatedwiththeaid of plowsandmainlyintheseason of thewesterlymonsoon.Nowwiththecooperation of theForestDepartment,theIrulagatherforestproduce(includingmedicinalplants)forsale.SincemostIrula of theNilgirislopescurrentlyworkasplantationlaborers,plantationmanagementsstartingwiththoseinthetime of theBritishRajhadtoprovideperiodicre-leasetimeforthoseIrulawhoneededtoperformtheirownagriculturalchores.TheGandhianquesttoimprovethelives of members of theScheduledTribesisdemonstratedbythemannerinwhichthegovernmenthasenabledIrula of theeasternNilgirislopestoestablishcoffeeandteagardens of theirown,andatKunjappanaitheSilkBoard of thegovern-ment of TamilNaduisnowprovidingfinancialassistancetoenablesilkwormfarmingamongtheIrula.From1974thegovernmentgavesmallplotstoIrulaontheeasternslopes,andtheCooperativeLandDevelopmentBank(anagency of theTamilNadugovernment)atthenearesttown(Kotagiri)wasby1979helpingtofinancethegrowing of coffeeandteainnurseries,sothattheIrulacouldhavetheirowncommer-cializedgardens.WhileafewIrulawhowiselymanagedtheirgrantedlandsandloansprospered,manydidnotmanagetheirendeavorswellandthereturnpaymentonloansatalowratewaseventuallyendedinmanyinstancesbyaspecialbillpassedinMadrasbytheTamilNadugovernment.Itispri-marilythecooperation of thegovernment,withtheForestDepartment of TamilNaduplayinganimportantrole,thathasenabledmorelowlandIrulatobecomeinvolvedinthean-nualcultivation of irrigatedrice.Hallimoyar,Kallampalayam,andThengumarahada(withitsCooperativeSociety),inwhichtheIrulaliveclosetothemembers of severalcastes,haveirrigationnetworks.OnericecropstartedinMarchisharvestedinJune,andthesecondcropstartedinJulyisreadyinDecember.In1978anewlyconstructedricemillbecameoperationalatThengumarahada.Irulalivingtothe south of theNilgirimassifare...

... aremakingthemselvesfeltasadistinctivepresencewithinthewider South Asianmigrantcommunityoverseas.SeealsoBaniaBibliographyBanks,Marcus(1992).OrganizingJainisminIndiaandEng-land.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Carrithers,Michael,andCarolineHumphrey,eds.(1991).TheAssembly of Listeners:JainsinSociety.Cambridge:Cam-bridgeUniversityPress.Dundas,Paul(1992).TheJains.London:Routledge.Fischer,Eberhard,andJyotindrajain(1977).ArtandRituals:2,500Years of JainisminIndia.Delhi:SterlingPublishersPri-vateLtd.Jaini,PadmanabhS.(1979).TheJainaPath of Purification.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.Mathias,Marie-Claude(1985).DIlivranceetconviviality:LesystemeculinairedesJaina.Paris:EditionsdelaMaisondesSciencesdel'Homme.Pande,G.C.,ed.(1978).SramanaTradition:ItsContributiontoIndianCulture.Ahmedabad:L.D.Institute of Indology.Sangave,VilasA.(1959).JainaCommunity:ASocialSurvey.Reprint.1980.Bombay:PopularBookDepotVinayasagar,Mahopadhyaya,andMukundLath,eds.andtrans.(1977).KalpaSutra.Jaipur:D.R.Mehta,PrakritBharati.MARCUSBANKSJatETHNONYMS:Jt,JatOrientationIdentificationandLocation.Primarilyendogamouscom-munitiescallingthemselvesandknownasJatlivepredomi-nantlyinlargeparts of northernandnorthwesternIndiaandinsouthernandeasternPakistan,assedentaryfarmersand/ormobilepastoralists.Incertainareastheytendtocallthem-selvesBaluch,Pathan,orRajput,ratherthanJat.Most of thesecommunitiesareintegratedasacasteintothelocallyprevalentcastesystem.Inthepastthreedecadesincreasingpopulationpressureonlandhasledtolarge-scaleemigration of thepeasantJat,especiallyfromIndia,toNorthAmerica,theUnitedKingdom,Malaysia,andmorerecentlytheMid-dleEast.SomemaintainthatthesedentaryfarmingJatandthenomadicpastoralJatare of entirelydifferentorigins;oth-ersbelievethatthetwogroupsare of thesamestockbutthattheydevelopeddifferentlife-stylesoverthecenturies.Neitherthefarmersnorthepastoralistsare,however,tobeconfusedwithotherdistinctcommunities of peripateticpeddlers,arti-sans,andentertainersdesignatedinAfghanistanbytheblan-ketterms"Jat"orJat;thelattertermsareconsideredpejora-tive,andtheyarerejectedasethnonymsbytheseperipateticcommunities.InPakistanalso,amongtheBaluchi-andPashto-speakingpopulations,thetermswere,andtoacertainextentstillare,usedtoindicatecontemptandlowersocialstatus.Demography.Noreliablefiguresareavailableforrecentyears.In1931thepopulation of allsedentaryandfarmingJatwasestimatedat8,377,819;intheearly1960s8,000,000wastheestimateforPakistanalone.TodaytheentireJatpopula-tionconsists of severalmillionmorethanthat.linguisticAffiliation.AllJatspeaklanguagesanddialectsthatarecloselyconnectedwithotherlocallyspokenlan-guages of theIndo-IranianGroup.Threealphabetsareused,dependingprimarilyonreligionbutpartlyonlocality:theArabic-derivedUrduoneisusedbyMuslims,whileSikhsandHindususetheGurmukhi(Punjabi)andtheDevanagari(Hindi)scripts,respectively.Jatav115ciallytobedependentuponthemother,whomayinturnbe-comedependentupontheminoldage.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InIndia'svillagesthecastesystemisanorganicdivision of labor,eachcastehavingatraditionallyassignedanddistinctoccupationandduty.BecauseJatavs,asChamars,dothepollutingandpollutedtasks of removingdeadcattlefromthevillageand of workingwithleather,theyarerankedasUntouchablesatthebottom of thesystem.Tra-ditionally,theirmajoroccupationinthevillagewasagricul-turalandothermeniallaborforlandowners.Incities,wherethetraditionalinterdependencies of thecastesystemarevir-tuallynonexistent,Jatavsaremorelikeadistinctandde-spisedethnicgroup.PoliticalOrganization.InpreindependentIndiaJatavsgainedconsiderablepoliticalexpertisebyformingassocia-tionsandbydevelopingaliteratecadre of leaders.Theytriedtochangetheirpositioninthecastesystemthrough'Sanskri-tization,"theemulation of upper-castebehavior.JatavsclaimedKshatriyaorwarrior-classoriginandrank,andtheyorganizedcasteassociationstoreformcastebehaviorandlobbyfortheirclaims.AfterindependenceIndialegallyabol-ishedthepractice of untouchability,establishedtheuniversalfranchise,anddevelopedthepolicy of "protectivediscrimina-tion."ThatpolicyreserveselectoralconstituenciesforSched-uledCastecandidatesaccordingtotheirpercentages of pop-ulationinthenationandthestates;itdoeslikewiseforjobsinthenationalandstatecivilservices;anditofferseducationalbenefitstothem.Jatavshavetakenadvantage of thatpolicyandturnedtoactiveparticipationinIndia'sparliamentarysystem of government.Attimestheyhaveelectedmembers of theircastetovariousstateandnationallegislatures.Invil-lagestheyhavebeenlesssuccessfulatinfluencinglocalpoliti-calinstitutionsandcapturingfundsmeantfordevelopmentalprojects.AmajorinfluenceuponJatavswastheUntouchableleaderDr.B.RAmbedkar(d.1956)whoencouragedUn-touchablestofightfortheirrights,and,asfirstministerforlawinIndia,providedapowerfulrolemodel.Throughtheirpoliticaleffortshisstatueandpicturemaybefoundinpublicparksandbusstations,symbolicallyassertingtheirquestforequalcitizenshipinthenation.SocialControl.Everydaycontrolandleadership of localcommunitieswastraditionallyinthehands of hereditaryheadmen(chaudhari).Seriouscases of conflict,breaches of casterules,andothercaste-relatedproblemsweredecidedbycouncils of adultmen(panchayat)ineachlocality.Inthepast,higher-levelcouncilsexistedformoreseriouscasesorforappeals.Thecouncilsystemandthepowers of hereditaryheadmenhavegraduallyeroded,especiallyincitieswherethecourtsandthemoreeducatedandpoliticallyinvolvedleadersandbusinessmenhavebecomemoreprominentandin-fluential.Conflict.Conflictsarisewithinandbetweenfamiliesandindividualsovermoney,children,inheritanceclaims,drink-ing,insults,andthelike.Inrecentyearsconflicts,bothincit-iesandvillages,havetakenapoliticalturnasJatavs,andotherUntouchables,havetriedtoasserttheirrights.Non-Untouchablecasteshavereactednegatively.Seriousriotsbe-tweenJatavsanduppercasteshaveoccurredincities,suchasAgra,anddangerousconflictshavealsooccurredinvillages.Jatavsfeelthatthepace of changeismuchtooslow,whileuppercasteshaverejecteditastoofast,unjustified,andcon-trarytoorthodoxHinduteaching.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Ingeneral,JatavsandotherChamarsareHindus.Theyreject,however,theHinduteachingthatmakesthemUntouchables,aswellastheBrahmanpriestswhowrotethesacredtextssodefiningthem.MostmajorHindufestivals,particularlyHoli,areobserved,asaremajorlife-cycleceremonies.InpostindependentIndiaJatavsmayentermajorHindutemplesandvisitpilgrimagespots.SomeChamarsaredevotees of theChamarsaintRaviDas.Anum-ber of JatavshavefollowedDr.AmbedkarandconvertedtoBuddhismasarejection of thecastesystemandasanasser-tion of theequality of allindividuals.Buddhismforthemisapoliticalideologyinreligiousform.Ambedkarhimselfhasbeenapotheosizedasabodhisattva;hisbirthdayisthemajorpublicJatavfestival.Beliefisinthemajordeities of Hindu-ism,especiallyintheirlocalizedforms.TheBuddhaandDr.Ambedkarhavebecomepart of thepantheon.Ghosts of thosewhodiedbeforetheirtime(bhut)andotherspiritsarebelievedtobeabletopossessorharmlivingpeople;fear of theevileyeisalsowidespread.ReligiousPractitioners.BrahmanprieststraditionallyhavenotservedJatavsandotherUntouchables.Insteadlocalheadmenhaveofficiatedatrituals.Shamans(bhagat),whoaresometimesJatavs,havebeenknowntobeconsultedincases of spiritpossessionandotherillnesses.Ceremonies.Life-cycleceremoniesatbirth,firsthaircut-ting,marriage,anddeatharethemajorpublicceremonies.Marriageisthemostimportantritualasitinvolvespublicfeasts,thehonor of thegirl'sfamily,cooperation of neighborsandspecifickin,andgiftgivingoveryearstothefamilies of marrieddaughters.Deathritualsalsorequireparticipation of agnatesandmaleneighborstocrematethecorpseimmedi-atelyand of womentokeenritually.Verysmallchildrenareburied.Memorialfeastsormealsforthedeadaregivenoveraperiod of ayear.Arts.Theverbalarts,particularlythecomposition of vari-ousforms of poetry,arecultivated,asistheskillinsingingvariousforms of song.Medicine.Folkremediesareusedandpractitioners of Ayurvedic,Unani,andhomeopathicmedicinesarecon-sulted.Modemmedicinesandphysiciansareusedwhenaffordable.DeathandAfterlife.Beliefintransmigration of soulsiswidespread,andsomebelieveinanafterlifeinHeaven(Svarg)orHell(Narak).Asontoperformthefuneralobse-quiesisessential.Thedeadsoullingersafterdeathbutpassesonafteranumber of days.SeealsoNeo-Buddhist;UntouchablesBibliographyBriggs,GeorgeW.(1920).TheChamars.Calcutta:Associa-tionPress.Cohn,Bernard(1954)."TheCamars of Senapur:AStudy of Jat111HistoryandCulturalRelationsLittleisknownabouttheearlyhistory of theJat,althoughseveraltheorieswereadvancedbyvariousscholarsoverthelast100years.Whilesomeauthorsarguethattheyarede-scendants of thefirstIndo-Aryans,otherssuggestthattheyare of Indo-ScythianstockandenteredIndiatowardthebe-ginning of theChristianera.TheseauthorsalsopointtosomeculturalsimilaritiesbetweentheJatandcertainothermajorcommunities of thearea,suchastheGujar,theAhir,andtheRajput,aboutwhoseoriginssimilartheorieshavebeensuggested.Infact,amongbothMuslimsandSikhstheJatandtheRajputcastesenjoyalmostequalstatus-partlybecause of thebasicegalitarianideologyenjoinedbybothre-ligions,butmainlybecause of thesimilarpoliticalandeco-nomicpowerheldbybothcommunities.AlsoHinduJatcon-sidertheGujarandAhirasalliedcastes;exceptfortherule of casteendogamy,therearenocasterestrictionsbetweenthesethreecommunities.Inotherscholarlydebatesabouttheori-gins of theJat,attemptshavebeenmadetoidentifythemwiththeJarttika,referredtointheHinduepictheMahabharata.SomestillmaintainthatthepeopleArabhisto-riansreferredtoastheZutt,andwhoweretakenasprisonersintheeighthcenturyfromSindhinpresent-daysouthernPa-kistantosouthernIraq,wereactuallybuffalo-herdingJat,orwereatleastknownassuchintheirplace of origin.Inthesev-enteenthcenturya(Hindu)kingdomwasestablishedinthearea of BharatpurandDholpur(Rajasthan)innorthernIndia;itwastheoutcome of manycenturies of rebellionagainsttheMogulEmpire,anditlastedtill1826,whenitwasdefeatedbytheforces of theBritishEastIndiaCompany.Farthernorth,inthePunjab,intheearlyyears of theeight-eenthcentury,Jat(mainlySikh)organizedpeasantuprisingsagainstthepredominantlyMuslimlandedgentry;subse-quently,withtheinvasion of thearea-firstbythePersianKingNadirShahandthenbytheAfghanAhmadShahAbdali-theycontrolledamajorpart of theareathroughclose-knitbands of armedmaraudersoperatingundertheleadership of thelandowningchiefs of well-definedterritor-ies.Because of theirmartialtraditions,theJat,togetherwithcertainothercommunities,wereclassifiedbyBritishadminis-trators of imperialIndiaasa'martialrace,"andthistermhadcertainlong-lastingeffects.Onewastheirlarge-scalerecruit-mentintotheBritish-Indianarmy,andtothisdayaverylargenumber of JataresoldiersintheIndianarmy.ManySikhJatintheIndianpart of Punjabareinvolvedinthecurrentmove-mentforthecreation of anautonomousKhalistan.SettlementsTheJatasawholearepredominantlyrural.Dependingonwhethertheyaresedentaryornomadic,theJat of variousre-gionsliveinpermanentvillagesortemporarycamps.Overthelast200yearstherehasbeenincreasingsedentarization of no-madicJat;thistrendbeganinthelastdecades of theeight-eenthcenturywhenmanypastoralistssettledinthecentralPunjabundertheauspices of Sikhrulethere,anditcontin-uedoveraverylargeareawiththeexpansion of irrigationinBritishimperialtimes.Withtheconsequentexpansion of cul-tivationallthesepastoralistsarefacingincreasingdifficultiesinfindinggrazinglandsfortheirherds.Thebuffalobreedersfacethemaximumdifficultiesinthisrespect,sincetheirani-malsneedtobegrazedin ... herfourgrandpar-entalclansincommonwithhis.Polygynyisallowedthoughnotcommon,andthecustom of adelphicpolyandry,orthesexualaccessbyanunmarriedmantohisbrother'swife-whichwasoftenpracticedbyatleastnon-MuslimpeasantJat,inordertopreventfurtherfragmentation of land-hasde-clinedinrecentdecades.AmongallJat,widowremarriageispermitted;eitherlevirateisrequiredorawidowisnotallowedtoremarryoutsidethemaximallineage,especiallywhenshehaschildrenbyherlatehusband.Thepractice of femalein-fanticide,alsoknownamongthepeasants,hasdroppedsharply.Awoman'srelationshipwithherhusband'skinisor-ganizedaccordingtoabasicpattern of avoidancewithseniorsand of jokingwiththoseyoungerthanthehusband.Brothersshareacommondutytowardtheirsistersandtheirchildren.DomesticUnit.MostJatpeasanthouseholdsconsist of linealjointfamilies,withtheparentsandonemarriedson;manyunitsarenuclearandsomearecollateral-joint,withtwomarriedbrothersandtheiroffspringlivingtogether.AmongnomadicJatthenuclearfamilyandthelinealjointfamilyarethemostcommondomesticunits.Inheritance.Amongthosewithland,allsonsinheritequalsharesinterms of bothquantityandquality.Formerly,aman'swivessharedequallyonbehalf of theirsons,irrespec-tive of thenumber of sonseachhad.Althoughintheoryin-heritance of landfollowsastrictlyagnaticprincipleanddaughtersandsistersdonotinherit,daughters'sonshavebeenobserveddefactotobeamongtheinheritorsinmanycases.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialandPoliticalOrganization.AllJataredividedintopatricians;amongthesedentarycommunities,each of thesehasahereditaryheadman.Byandlarge,thevillagesinwhichJatfarmerslive,togetherwithnon-Jat,areunderthejurisdic-tion of aclancouncil,andthiscouncil, of whicheveryclanheadmanisamember,isthedecision-makingunitatthecommunitylevel.TraditionallyinthesevillagesJatfarmerswereintegratedaspatronsintothepatron-clientsystemprev-alentinthearea.Theirclientsweremembers of variousserv-icecastes;however,thissystemhaslargelybrokendowntoday.WealthyJatlandownershaveenteredlocal,regional,andevennationalpoliticssincethebeginning of thiscentury,andinmanyareastheyarestillactiveasinfluentialrepresen-tatives of farmersandruralfolkingeneral.Amongthepasto-ralJat of theIndusDelta,theclansareorganizedonthehier-archicalprinciple of age,withtheoldestman of theoldestlineagebeingatthehead of thepyramid,followedbytheeldestmen of theyoungerlineages.Institutionalizedauthor-ityoverthisentiregrouprestsnotwithaJatbutwithaKarmati-Baluch.Conflict.Afrequentsource of conflictwithintheminimallineageisland;suchconflictsoftentakeplacebetweenag-naticcollaterals,sincetheirlandsusuallybordereachother.Factionalconflictisfairlycommonatabroaderlevel.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefsandCeremonies.AJatcanbeHindu,Muslim,orSikh,andin1931over50percent of theentireSikhpopulationwasconstitutedbyJat.Manyceremonies,es-peciallythoseaccompanyingtherites of passage,arecommontoallJat,irrespective of religiousdenomination.AmongHinduJatthereareinadditionnumerouslocalormorewidelyprevalentreligiousbeliefsandobservances.Thesein-cludeknowledge of certainbutbynomeansallmajormytho-logicalfigures(godsandgoddesses) of theSanskritctradi-tionandthecelebration of severalfestivals,bothseasonalandannual,both of theall-IndianHinduGreatTraditionand of thelocalizedLittleTradition.TheMuslimJatpopula-tionshaveastrongtradition of veneratingalargenumber of localsaints(pir).AlthoughmostareofficiallySunni,theyhavealargenumber of Shiatraditions,andonegroup of JatareIsmaelis.TillrecentlySikhJat,thoughveryconscious of theirdistinctreligiousidentity,werenotverymeticulousintheirobservance of theprecepts of Sikhism.Most of them110Jainlivesbutseekingtoadheretotheprinciple of ahimsain ... aremakingthemselvesfeltasadistinctivepresencewithinthewider South Asianmigrantcommunityoverseas.SeealsoBaniaBibliographyBanks,Marcus(1992).OrganizingJainisminIndiaandEng-land.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Carrithers,Michael,andCarolineHumphrey,eds.(1991).TheAssembly of Listeners:JainsinSociety.Cambridge:Cam-bridgeUniversityPress.Dundas,Paul(1992).TheJains.London:Routledge.Fischer,Eberhard,andJyotindrajain(1977).ArtandRituals:2,500Years of JainisminIndia.Delhi:SterlingPublishersPri-vateLtd.Jaini,PadmanabhS.(1979).TheJainaPath of Purification.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.Mathias,Marie-Claude(1985).DIlivranceetconviviality:LesystemeculinairedesJaina.Paris:EditionsdelaMaisondesSciencesdel'Homme.Pande,G.C.,ed.(1978).SramanaTradition:ItsContributiontoIndianCulture.Ahmedabad:L.D.Institute of Indology.Sangave,VilasA.(1959).JainaCommunity:ASocialSurvey.Reprint.1980.Bombay:PopularBookDepotVinayasagar,Mahopadhyaya,andMukundLath,eds.andtrans.(1977).KalpaSutra.Jaipur:D.R.Mehta,PrakritBharati.MARCUSBANKSJatETHNONYMS:Jt,JatOrientationIdentificationandLocation.Primarilyendogamouscom-munitiescallingthemselvesandknownasJatlivepredomi-nantlyinlargeparts of northernandnorthwesternIndiaandinsouthernandeasternPakistan,assedentaryfarmersand/ormobilepastoralists.Incertainareastheytendtocallthem-selvesBaluch,Pathan,orRajput,ratherthanJat.Most of thesecommunitiesareintegratedasacasteintothelocallyprevalentcastesystem.Inthepastthreedecadesincreasingpopulationpressureonlandhasledtolarge-scaleemigration of thepeasantJat,especiallyfromIndia,toNorthAmerica,theUnitedKingdom,Malaysia,andmorerecentlytheMid-dleEast.SomemaintainthatthesedentaryfarmingJatandthenomadicpastoralJatare of entirelydifferentorigins;oth-ersbelievethatthetwogroupsare of thesamestockbutthattheydevelopeddifferentlife-stylesoverthecenturies.Neitherthefarmersnorthepastoralistsare,however,tobeconfusedwithotherdistinctcommunities of peripateticpeddlers,arti-sans,andentertainersdesignatedinAfghanistanbytheblan-ketterms"Jat"orJat;thelattertermsareconsideredpejora-tive,andtheyarerejectedasethnonymsbytheseperipateticcommunities.InPakistanalso,amongtheBaluchi-andPashto-speakingpopulations,thetermswere,andtoacertainextentstillare,usedtoindicatecontemptandlowersocialstatus.Demography.Noreliablefiguresareavailableforrecentyears.In1931thepopulation of allsedentaryandfarmingJatwasestimatedat8,377,819;intheearly1960s8,000,000wastheestimateforPakistanalone.TodaytheentireJatpopula-tionconsists of severalmillionmorethanthat.linguisticAffiliation.AllJatspeaklanguagesanddialectsthatarecloselyconnectedwithotherlocallyspokenlan-guages of theIndo-IranianGroup.Threealphabetsareused,dependingprimarilyonreligionbutpartlyonlocality:theArabic-derivedUrduoneisusedbyMuslims,whileSikhsandHindususetheGurmukhi(Punjabi)andtheDevanagari(Hindi)scripts,respectively.Jatav115ciallytobedependentuponthemother,whomayinturnbe-comedependentupontheminoldage.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InIndia'svillagesthecastesystemisanorganicdivision of labor,eachcastehavingatraditionallyassignedanddistinctoccupationandduty.BecauseJatavs,asChamars,dothepollutingandpollutedtasks of removingdeadcattlefromthevillageand of workingwithleather,theyarerankedasUntouchablesatthebottom of thesystem.Tra-ditionally,theirmajoroccupationinthevillagewasagricul-turalandothermeniallaborforlandowners.Incities,wherethetraditionalinterdependencies of thecastesystemarevir-tuallynonexistent,Jatavsaremorelikeadistinctandde-spisedethnicgroup.PoliticalOrganization.InpreindependentIndiaJatavsgainedconsiderablepoliticalexpertisebyformingassocia-tionsandbydevelopingaliteratecadre of leaders.Theytriedtochangetheirpositioninthecastesystemthrough'Sanskri-tization,"theemulation of upper-castebehavior.JatavsclaimedKshatriyaorwarrior-classoriginandrank,andtheyorganizedcasteassociationstoreformcastebehaviorandlobbyfortheirclaims.AfterindependenceIndialegallyabol-ishedthepractice of untouchability,establishedtheuniversalfranchise,anddevelopedthepolicy of "protectivediscrimina-tion."ThatpolicyreserveselectoralconstituenciesforSched-uledCastecandidatesaccordingtotheirpercentages of pop-ulationinthenationandthestates;itdoeslikewiseforjobsinthenationalandstatecivilservices;anditofferseducationalbenefitstothem.Jatavshavetakenadvantage of thatpolicyandturnedtoactiveparticipationinIndia'sparliamentarysystem of government.Attimestheyhaveelectedmembers of theircastetovariousstateandnationallegislatures.Invil-lagestheyhavebeenlesssuccessfulatinfluencinglocalpoliti-calinstitutionsandcapturingfundsmeantfordevelopmentalprojects.AmajorinfluenceuponJatavswastheUntouchableleaderDr.B.RAmbedkar(d.1956)whoencouragedUn-touchablestofightfortheirrights,and,asfirstministerforlawinIndia,providedapowerfulrolemodel.Throughtheirpoliticaleffortshisstatueandpicturemaybefoundinpublicparksandbusstations,symbolicallyassertingtheirquestforequalcitizenshipinthenation.SocialControl.Everydaycontrolandleadership of localcommunitieswastraditionallyinthehands of hereditaryheadmen(chaudhari).Seriouscases of conflict,breaches of casterules,andothercaste-relatedproblemsweredecidedbycouncils of adultmen(panchayat)ineachlocality.Inthepast,higher-levelcouncilsexistedformoreseriouscasesorforappeals.Thecouncilsystemandthepowers of hereditaryheadmenhavegraduallyeroded,especiallyincitieswherethecourtsandthemoreeducatedandpoliticallyinvolvedleadersandbusinessmenhavebecomemoreprominentandin-fluential.Conflict.Conflictsarisewithinandbetweenfamiliesandindividualsovermoney,children,inheritanceclaims,drink-ing,insults,andthelike.Inrecentyearsconflicts,bothincit-iesandvillages,havetakenapoliticalturnasJatavs,andotherUntouchables,havetriedtoasserttheirrights.Non-Untouchablecasteshavereactednegatively.Seriousriotsbe-tweenJatavsanduppercasteshaveoccurredincities,suchasAgra,anddangerousconflictshavealsooccurredinvillages.Jatavsfeelthatthepace of changeismuchtooslow,whileuppercasteshaverejecteditastoofast,unjustified,andcon-trarytoorthodoxHinduteaching.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Ingeneral,JatavsandotherChamarsareHindus.Theyreject,however,theHinduteachingthatmakesthemUntouchables,aswellastheBrahmanpriestswhowrotethesacredtextssodefiningthem.MostmajorHindufestivals,particularlyHoli,areobserved,asaremajorlife-cycleceremonies.InpostindependentIndiaJatavsmayentermajorHindutemplesandvisitpilgrimagespots.SomeChamarsaredevotees of theChamarsaintRaviDas.Anum-ber of JatavshavefollowedDr.AmbedkarandconvertedtoBuddhismasarejection of thecastesystemandasanasser-tion of theequality of allindividuals.Buddhismforthemisapoliticalideologyinreligiousform.Ambedkarhimselfhasbeenapotheosizedasabodhisattva;hisbirthdayisthemajorpublicJatavfestival.Beliefisinthemajordeities of Hindu-ism,especiallyintheirlocalizedforms.TheBuddhaandDr.Ambedkarhavebecomepart of thepantheon.Ghosts of thosewhodiedbeforetheirtime(bhut)andotherspiritsarebelievedtobeabletopossessorharmlivingpeople;fear of theevileyeisalsowidespread.ReligiousPractitioners.BrahmanprieststraditionallyhavenotservedJatavsandotherUntouchables.Insteadlocalheadmenhaveofficiatedatrituals.Shamans(bhagat),whoaresometimesJatavs,havebeenknowntobeconsultedincases of spiritpossessionandotherillnesses.Ceremonies.Life-cycleceremoniesatbirth,firsthaircut-ting,marriage,anddeatharethemajorpublicceremonies.Marriageisthemostimportantritualasitinvolvespublicfeasts,thehonor of thegirl'sfamily,cooperation of neighborsandspecifickin,andgiftgivingoveryearstothefamilies of marrieddaughters.Deathritualsalsorequireparticipation of agnatesandmaleneighborstocrematethecorpseimmedi-atelyand of womentokeenritually.Verysmallchildrenareburied.Memorialfeastsormealsforthedeadaregivenoveraperiod of ayear.Arts.Theverbalarts,particularlythecomposition of vari-ousforms of poetry,arecultivated,asistheskillinsingingvariousforms of song.Medicine.Folkremediesareusedandpractitioners of Ayurvedic,Unani,andhomeopathicmedicinesarecon-sulted.Modemmedicinesandphysiciansareusedwhenaffordable.DeathandAfterlife.Beliefintransmigration of soulsiswidespread,andsomebelieveinanafterlifeinHeaven(Svarg)orHell(Narak).Asontoperformthefuneralobse-quiesisessential.Thedeadsoullingersafterdeathbutpassesonafteranumber of days.SeealsoNeo-Buddhist;UntouchablesBibliographyBriggs,GeorgeW.(1920).TheChamars.Calcutta:Associa-tionPress.Cohn,Bernard(1954)."TheCamars of Senapur:AStudy of Jat111HistoryandCulturalRelationsLittleisknownabouttheearlyhistory of theJat,althoughseveraltheorieswereadvancedbyvariousscholarsoverthelast100years.Whilesomeauthorsarguethattheyarede-scendants of thefirstIndo-Aryans,otherssuggestthattheyare of Indo-ScythianstockandenteredIndiatowardthebe-ginning of theChristianera.TheseauthorsalsopointtosomeculturalsimilaritiesbetweentheJatandcertainothermajorcommunities of thearea,suchastheGujar,theAhir,andtheRajput,aboutwhoseoriginssimilartheorieshavebeensuggested.Infact,amongbothMuslimsandSikhstheJatandtheRajputcastesenjoyalmostequalstatus-partlybecause of thebasicegalitarianideologyenjoinedbybothre-ligions,butmainlybecause of thesimilarpoliticalandeco-nomicpowerheldbybothcommunities.AlsoHinduJatcon-sidertheGujarandAhirasalliedcastes;exceptfortherule of casteendogamy,therearenocasterestrictionsbetweenthesethreecommunities.Inotherscholarlydebatesabouttheori-gins of theJat,attemptshavebeenmadetoidentifythemwiththeJarttika,referredtointheHinduepictheMahabharata.SomestillmaintainthatthepeopleArabhisto-riansreferredtoastheZutt,andwhoweretakenasprisonersintheeighthcenturyfromSindhinpresent-daysouthernPa-kistantosouthernIraq,wereactuallybuffalo-herdingJat,orwereatleastknownassuchintheirplace of origin.Inthesev-enteenthcenturya(Hindu)kingdomwasestablishedinthearea of BharatpurandDholpur(Rajasthan)innorthernIndia;itwastheoutcome of manycenturies of rebellionagainsttheMogulEmpire,anditlastedtill1826,whenitwasdefeatedbytheforces of theBritishEastIndiaCompany.Farthernorth,inthePunjab,intheearlyyears of theeight-eenthcentury,Jat(mainlySikh)organizedpeasantuprisingsagainstthepredominantlyMuslimlandedgentry;subse-quently,withtheinvasion of thearea-firstbythePersianKingNadirShahandthenbytheAfghanAhmadShahAbdali-theycontrolledamajorpart of theareathroughclose-knitbands of armedmaraudersoperatingundertheleadership of thelandowningchiefs of well-definedterritor-ies.Because of theirmartialtraditions,theJat,togetherwithcertainothercommunities,wereclassifiedbyBritishadminis-trators of imperialIndiaasa'martialrace,"andthistermhadcertainlong-lastingeffects.Onewastheirlarge-scalerecruit-mentintotheBritish-Indianarmy,andtothisdayaverylargenumber of JataresoldiersintheIndianarmy.ManySikhJatintheIndianpart of Punjabareinvolvedinthecurrentmove-mentforthecreation of anautonomousKhalistan.SettlementsTheJatasawholearepredominantlyrural.Dependingonwhethertheyaresedentaryornomadic,theJat of variousre-gionsliveinpermanentvillagesortemporarycamps.Overthelast200yearstherehasbeenincreasingsedentarization of no-madicJat;thistrendbeganinthelastdecades of theeight-eenthcenturywhenmanypastoralistssettledinthecentralPunjabundertheauspices of Sikhrulethere,anditcontin-uedoveraverylargeareawiththeexpansion of irrigationinBritishimperialtimes.Withtheconsequentexpansion of cul-tivationallthesepastoralistsarefacingincreasingdifficultiesinfindinggrazinglandsfortheirherds.Thebuffalobreedersfacethemaximumdifficultiesinthisrespect,sincetheirani-malsneedtobegrazedin...