Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - Overview pot

... ContentsProjectStaffviContributorsviiPrefacexiiiIntroductionxixMaps1. South Asia xxviii2.CulturalRegions of South Asia xxix3.MajorLanguages of South Asia xxx4.DominantReligiousGroups of South Asia xxxi5.CulturalGroups of South Asia xxxii Cultures of South Asia 1Appendix:AdditionalCastes,CasteClusters,andTribes309Bibliography342EthnonymIndextoAppendix349Glossary363Filmography367Index372Bibliography373Directory of Distributors373EthnonymIndex375Introductionxxipopulationin1990 ... features of ordinarylifeinthesubcontinent.Withoutclaiminganyfa-vorites,wewillsimplypointtothework of AhmadAli,MulkRajAnand,BankimChandraChatterjee,NiradC.Chaud-huri,AnitaDesai,RuthPrawerJhabvala,HanifKureishi,ManoharMalgonkar,KamalaMarkandaya,VedMehta,W.D.Merchant,RohintonMistry,RK.Narayan,RajaRao,SalmanRushdie,KushwantSingh,andRabindranathTagore(theirmanybooksarenotlistedinthefollowingbibliogra-phy). Of BritishliteraturedealingwiththeoldIndiathereisamassiveamount:mostoutstandingsurelyareRudyardKipling'sshortstories,E.M.Forster'sAPassagetoIndia(1924),andLeonardWoolf'sVillageintheJungle(1913).AfineintroductiontoIndianreligionsandphilosophywaseditedbydeBary(1958),anewedition of whichwasre-centlyprepared.Verysimilarinitscoverage of HinduismandBuddhism,andlikethepreceding volume featuringmanytranslationsfromtheclassics,isRadhakrishnanandMoore(1957).AnothersuccinctintroductiontoIndianphilosophyisBishop(1975).Aconcisedictionary of HinduismisStutleyandStutley(1977);Garrett(187 1-1 873),thoughold,mayalsoberecommended.Thenaturalhistory of thesubcontinenthasbeenstudiedinincredibledetail,andsothereare,forexample,excellenthandbooksontheflora of eachregion(most of themnowquiteold,however).Asuperbnewencyclopedicsurveythatcoversflora,fauna,geography,geology,andclimatologyinasingle volume iseditedbyHawkins(1986).Alsoveryusefulforitsbotanical,zoological,andhistoricalinformation(al-thoughnotforitsout -of- dateeconomicdata)isWatt(1908),whichisaone -volume abridgment of ADictionary of theEconomicProducts of Indiathathewrotein188 5-1 893.Amodem encyclopedia that ... IntroductionxxviiWilliams,L.F.Rushbrook,ed.(1975).AHandbookfo'rTravellersinIndia,Pakistan,Nepal,Bangladesh&SriLanka(Ceylon).22nded.London:JohnMurray.Yule,Henry,andA.C.Burnell(1903).Hobson-Jobson,AGlossary of ColoquialAnglo-IndianWordsandPhrases,and of KindredTerms,Etymological,Historical,Geographical,andDiscursive.Rev.ed.London:JohnMurray.Reprint.1968.NewYork.HumanitiesPress;numerousreissues.PAULHOCKINGSPrefacexviitheproject,andnotjustfortheirownvolumesbutalsofortheprojectasawhole.TimothyO'Leary,TerenceHays,andPaulHockingsdeservespecialthanksfortheircommentsonthisprefaceandtheglossary,asdoesMelvinEmber,presi-dent of theHumanRelationsAreaFiles.Members of the of- ficeandtechnicalstaffalsomustbethankedforsoquicklyandcarefullyattendingtothemanytasksaproject of thissizeinevitablygenerates.TheyareErlindaMaramba,AbrahamMaramba,VictoriaCrocco,NancyGratton,andDouglasBlack.AtMacmillanandG.K.Hall,the encyclopedia hasbenefitedfromthewiseandcarefuleditorialmanagement of EllyDickason,ElizabethKubik,andElizabethHolthaus,andtheeditorialandproductionmanagement of AraSalibian.Finally,IwouldliketothankMelvinEmberandtheboard of directors of theHumanRelationsAreaFilesfortheiradministrativeandintellectualsupportforthisproject.DAVIDLEVINSONReferencesMurdock,GeorgePeter(1967).EthnographicAtlas.Pitts-burgh,Penn.,University of PittsburghPress.Murdock,GeorgePeter(1983).Outline of World Cultures. 6threv.ed.NewHaven,Conn.,HumanRelationsAreaFiles. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD CULTURES DavidLevinsonEditorinChiefNorthAmericaOceania South Asia Europe(Central,Western,andSoutheasternEurope)EastandSoutheast Asia SovietUnion(EasternEuropeandRussia)andChina South AmericaMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanAfricaandtheMiddleEastBibliographyThe Encyclopedia of World Cultures waspreparedundertheauspicesandwiththesupport of theHumanRelationsAreaFilesatYaleUniversity.HRAF,theforemostinternationalresearchorganizationinthefield of cul-turalanthropology,isanot-for-profitconsortium of twenty-threesponsor-ingmembersand300participatingmemberinstitutionsintwenty-fivecoun-tries.TheHRAFarchive,establishedin1949,containsnearlyonemillionpages of informationonthe cultures of the world. xContributorsTrilokiNathMadanInstitute of EconomicGrowthUniversity of DelhiDelhiIndiaL.K.MahapatraSambalpurUniversitySambalpur,OrissaIndiaClarenceMaloneyLouisBerger,International,Inc.NewDelhiIndiaJoanP.MencherDepartment of AnthropologyHerbertH.LehmanCollegeCityUniversity of NewYorkBronx,NewYorkUnitedStatesW.D.MerchantDepartment of SocialandBehavioralSciences South SuburbanCollege South Holland,IllinoisUnitedStatesPromodeKumarMisraDepartment of AnthropologyNorth-EasternHillUniversityShillong,MeghalayaIndiaBrianMorrisDepartment of SocialAnthropologyGoldsmiths'CollegeUniversity of LondonLondonUnitedKingdomNilsFinnMunch-PetersenLouisBerger,International,Inc.NewDelhiIndiaSerenaNandaDepartment of AnthropologyJohnJayCollege of CriminalJusticeCityUniversity of NewYorkNewYork,NewYorkUnitedStatesWilliamA.NobleDepartment of GeographyUniversity of MissouriColumbia,MissouriUnitedStatesPandit of KashmirOriyaDivehi;TamilNambudiriBrahman;NayarBania;Castes,Hindu;Maratha;ParsiPeripateticsHillPandaramDivehiHijraIruLaProjectStaffEditorialBoardResearchSaraJ.DickJayDiMaggioAlliyaS.ElahiSarwatS.ElahiNancyE.GrattonLeShonKimbleSaidehMoayed-SanandajiHughR.Page,Jr.AngelitoPalmaEditorialandProductionEllyDickasonEvaKitsosAbrahamMarambaVictoriaCroccoElizabethHolthausAraSalibianLindaA.BennettMemphisStateUniversityEuropeFernandoCamaraBarbachanoInstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCityMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanNormaJ.DiamondUniversity of MichiganChinaPaulFriedrichUniversity of ChicagoSovietUnionTerenceE.HaysRhodeIslandCollegeOceaniaCartographyRobertSullivanRhodeIslandCollegePaulHockingsUniversity of IllinoisatChicago South andSoutheast Asia RobertV.KemperSouthernMethodistUniversityMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanKazukoMatsuzawaNationalMuseum of Ethnology,OsakaEast Asia JohnH.MiddletonYaleUniversityAfricaTimothyJ.O'LearyHumanRelationsAreaFilesNorthAmericaAmalRassamQueensCollegeandtheGraduateCenter of theCityUniversity of NewYorkMiddleEastJohannesWilbertUniversity of CaliforniaatLosAngeles South AmericaviContributorsxiAlfredPach III Department of MedicalEducationUniversity of IllinoisatChicagoChicago,IllinoisUnitedStatesHughR.Page,Jr.Department of ReligiousStudiesCaliforniaStateUniversitySacramento,CaliforniaUnitedStatesVishvajitPandyaWestminsterCollegeFulton,MissouriUnitedStatesRobertParkinInstitutfurEthnologieFreieUniversititzuBerlinBerlinGermanyRobertPaulDepartment of AnthropologyEmoryUniversityAtlanta,GeorgiaUnitedStatesBryanPfaffenbergerDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of VirginiaCharlottesville,VirginiaUnitedStatesMohammedHabiburRahmanDepartment of SociologyUniversity of DhakaDhakaBangladeshAparnaRaoInstitutfurV6lkerkundeUniversititzuKolnKolnGermanySankarKumarRoyDepartment of AnthropologyGauhatiUniversityGuwahati,AssamIndiaGhanshyamShahCentreforSocialStudies South GujaratUniversitySurat,GujaratIndiaNepaliAbor;Baiga;Bondo;Burusho;Khasi;Lakher;Nagas;Purum;SadhuAndamaneseMundaSherpaSinhalese;Tamil of SriLankaChakmaJatGaroGujaratiMEASUREMENTCONVERSIONS1992bytheHumanRelationsAreaFiles,Inc.Firstpublishedin1991byG.K.Hall&Co.1633Broadway,NewYork,NY10019,6785Allrightsreserved.Allrightsreserved.Nopart of thisbookmaybereproducedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,orbyanyinformationstorageorretrievalsystemwithoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.10Library of CongressCataloginginPublicationData(Revisedfor volume 3) Encyclopedia of world cultures. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindexes.Filmography:v.1,p.40 7-4 15.Contents:v.1.NorthAmerica/TimothyJ.O'Leary,DavidLevinson, volume editors...

... herhusband'sproperty.Socialization.Motherandchildareconsideredpollutinguntiltheeleventhdayafterbirth,whenapurifyingceremonyisconductedandthebabyisgivenaname.Thefirstfeeding of rice,calledpasni,isgivenafter5monthsforagirland7monthsforaboy.Aboy'sheadisshavedatabout7years of age(asmalltuft of hairisleftonthebackasasignthatheisaHindu),andheisformallyinitiatedintofullcastemember-shipwhenhereceivesthesacredthread,eitheratthetime of thehaircutorafewyearslater.Atherfirstmenstruationagirlisremovedtoanotherhouse,wheresheisshieldedfromthesight of anymeninherfamilyandfromthesun.Bothparentsparticipateinraisingtheirchildren,butwomenperformmost of thechildcare,especiallyinthepreteenyears.Fathersactasdisciplinariansastheirchildrengrowolder.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Acastesystemprevails,withtheBrahmansandChhetrisoccupyingaveryhighpositioninit.PoliticalOrganization.Villagepoliticallifetendstofol-lowitsowndynamic,regardless of changesinthenationalpo-liticalscene.Villageaffairstendtobemanagedbyformalorinformalcouncils of villageeldersinwhichBrahmansandChhetris,byvirtue of theirstatusaslandholdersandtheirrel-ativelyhighereducation,oftenplayprominentroles.Nation-allytheking,whoseancestorunifiedthecountryinroughlyitspresentformattheend of theeighteenthcentury,hasal-waysbeenaThakuri,anaristocraticsection of Chhetris.TheRanafamily,whichprovidedallprimeministersfrom1846till1950andisstillpowerfulinthegovernmentandarmy,isalsoChhetri.ThemovementtooverthrowtheRanasandsubsequentpoliticalmovementsaimedatdemocraticorso-cialistreformhavefrequentlybeenledbyBrahmansandChhetris.SocialControl.Until1963Nepal'sMulkiAin(nationalcode)explicitlystatedwhichactivitieswereproperforeachcastegroupandprescribedpenaltiesforinfractions of thelaw.Sincethecode'srevisionin1963,theMulkiAintreatsallcitizensequallyunderthelaw.Conflict.Thoseconflictsthatcannotbesettledthroughinformalmeansatthevillagelevelarereferredtothelegalandjudicialsystem of Nepal.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.AllBrahmansandChhetrisareHindusandsubscribetomost of thebasicHindubeliefs.Atamini-mumtheseincludethreenotions.Oneisdharma-theideathateachpersonhasaspecificduty,moralcode,andset of behaviorswhichareentailedbyvirtue of membershipinagroup(suchasacastegroup).Anotherideaisthat of karma-sometimeslikenedto'causeandeffect,"becauseitexplainswhateverpresentstate of affairsexistsinterms of theeventsinpreviouslivesthatproducedit.Thethirdismoksha(salvation)-releasefromtheround of rebirthsthatreincar-nationinvolves.ReligiousPractitioners.Brahmansmayactasfamilypriests(forBrahmanandChhetrihouseholds,butnotforothercastesandethnicgroups),aswellasofficiateatshrinesandtemplesandatritualsassociatedwithmajorfestivals.Theyalsohandlealltheritualsperformedduringmarriage.Theyaregenerallypresentonreligiousoccasionsandreadex-cerptsfromtheVedasorotherSanskrittexts.TheyalsorecitefromthePuranasandfromthetwogreatHinduepics,theRamayanaandtheMahabharata.Ceremonies.AllBrahmansandChhetrisareHindusandobservefestivals,performrituals,andworshipdeitiesassoci-atedwithHinduism.One of themoreimportantannualfesti-valsisDasein(orDurgaPuja),inwhichthegoddessDurga(Kali)isworshipedoverafortnightinthemonth of October.Manyritualofferingsandanimalsacrificesaremadeatthistime,andthereismuchfeastingandvisitingamongimmedi-atefamilyandextendedkin.Onthetenthday of thefort-nighteachindividualmaleandfemalepaysrespecttoseniorrelatives,whothenreciprocatebyplacingacoloredtikaontheforehead of thejuniorperson.AlsoobservedisPhagu(calledHoliinIndia),thespringrite of HinduculturerelatedtofecundityandthegodKrishna.Itcomesinthemonth of Phagun(February-March)andisariotoustimewhenmen,women,andchildrensing,dance,andthrowcoloredpowderandwaterateachother.OtherannualfestivalsincludeTihar(Dipavali,thefestival of lights),JanaiPurnima(changing of thesacredthread),andTij-panchami(apurificatoryriteforwomen).Ritualsinadditiontothosementionedabove(underSocializationandMarriage)includeworship of thehouseholdgod(kuldevta),worship of brothersbysisters(bhaitika,celebratedduringTihar),anddaily(morningandsome-timesevening)worship of various of theHindudeities,in-cludingGanesh,Shiva,Vishnu,Ram,Krishna,Saraswati,Durga,Parvati,Narayan,Bhairab,andmanyothers.SomeChhetris of westNepalworshipMashtathroughshamans(dhamisorjhankris)andknowlittleornothingabouttradi-tionalHindudeitiesandfestivals.Arts.BrahmansandChhetrisarenotknownfortheirar-tisticinterestsorabilities.Music,dance,andvisualandplas-ticartsaretraditionallythedomain of other,generallylowercastes,andexceptamongeducatedurbanpeopleBrahmansandChhetrisdonotindulgethemselvesintheseactivities.Theirsimple,mostlyundecoratedhousesreflectthislack of artisticbent.Medicine.BrahmansandChhetriswillacceptmedicalhelpfromanyavailablesource,whetheritisanAyurvedicdoctor(aspecialistinherbalmedicine),apassingBuddhistlamawithareputationforeffectivemedicines,ashamanwhoBadaga15HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheearlyBadagas,refugeesfromtheMusliminvaders of My-sore,hadtocuttheirfarmsteadsout of theNilgiriforests.Theycontinuedsomeslash-and-burncultivationthereuntilthe1870s.Bythattimethelanddemands of Britishteaandcoffeeplanters,thenresidentforhalfacentury,hadcreatedamarketforfarmland,whichtemptedmanyBadagastosellsome of theirland.Butmost of theirlandwasretained.Bytheearlytwentiethcenturytheywerepursuingadvancededu-cationandsomeurbanprofessions.FormanyyearsnowtheBadagashavebeenadaptingtotheirownusecertainaliencustomsandtechniques.Nowhereisthismoreevidentthaninagriculture.SettlementsThevillages,eachinhabitedonlybyBadagas of aparticularclanandusuallycontainingnomorethanseveralhundredpeople,consist of parallelrows of stoneorbrickhouseswithtiledroofs.Theyliealongtheslope of ahillonitsleewardside,forprotectionfromthewesterlymonsoon.Thefieldsspreadoutallaround.Uptoahalf-dozentemplesandshrinesfordifferentHindugodsarefoundineachvillage.Modernvillageshaveelectricityandpipedwatertocommunaltaps,butnotlongagothewatersupplywasanearbystreamoratbestachannelrunningintothevillagefromastream.Oneotheruniversalfeatureisavillagegreen,importantasacoun-cilplace,playground,danceground,funeralplace,andgen-eralgrazingareaforthecalves.ThetraditionalBadagatwo-roomhouses,stillincommonuse,arebuiltingroups of adozenorlesstoformacontinuouslinealongalevelpiece of ground.Theyarenowmade of whitewashedbrickandhavetiledorcorrugated-ironroofs,butthetraditionalbuildingmaterialwaswattleanddaub.Scarcelyanythatchedroofsnowremain.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.IngeneralBadagasusefieldsaroundthevillagestopracticemixedfarm-ing of millets,barley,wheat,andavariety of Europeanvegeta-bles,two of which-thepotatoandcabbage-havenowas-sumedmajorcommercialimportance.Milletswerethestapleuntilthiscentury,andtheyweresometimescultivatedinfor-estclearingsbytheslash-and-burntechnique.Badagafarm-ersusenoirrigation;instead,theyrelyontherainfall of tworegularmonsoonseasons.Duringthiscenturytheyhavegrad-uallyshiftedfromsubsistencefarming of traditionalgrainstocash-cropfarming of potatoesandcabbages.Afterseveralseasons of disease,potatoeswererecentlysupersededbynu-meroussmallplantations of tea(whichwasfirstintroducedherebytheBritishin1835)andcabbagefields.Crops of Eu-ropeanoriginarenowgrownonmachine-madeterraceswiththehelp of chemicalfertilizers,trucktransport,improvedseed,andevencropinsurance;similartechniquesareusedontheteaplantations,whichmustmaintain world marketstan-dards.Herds of buffaloandcowsarekeptfordairypurposes;thesearelessnumerousthaninthepast,andtheyareneverkeptformeat,eventhoughmostpeoplearenotvegetarians.Poultryarefrequentlykeptandponiesoccasionally.Bee-keepingispracticednow,butinearlierdaysonlywildhoneywascollectedintheforests.Althoughpotatoesandpur-chasedricearethestaplesnowadays,theBadagastradition-allyatewheatandvariousmillets.Theirmixedfarmingpro-ducesagoodvariety of bothlocalandEuropeancrops,andtheirdietalsomaybecomplementedwithsomewildforestplants.MostBadagasarenonvegetarian,eatingmuttonandoccasionalwildgame.Thereisnoevidence of opiumaddic-tion,althoughthiswasanopium-producingcommunityinthelastcentury.Illicitliquorisproduced.IndustrialArts.AlthoughBadagashavebeendoingbuild-ingandurbantradesforaboutacentury,until1930theylookedtotheKotastosupplyall of theirneedsinpottery,car-pentry,leather,blacksmithing,silverornaments,thatching,andfurniture.Badagasincludenospecializedartisanphra-triesorsubcastes.Trade.Thiscommunityiswellknownforitscomplexsym-biosiswiththeToda,Kota,andKurumbatribes of ... hemustlearntoreadtheclassicalArabiclanguage)caneventuallybecometheworshipleader(mullahorimam) of alocalmosqueifsochosenbythecongregation.Furtherstudy of theQuranand of Muslimlaw(thesharia)mayqualifyamantobeareligiousleaderwithawiderfollowing,greaterstature,andsometimessignificantpoliticalinfluence.Bengali29Roland,Joan(1989).JewsinBritishIndia.Waltham,Mass.:BrandeisUniversityPress.Strizower,Schifra(1971)."VerbalInteractionamongtheBeneIsrael."InternationalJournal of theSociology of Language13:7 1-8 5.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1988)."TheInfluence of CasteIdeologyinIsrael."InCulturalTransition,editedbyM.Gottesman,15 0- 161.Jerusalem:MagnesPress.SHALVAJ.WEILBengaliETHNONYMS:Bangali,Bangladeshi(formerlyBengalee,Baboo)OrientationIdentification.TheBengalipeoplespeaktheBengali(Bangla)languageandliveintheBengalregion of theIndiansubcontinentlocatedinnortheastern South Asia, andmostfolloweithertheHinduortheMuslimfaith.TheBengalre.gionisdividedpoliticallybetweenthenation of BangladeshandtheIndianstate of WestBengal.BengalisthemselvesrefertotheirregionasBangladesh,meaningsimply'theBen-galihomeland,"atermadoptedbythepeople of easternBengalwhentheywonsovereignindependenceforthenation of Bangladeshin1971.ThenativeethnictermforthemselvesisBangli -of which"Bengali"isananglicization.However,Bengaliswhoarecitizens of BangladeshwillalsomostreadilycallthemselvesBangladeshi.Location.Lyingatthenorth of theBay of Bengalandroughlybetween22"and26°Nand86°and93°E,theBengalregionconsistslargely of avastalluvial,deltaicplain,builtupbytheGangesRiverandwateredalsobytheBrahma-putraRiversystemoriginatingintheeasternHimalayaMountains.Asinmuch of South Asia, monsoonwindsbringarainyseasonthatcanlastfromApriltomid-November.Bengal'stotalareaisapproximately233,000squarekilo-meters, of whichabout38percent(justunder89,000squarekilometers)isinIndia,theremaining62percent(144,000squarekilometers)constitutingthenation of Bangladesh.Demography.Accordingtothelastavailable(1981)cen-suses,India'sWestBengalcontainedsome47millionpeople(35percent)andBangladesh86millionpeople(65percent)claimingtobeprimaryspeakers of theBengalilanguage,withthetotal of around133millionconstitutingthe"cope"ethnicBengalipopulation.Tothistotalmustbeaddedatleastan-other7millionBengalispeakerslivinginadjacentornearbystates of India-Assam,3million;Bihar,2million;Tripura,1.4million;Orissa,378,000;Meghalaya,120,000;andNaga-land,27,000-formingakind of "Bengalidiaspora"that,al-thoughconcentratedinnortheastern South Asia, isactuallyworldwide,withlargenumbers of Bengalislivingasimmi-grantsintheUnitedStates,UnitedKingdom,andCanada.Insum,Bengaliscomprisedapopulation of about140mil-lionin1981,onewhichcanbeexpectedtohavegrownbyatleast25percentbythetimedatafrom1991censusesbe-comesavailable.Bengalispeakersmakeup85percent of thepopulation of WestBengal,whichotherwiseishometoanadditional9millionnon-Bengalipeople.Most of thesearefromotherparts of India,livinginthemetropolis of Calcutta,thestatecapital,buttherearesignificantnumbers of non-Bengalipeoplelocallyclassedas'tribals"inruralWestBengalaswell.Bangladeshisfarmorehomogeneous;allbut1percent of itspeopleidentifythemselvesasBengali.Most of theremaining900,000consist of non-Bengaliethnicgroupsalsolocallydesignatedas"tribal,"andthemajority of thesearespeakers of Tibeto-Burmanandotherminoritylanguages,oftenlivinginborderareas of thecountry.Somespeakers of dialects of Hindi-UrduremaininBangladeshaswell.OverallpopulationdensitiesinWestBengalwererecordedat615peoplepersquarekilometerin1981,rangingfrom466insomeruralareasto56,462inurbanlocalities(especiallyCal-cutta).InBangladeshoveralldensitiesreached624personspersquarekilometerby1981,risingto2,179intheurbanareas(especiallyDhaka,thenation'scapital),butalsoregis-teringaquitehigh693personspersquarekilometerinpart of thecountryside.LinguisticAffiliation.Likemost of thelanguages of northern South Asia, BengalibelongstotheIndo-Iranian(sometimesalsocalledIndo-Aryan)Branch of theIndo-EuropeanFamily.DescendedfromancientSanskrit,Bengalicontainsforty-sevensounds:elevenvowels,twenty-fivecon-sonants,foursemivowels,andseven"breathsounds"(includ-ingsibilantsandaspirates).Itsscript,alsoSanskrit-derived,containsfifty-sevenlettersymbols.TheBengalilanguageisassociatedwithalongliterarytradition,prideinwhichisamajorfactorinBengaliethnicandnationalidentity.ABen-gali,RabindranathTagore,wasthefirstAsiantoreceivetheNobelPrizeforliterature(in1913).Theliterarylanguagewithwhicheducatedspeakersarefamiliaris,however,quitedistinctfromtheurbanandruralspeech of thelesswelledu-cated.Theeasterndialects of Bengali,notablythosespokenintheSylhetandChittagongdistricts of Bangladesh,differquitenoticeablyfromthoseheardinWestBengal.HistoryandCulturalRelationsBengalismentionedasadistinctregion of South Asia insome of theearliestHindutexts,andthroughoutthefirstmil-lenniumAD.itwasgovernedbyasuccession of BuddhistandHindurulers.Islamicarmiesarrivedintheregioninthelatetwelfthandearlythirteenthcenturies,andgradualMuslimconquest-culminatinginMughalruleafter1576-setthestageforwidespreadconversion of thelocalpopulationtoIslam,especiallyineasternBengal.Notlongthereafter,Euro-peancontactwith,andcompetitionforpoweron,theIndiansubcontinentbegan,andtheBritishperiod of India'shistoryisusuallydatedfromEngland'stakeover of theadministra-tion of Bengalin1757.Lastinguntil1947,BritishrulehadaprofoundimpactonBengalicultureandsociety,especiallywiththeintroduction of Englishasthemedium of highered-ucationafter1835.HindusrespondedmorerapidlythandidMuslimstoopportunitiesprovidedbyEnglisheducation,and56Burushoherhusbanddivorceher.Childrenremainwiththemother(untiltheyreachtheage of 10)ifadivorceisgranted.Duringthistime,thehusbandisrequiredtoprovidechildsupport.Widowsmustwaitthreemonthsandsevendaysafterthedeath of aspousebeforeremarrying.Thewaitforawidoweristwomonthsandsevendays.Polygynyisnotprohibited.DomesticUnit.Smallextendedfamilies(theprocreatedfamily of oneindividualintheseniorgenerationandthose of atleasttwointhenextgeneration)withlimitedpolygynyarethenorm.Inheritance.Thefather of afamilyownsall of thefamilyproperty.Hemaychoosetodividehispropertyamonghisoff-springbeforehisdeathoritmaybedividedafterhedies.Uponhisdeath,hisestateisdividedequallyamonghissons.Sonsmaychoosetoworkanylandinheritedtogether(i.e.,asagroup)ortheymaydivideitamongthemselves.Sonsbysec-ondwivesinheritagrandson'sshare.Theyoungestsoninher-itsthefamilydwelling.Provisionisusuallymadesothattheeldestsoninheritsthebestland.Adaughterisnotpermittedtoinheritproperty.Shemaybeallowedtheuse of certainpropertyduringherlifetime.Unmarrieddaughtersmustbecaredfor(includingtheprovision of adowry)bytheestate of adeceasedfather.Apricottrees(andtheirproduce)areoftenwilledtodaughters.Socialization.Thesocialization of childrenisaresponsi-bilitysharedbybothparents,withthebulk of itbeingas-sumedbythemother.Siblingsalsoshareinthistask.In1934,apublicschoolsystemwasdonatedandputintoplacebytheAgaKhan,thusplacingpart of theburdenforchildrearingonteachers.SociopoliticalOrganizationBurushosocietycontainsfiveclasses:theThamo(royalfam-ily);theUyongko/Akabirting(thosewhomayoccupyoffices of state);theBar/Bare/Sis(landcultivators);theShadarsho(servants);andtheBaldakuyo/Tsilgalasho(bearers of bur-densfortheThamoandUyongko).TheBericho(Indianblacksmithsandmusicians),whomaintaintheirowncus-tomsandspeaktheirownlanguage(Kumaki),arealsoanim-portantpart of Burushosocialstructure.AgeandgenderstratificationdonotobtainamongtheBurusho.Thehead of stateisthemir,whoseauthorityinallmat-tersisabsolute.Heisassistedinthedispatch of hisdutiesbyagrandvizier.Mirsareresponsibleforthedistribution of jus-ticeaswellasthemaintenance of localcustomsandtribalfes-tivals.Avillagearbob(chief)andchowkidar(sergeantatarms)areappointedforeachvillage.Khalifasareappointedbythemirtopresideatimportantoccasionsinthelife of theindividualandthecommunity.IthasbeennotedthatatonetimeretainerstocertainvillagerswerepaidbytheBritishgov-emmentforoccasionalservicesandthatcertainofficialswithinavillagewerechargedwiththecare of visitors.Thethreat of deportation(forthepurpose of engaginginpublicservicetothemirorforthecompletion of publicworks)andtheimposition of finesaretheprimarymeans of maintainingsocialcontrol.ExternalrelationsbetweentheBurushoandotherpeopleshavebeenstable.Intervillageri-valryischannelednonviolentlyintopolomatches.Althoughtheattitudes of theBurushotowardtheirneighborsinNagirarelessthanfriendly,armedconflictisfarfromnormal.BothHunzaandNagirsupportedthemilitaryactionthatledtotheannexation of theregiontoPakistan.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefsandPractices.TheBurushohavebeenMuslimformorethan300years.Theyareadherents of theIs-mailisect(headedbytheAgaKhan)andhavemadesuchmodificationsinreligiousbeliefandpracticeastorenderthissystem of Islamicbeliefpracticablewithintheirsocialanden-vironmentalsetting.NosystematizedeschatologicalsystemexistsamongtheBurusho.Itisgenerallybelievedthatatsomepointinthefuturethelivingandthedeadwillbere-united.Bitaiyo(maleandfemaleprognosticators)foretellthefuturebyinhalingthesmoke of burningjunipertwigs.NoprofessionalpriesthoodexistsamongtheBurusho.Themirappointsseveralliteratemenaskhalifastoofficiateatburials,weddings,andnamingceremonies.Theseindividualsdonotperformthesedutiesonafull-timebasis.Religiousceremonyplayslittlepartinthedailylife of theBurusho.Ritualprayerandfastingarepracticedbysome.Whilelittleisknown of pre-Islamicreligiouspractices,itisbelievedthatatonetimesacrificewasofferedtotheboyo(divinitiesthoughttooccupyaplaceabovethefortatHini).Thecommunalweddingcere-monyheldon21Decemberisalsoanimportantpart of theBurushoritualcycle.Arts.Embroideryandwoodcarvingmaybenotedasexam-ples of Burushovisualart.Dancingandmusic(bothbeingimportantcomponents of Burushoceremoniallife)areat-tested.Thesamecanbesaid of dramaticart,performancesbeingsponsoredoncertainspecialoccasions.Burushooralliteraturecontainsfolklore(indigenousandborrowed),anec-dotes,andsongs.Medicine.Avariety of naturalsubstances(roots,herbs,andberries)isusedformedicinalpurposes.Accesstoscientificmed-icineisalsoavailable.ThebeliefisstillheldbysomeBurushothatsupernaturalsplayamajorroleinthecause of humanill-ness.Indigenousmedicalpractitionersarelacking.BibliographyClark,J.(1963)."HunzaintheHimalayas:StoriedShangri-LaUndergoesScrutiny."NaturalHistory72:3 8-4 5.Lorimer,DavidL.(193 5-1 938).TheBurushaskiLanguage.3vols.InstituttetforSammenlignendeKulturforskning,SerieB:Skifter,29, 1-3 .Oslo:H.Aschehoug&Co.(W.Nygaard):Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress.Lorimer,E.0.(1938)."TheBurusho of Hunza."Antiquity12: 5-1 5.Lorimer,E.0.(1939).LanguageHuntingintheKarakoram.London:GeorgeAllen&Unwin.O'Leary,TimothyJ.(1965)."BurushoCulturalSummary."NewHaven,Conn.:HumanRelationsAreaFiles.Tobe,JohnH.(1960).AdventuresinaLand of Paradise.Emmaus,Pa.:RodaleBooks.HUGHRPAGE,JRBengali31Trade.Asnotedabove,periodiclocalmarketsdottheBengalcountryside,andtheseinturnarelinkedtoperma-nent,dailymarketsinlargerprovincialtownsandultimatelytomajorurbancommercialcenters.Manypeasantsengageinpettymarketingtosupplementtheirprimaryoccupation,butlarge-scaleaccumulationandtransportation of majorcrops,especiallyriceandjute,andartisanproductsaretypicallycar-riedoutbywholesalerswhomovefrommarkettomarket.Aselsewherein South Asia, someHinducastegroupsspecializeincertainkinds of tradeandcommercialtransactions(e.g.,thoserelatedtogoldandotherjewelryorspecificconsump-tionitemsotherthanrice).BecauseBengalpossessesalaby-rinthinenetwork of rivers,providingboattransportationtoandbetweenriversidecentersisamajoractivityformany.Commerceisoverwhelminglymale-dominated,sinceadultwomenareusuallyrequiredtolimittheiractivitiestotheirhomesteadsandimmediatesurroundingsandthusarenotpermittedtoengageinsignificanttradingactivity.Division of Labor.Thedivision of laborbybothgenderandoccupationalspecializationishighlymarkedthroughout South Asia, includingBengal,particularlysointheruralareas.Regardless of aruralfamily'soccupationalspecialty,menengageinactivitiesthattakeplaceoutsidethehome,whilewomenarelimitedtothosethatcanbeperformedwithinitsconfines.Thus,forexample,inrice-farmingfami-liesmenperformalltheworkinthefields-plowing,plant-ing,weeding,andharvesting-andoncethecropisbroughtintothehomesteadwomentakeupthetasks of threshing,drying,andhuskingthecrop.Asimilarkind of intra-(versusextra-)homesteaddivision of laborbygenderoccursinfami-lieswithnonagriculturaloccupationalspecializations.Notsurprisingly,domesticandchild-rearingtasksfallwithinthewomen'sdomainaswell.Thedegreetowhichwomenareper-mittedtoworkoutsidethehomeis,however,relatedtotheeconomicandsocialstatus of thefamily.Apoororlandlessfarmer'swifemayspendpart of herdayprocessingagricul-turalgoodsinawealthierhousehold,forexample,tosupple-mentherfamily'smeagerincome,andamongthelower-rankedservicecastes(seebelow)thetabooonwomenworkingoutsidethehomeisconsiderablylessstrict.In ... theculturalheritage.Yetthevibrantchange(tambourine)dance of thevillagersinfront of thecommu-nityhallisverycommonaftertheday'stoilandparticularlyonfestiveoccasions.Medicine.People,crops,andcattlearebelievedtobepro-tectedfromdiseasesbythevillagetutelarydeity.Thepropiti-ation of otherdeitiesalsoisthoughttohelpprotectpeoplefromdiseases.Themenhavegreatinclinationforfolkdoctorsandtheirmedicine.Mostdiseasesareduetomalnutritionandunsanitaryconditions.Modernmethods of treatment,22BaigaComparativeNotesonthePlainsBhuiyas.Ranchi:ManinIndiaOffice.Russell,R.V.,andHiraLal(1916).'Baiga."TheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India.Vol.2,7 7-9 2.Lon-don:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1969.Oosterhout:AnthropologicalPublications.HUGHR.PAGE,JRBaluchiETHNONYMS:Baloch,BaluchOrientationIdentification.TheBaluchiarepredominantlySunniMuslim,seminomadicpastoralists,whosehomelandsstrad-dletheIran-Pakistanborderaswellasincludingasmallpor-tion of southernAfghanistan.Location.Baluchistanisthename of thewesternmostprovince of Pakistan,aswellas of thetransnationalterritory of thetraditionalBaluchihomeland.Thislargerregionwascarvedupbytheimperialpowersconcernedmorewithease of administrationthanwithrecognition of theterritoriallimits of theinhabitants.ThetraditionalBaluchiterritoryextendsfromthesoutheasternportion of theIranianPlateauacrosstheKirmanDeserttothewesternborders of SindandthePunjab,andfromtheGumalRiverinthenortheasttotheArabianSeainthe south. Thisisalargelyinhospitableland,much of itbarrendesertorharshmountainousterrain.Ba-luchiterritoryliesoutsidethemonsoonbelt,andannualrain-fallisverylow,notexceeding16centimeters.Throughouttheregion,wintersareharshandcold,andsummersareveryhot.Inthemountains,therainscomeinOctoberandMarch,whileinthelowlandstheycomeinJulyandAugust.Demography.PopulationfiguresfortheBaluchiaresomewhatsuspect,inpartbecause of theunreliability of census-takingproceduresacrossthethreemajorpoliticalunitsthatnowcontrolBaluchiterritory,andpartlybecausethecriteriaforascribingBaluchiidentityarenottightlyde-fined.Onthestrength of linguisticcriteria,thereareanesti-mated5millionor...

... Muslimsepts,withthelatterbeingSunniconvertsretainingsome of theirHindupractices.Mostkeepcopies of theQuranintheirhomes;however,likeHindustheyworshipafamilydeity.Brahmanpriestsareconsultedtodeterminealuckytimeforthefirstbathforthemotherafterababyisborn.Id-al-Zuha(Id-al-Adha)andId-al-Fitraretheirtwomostimportantfes-tivals.GujarMuslimsobservesome of theHindufestivals,suchasHoliandNazPanchmi.Theyburytheirdeadaccord-ingtoMuslimcustom;however,theymakefireofferingsandupturnapitcher of waternearthegraveasHindustradition-allydo.GujarsmakeofferingstothedeadonFridays, ... acrop(duringagriculturalseasons)fromdamagebywildanimals,thepeoplebuildtemporarywatchtowers(borang)intreesinthefield.Men'sdormitoriesexistinsomevillages.Theyactasplacesformeetingandrec-reationforthebachelors.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Traditionally,theGaroslivinginthehillssubsistbyslash-and-bumcultiva-tion.Theironhoe,chopper,andwoodendiggingstickarees-sentialappliances.Humanhandscontinuetobetheprincipaltool.Veryofteninsomeareasaplotallottedtoafamilyre.mainsunderusedbecause of aninsufficientnumber of work-ersandthelowlevel of technology.Tosurvivetheerraticna-ture of themonsoons,mixedcrops-bothwetanddryvarieties-areplanted.Ashiftingcultivatorplantsawideas-sortment of cropsconsisting of rice(mainlydryvarieties),millet,maize,andmanyrootcrops,vegetables,etc.Inaddi-tiontothesecotton,ginger,andchilipeppersarecommonlyraisedascashcrops.AllcropsareharvestedinOctober.Atpresenttheavailablestrips of lowandflatlandlyingbetweenthehillocksorhillsareusedforpermanentwetcultivation.Thevariety of cropscultivatedislikethat of theneighboringplainspeoples.Suchlandsareownedindividually.Additionalproductionfromsuchplotsplacesthevillagersinabettereconomiccondition.Theexpansion of themodemeconomyandthesteadyincrease of populationarecausingconstantpressureontraditionallyownedplots.Thesameplotisusedalmostcontinuouslyinsomeareas,thusleadingtoadeclineinannualproduction.Thistrendisevidentfromthe1981censusreport,whichestimatedthatabout50percent of theGaropeoplearenowsolelydependentonshiftingcultivationandtherestuseapart of ajhumplotpermanentlyforgrowingarecanuts,oranges,tea(onasmallscale),pineapples,etc.Inthischangingsituationaproducermaynotalwaysbeacon-sumer;andreciprocityandcooperationdonotexistasdomi-nantforcesinthesocioeconomiclife of thispopulation.IndustrialArts.Eachfamilyinatraditionalcontextactsasaself-containedeconomicunit.Modernizationhasbroughtsomechangesinthesocioeconomicsphere of thispopulation.TheGarosresidinginthehillsdidnotweaveclothafewdecadesback;theyusedtoprocurethickclothknownaskanchafromtheplainsGaros.Nowthattheloomhasbeenintroducedinthehillareas,theyweavedokmande(akind of cloth)forcommercialpurposesaswellasfortheirper-sonaluse.Previouslyeachfamilyusedtomakepotteryforitsowndomesticuse,butnowadaystheartisconfinedtoafewfamiliesonlywhoeithersellitorbarterit.Trade.AfewcenturiesagotheGaroswerefamousforheadhunting.Thatpracticeconstrainedtheneighboringpop-ulation of theplainsfromenteringthehills.Butpeoplemustexchangetheirproducetomeettheirrequirements,andbothhillandplainsGarosneededsuchtrade.Hencesometradestartedatborderpointsonaverylimitedscale.Overtime,thesecontactsgrewintoorganizedhutta(weeklymarkets)undertheinitiative of theZamindars,whoweresubjects of theMuslimruler.Initiallycottonwassoldoutrightorex-changedforpigs,cattle,goats,tobacco,andmetallictools.In94Gurungmarriageisstronglydisapproved of, friendlysocialintercoursewithmembers of otherethnicgroupsisusual,andbonds of ritualfriendship(nyel)areforgedbetweenGurungsandmembers of equal-statusethnicgroups.SettlementsGurungvillagesarebuilthighonridgesandconsist of closelyclusteredgroups of whitewashedhouseswithslateroofs.Houses of lineagememberstendtobebuiltalongsideonean-other.WhilemostGurungsremaininruralvillages,sincethemid-1970smanymoreprosperousGurungfamilieshavecho-sentomovetoPokhara,thenearesturbancenter,because of thegreatercomfort of urbanlivingandimprovedaccesstoeducationalfacilitiesandmedicalcare.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themainoccu-pation of Gurungsissubsistenceagriculture.Millet,wheat,barley,maize,potatoes,soybeans,andricearegrown.Somehouseholdsalsomaintainvegetablegardens.Goats,chick-ens,waterbuffalo,andoxenarekeptwithinthevillages.Sheepandwaterbuffaloarestillgrazedonhigh-altitudepas-tures,butdeforestationhascausedareduction of fodderandthusinthelastfiftyyearspastoralismhasbecomealesssig-nificanteconomicactivity.TheruggedterrainonwhichGurungsfarmdoesnotallowmuchagriculturalsurplus.Themostimportantsource of cashincomeforGurungsisserviceintheGurkharegiments of theBritishandIndianarmies.IndustrialArts.Weavingisacommonactivityduringtheslackagriculturalseason.Womenweavecarryingclothsandwoolenblankets,andmenweavecarryingbaskets,winnowingbaskets,andstoragebaskets.Trade.Beginninginthelatenineteenthcentury,GurungsplayedanimportantpartinthesalttradewithTibet.Thisre-lationshipwasdiscontinuedforpoliticalreasonsinthemid-twentiethcentury.Atpresent,someurbanGurungsengageintradewithIndiaandothersareprominentincontractingandtransportationbusinessesaroundPokhara.Division of Labor.Thereislittleformaldivision of laboramongGurungs.Menmaynotweaveclothandwomenmaynotweavebambooorplow.Womengenerallylookafterthehouse,cook,andcareforthephysicalneeds of children.Menandwomenengageinmostagriculturalactivities,aswellaschoppingwoodforfuelandgatheringfodderforlivestock.Livestockinhigh-altitudepasturesismostoftentendedbymen.Metalwork,tailoring,andcarpentryareperformedbynon-GurungservicecasteswholiveinhamletsattachedtoGurungvillages.LandTenure.Whileforestandgrazinglandarecommu-nallyowned,agriculturallandisheldprivately.Rightstolandareequallydistributedamongsons.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.LineagesinGurungsocietyin-volvelocalizedagnaticgroupslinkedbyaknownancestor.Eachlineageispart of aclan.Clanaffiliationcutsacrosslo-calityandacts ... herdeceasedhusband.Socialization.Theambition of everyGondwomanistobearason.Barrennessinawomanisconsideredacurse.Preg-nancyandbirtharesurroundedwithprotectiveritesagainstmagicspellsandevilinfluences.Childrenaregenerallywel-comeandtreatedwithaffection.Althoughsonsarepreferred,daughtersarewelcometoo.Childrengrowupwithoutmuchrestriction,butthecommunityteachesthemcorrectbehav-ior.Childrenareearlyinvitedtotakeoversometasks,firstplayfully,theninearnest.Boysspontaneouslyseemtoprefermalecompany,whilegirlsseemtogravitatenaturallytowardotherfemales.Thechangetoadulthoodisgradual;thereisnoinitiationceremony.Thefirstmenstruation of agirlisnotspeciallycelebrated,butshedoeslearninadvancewhatpro-hibitionsshehastoobserve.OnlythreeGondsectionsinthe south haveyouthdormitories,andonlytheMuriasusethedormitoryfortheeducation of youthinmarriedandciviclife.TheotherGondsectionshavenodormitorysystem.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.SincetheGondsarespreadoverawidearea,therearemanylocalsubsectionsthathavenoso-cialcontactwitheachother.ThemoreSanskritizedthesesec-tionsare,thehigheristhesocialranktheyclaim.Butthehighestrankisgiventothedescendants of theGondrajasandtheirretainers,theRaj-GondsandKatholias.Amongthesetwosectionswefindthegreatestnumber of Gondswithsubstantiallandholdings.OtherGondsectionsoutside of GondavanaaretheKisans,inthe south of Biharandintheneighboringdistricts of Orissa.TheGondsreachedeventhehillsalongthesouthernbank of theGanges.TheretheyareknownasMajwarsorMajhis(headmen).AkintotheGondsareanumber of othertribes,suchastheBhattras,Koyas,KondaKapus,KondaDeras,andHalbas.TheKhonds of Orissa,anotherimportanttribe,alsomayoriginallyhavebeenGonds.PoliticalOrganization.TheentireGondtribewasneverapoliticalunit.Tribalsolidaritydoesnotextendbeyondtheconfines of asubsection.ThebasicpoliticalunitistheGondvillagecommunity.Itisademocraticorganizationinwhichtheheadmanandotherofficialsarechosenbythevillagers.Eachvillagehasitscouncil,withofficialsliketheheadman,thepriest,thevillagewatchman,andfourorfiveelders.Moreimportantaffairsarediscussedanddecideduponbyallthemen of thecommunity.Avillagehasalsoitsservantcastes,suchastheAhir(cowherds),Agaria(blacksmiths),Dhulia(drummers),andPardhan(bardsandsingers).Atthetowns of Garha-Mandla,Kharla,Deogarh,andChanda,theleadingheadmenmanagedtorisetotherank of rulers(rajas)andtoestablishdynastiesthatlastedforcenturies.ButtheveryfactthattheserajassurroundedthemselveswithHinduofficialsandeagerlyadoptedHinduorMogulmethods of administra-tionprovesthatroyaltywasalientotribaldemocracy.InthepresentpoliticalsituationtheGondsare,despitetheirnum-bers,politicallypowerless,whichispartlybecause of thistri-baldisunitybutalsobecause of theircomparativelack of edu-cationanddrive,andtheirgreatpoverty.ThosefewGondswhoaremembers of thelegislativeassembliesoreventhena-tionalparliament(LokSabha)areeitheralienatedfromtheirtribalcultureoreasilymanipulatedbyotherpoliticians.ConflictandSocialControl.Insettlingdisputesthecourt of firstinstanceisthevillagecouncil(panch),whichispre-sidedoverbytheheadman.Usuallyitstrivestorestorehar-monybetweenthelitigantsratherthantoimplementcus-tomarylaw.Asettlementcommonlyinvolvesafine,orex-communicationinvaryingdegrees.Thosewhooffendagainsttherule of clanexogamyincursupernaturalsanctions.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thereligion of theGondsdoesnotdif-fermuchfromthat of thenumerousothertribesincentralIndia.Likethem,theGondsbelieveinahighgodwhomtheycalleitherbyhisHinduname,"Bhagwan,"orbyhistribalname,"BaraDeo,"the"GreatGod."Butheisanotiosedeityandisrarelyworshiped,thoughhisnameisofteninvoked.Heisapersonalgod-eternal,just,merciful,maker of thefertileearthand of man-thoughtheuniverseisconceivedascoex-istingwithhim.IntheGondbeliefsystem,besidesthishighgodtherealsoexistagreatnumber of maleandfemaledeitiesandspiritsthatpersonifyvariousnaturalfeatures.Everyhill,river,lake,tree,androckisinhabitedbyaspirit.Theearth,water,andairareruledbydeitiesthatmustbeveneratedandappeasedwithsacrificesandofferings.Thesedeitiesandspir-itsmaybebenevolent,butoftentheyarecapricious,malevo-lent,andpronetoharminghumanbeings,especiallyindivid-ualswhohavemadethemselvesvulnerablebybreakingarule of thetribalcode.Thedeitiesandspirits,especiallytheances-torspirits,watchoverthestrictobservance of thetribalrulesandpunishoffenders.ReligiousPractitioners.Gondsdistinguishbetweenpriestsandmagicians.Thevillagepriestisappointedbythevillagecouncil;however,hisappointmentisoftenhereditary.Hisresponsibilityistoperformallthesacrificesheldatcer-tainfeastsforthevillagecommunityforwhichhereceivesaspecialremuneration.Sacrificesandreligiousceremoniesonfamilyoccasionsareusuallyperformedbythehead of thefamily.Thedivinersandmagicians,ontheotherhand,areunofficialcharismaticintermediariesbetweenthesupernat-ural world andhumanbeings.TheGonds,liketheothertri-bals of centralIndia,believethatmostdiseasesandmisfor-tunesarecausedbythemachinations of evilspiritsandoffendeddeities.Itisthetask of thesoothsayersanddivinerstofindoutwhichsupernaturalagencieshavecausedthepres-entsicknessormisfortuneandhowtheycanbeappeased.Ifsoothsayersanddivinerscannothelp,magiciansandsha-mansmustbeemployed.Magiciansbelievethatbymagicfor-mulasanddevicestheycanforceaparticulardeityorspirittocarryouttheircommands.Shamansarepersonswhoeasilyfallintotrancesandarethenbelievedtobepossessedbydei-tiesorspiritsthatprophesythroughtheirmouths.Thesefre-quentecstasiesdonotseemtohaveanydetrimentalmentalorphysicaleffectsontheshamans,whomaybemaleorfe-male.Magicmaybe"white"or"black":itiswhiteifitcoun-teractsblackmagicoreffectsacurewhenasicknesshasbeenGaro83thebeginningsilentbarterwaspossiblebecauseeachpartyunderstoodfromlonginvolvementtherespectivevalues of theirgoods.Thisprocesshascontinuedtothepresent,withincreasinginvolvement of tradersfromneighboringareas,andhasnowbecomefullymonetized.Cotton,ginger,anddriedchiliesproducedbytheGarosaresoldtothetraders.TheGarosinturnpurchasepottery,metallictools,andotherindustrialgoodssuchasclothfromthetraders.Division of Labor.Thedivision of laborbetweenmembers of thehouseholdisasfollows:themalesareresponsibleforclearingjungleandsettingfiretothedebrisforshiftingculti-vation,whilewomenareresponsibleforplanting,weeding,andharvesting.Duringthepeak of theagriculturalopera-tionsthemensometimeshelpthewomen.Constructionandrepair of thehousearemaleduties.Menmakebaskets,whilewomencarrycropsfromthefieldandfirewoodfromjungle.Womenlookafterthekitchenandpreparebeer,andmenservethebeertoguests.Womenrearthechildrenandkeepthedomesticanimals.Bothmenandwomensellfirewoodandvegetablesinthemarket.LandTenure.Landforshiftingcultivationisownedbytheclan.Eachvillagehasatraditionallydemarcatedarea of itsowntermedadok.Thisareaissubdividedintoplotsthatareusedforcultivationinacyclicorder.Theplotsaredistrib-utedtothefamilies.Allotment of thegeneralplotsisdonebycommonconsensus of thevillageelders,buttheflatareaforpermanentwetcultivationisownedbyindividuals.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheGarosreckontheirkinshipthroughthemother.Individualsmeasurethedegree of theirrelationshiptooneanotherbythedistance of theirmatrilin-eages.Formen,children of theirsistersorsisters'daughtersareveryimportantkin.Forwomen,children of theirsisters'daughtersareequivalenttothose of theirowndaughters.KinshipTerminology.ThekinshiptermsusedbytheGarosformaset,whichisbroadenoughsothateachGarocanbeassignedaterm.Thetermsarearrangedinasystemthatclassifiesthekin.Thisclassificationisbasedonnineprinciples,asfollows:(1)sex,(2)generation,(3)relativeage,(4)moietymembership,(5)collaterality,(6)inheritance,(7)type of wife,(8)intimacy of relationship,(9)speaker'ssex.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Descentismatrilineal,residenceuxorilocal.Themother'sbrother'sdaughtertype of cross-cousinmar-riageisthemostwidelyacceptedandprevalentamongthepeople.Itisarigidcustomthatamanmustmarryawomanfromtheoppositechatchi(moiety).Therule of chatchiexogamystipulatesthataman'smother'sfatherwillbeintheoppositechatchiandaman'swife'spotentialhusbandswillbeinhisownchatchi.Aftermarriageamankeepsuphisrela-tionwithhismachong(clan).Hisrelationwithreferencetohiswife'smachongisdesignatedasgachi.Marriageestab-lishesapermanentrelationbetweentwomachong,knownasakim.Aftermarriage,amalemovestotheresidence of hiswife.Inthecase of anokrom(husband of theheiress of prop-erty),marriagedoesnotcreateanewhouseholdbutratheraddsanewleaseonlifetoanoldhousehold.Evenafterthedeathordivorce of aspousetheakimrelationcontinues.Itistheresponsibility of thedeceased'smachongtoprovideare-placementspousetothesurvivingpartner.DomesticUnit.Thehouseholdistheprimaryproductionandconsumptionunit.AGarohouseholdcomprisesparents,unmarriedsonsanddaughters,amarrieddaughter(heiress),andherhusbandandtheirchildren.Inprincipleamarriedgranddaughterandherchildrenshouldbeincluded,butinre.alitygrandparentsrarelysurvivetoseetheirgrandchildrenmarried.Somehouseholdsmay-forshortperiodsonly-includedistantrelativesornonrelatedpersonsforvariousreasons.Inheritance.PropertyamongtheGarosisinheritedinthefemaleline.One of thedaughtersisselectedbytheparentstobetheheiress.Ifthecouplehavenofemalechild,agirlbe-longingtothemachong of thewife(preferablythedaughter of hersister,whetherrealorclassificatory)isadoptedtobeanheiress.Sheisnotconsideredtobetheabsoluteowner of theproperty.Decisionaboutthedisposal of propertyistakenbyherhusband,whoisconsideredtobethehouseholdauthority(nokniskotong).Afterthedeath of thefather-in-lawresponsi-bilitytransferstotheson-in-law.Ifadeadmanissurvivedbyawidow,shestaysinthefamily of herdaughterandissome-timesreferredtoasanadditionalwife(Uk) of herdaughter'shusband.Socialization.Childrenstarthelpingtheirmothertolookaftertheinfantswhentheirmotherisbusywithwork.Todaytherearedifferenteducationalinstitutions-namely,themis-sionschoolsandotherIndianestablishments-thatactasmajoragents of education.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InGarosocietythemostimportantsocialgroupisthemachong(clan).Amachongisanexoga-mousmatrilinealdescentgroupwhereinaGaroisautomati-callyassignedbybirthtotheunilinealgroup of hismother.Achatchi(moiety)isdividedintomanymachong.Eachmar-riedcouplechoosesonedaughter-or,iftheyhavenone,theyadoptacloserelative of themother-tobeheiress(noknadongipikamechik) of thefamily.Herhusbandtradi-tionallyisselectedfromthelineagegroup of thefatherandisacceptedasthenokrom of thehouse.Heresideswithhiswifeinherparents'house.Hehastotakeontheresponsibility of lookingafterhisparents-in-lawduringtheiroldage,andhiswifeinheritstheproperty.PoliticalOrganization.Traditionally,theGaroswerenotapoliticallyorganizedsociety,andeventodaythereexistsnoclear-cutpoliticalstructure.Chieftainshipinvolvesreligiousfunctionsonly.SocialControl.Thekinshipsystem,thekinshipbond,andtherelatedvaluesystemactasaneffectivemeans of socialcontrol.Formerlythebachelors'dormitorieswereimportantagents of socialcontrol.Conflict.AmongtheGarosmostdisputesariseovertheis-sues of property,inheritance,anddomesticquarrelswithinthefamily.Suchproblemsaretoalargeextentsettledbythemahari(lineage) of theoffendedandtheoffender.Anewsit-uationdevelopswhensomeone'scattlecausedamagetoan-other'scrops.Insuchasituationthenokma(villagehead-man)actsasanintermediaryonly.IfhefailstosettletheGurung95PoliticalOrganization.Until1962theGurungvillagesweregovernedbyhereditaryclanleadersandvillagehead-men.In1962thenationalgovernmentinstitutedanelectoralsystemwherebyvillagesaregroupedtogetherinunits of five,calledpanchayats,anddividedintoneighborhoodsorwardsfromwhichlocalcouncillorsareelected.Theelectoratealsochoosesapradhanpancheanduperpradhan(likeamayorandvicemayor,respectively)toleadthepanchayat.SocialControl.Gossipandfear of witchattackarecom-monmeans of socialcontrol.Thelocalcouncilisabletolevyfinesagainstpanchayatresidents,andforseriouscrimesgov-ernmentpolicemaybecalledin.Conflict.Disputesareoftenresolvedbyelderstrustedbythepartiesinvolved.Ifthisdoesnotprovideasolutionthentheymaybebroughtbeforethevillagecouncilor,asalastre-sort,tothedistrictcourt.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheGurungspracticeaform of TibetanBuddhismstronglyinfluencedbythepre-Buddhistreligion of Tibet,andtheyalsoobservemajorHindufestivals,suchasDasain.Theybelieveinsometenets of BuddhismandHindu-ism,suchaskarma,yettheyhaveaset of beliefsaboutanaf-terlifeintheLand of theAncestorsandinlocaldeitiesthatarepeculiarlyGurung.Gurungsbelievetheirlocaletobein-habitedbysupernaturalforestcreaturesandbyavariety of formlesswraithsandspirits.Some of theseexistinand of themselves,whileothersarebelievedtobethespirits of hu-manswhohavediedviolentdeaths.GurungsbelieveinthemajorHindudeitiesandintheBuddhaandbodhisattvas.Particularvillageshavetheirowndeities,whicharefelttobeespeciallypowerfulintheirimmediatesurroundings.ReligiousPractitioners.Practitioners of thepre-BuddhistGurungreligion,calledpanjuandklihbri,areactiveintheperformance of exorcismsandmortuaryrites.Buddhistlamasarealsoimportantinfuneraryrituals,aswellasperformingpurificationritesforinfantsandsomeseasonalagriculturalrituals.WealthierGurungsoccasionallycalllamasintoper-formhouse-blessingceremonies.Brahmanpriestsaresum-monedtocasthoroscopesandperformdivinationsattimes of misfortune.Dammisfromthelocalservicecastesarebelievedtobeparticularlypotentexorcistsandareoftencalledincases of illness.Arts.Gurungsmakenothingthattheywouldidentifyasart.Thegoodsthattheyproduce,suchasbasketsandblan-kets,areusefulandtendtobe of aconventionalplaindesign.Theartistry of Gurungsisexpressedintheirfolkmusicanddanceandespeciallyintheevanescentform of songex-changesbetweenyoungmenandwomen.Medicine.Gurungsoftenemployexorcistsaswellassci-entificdrugswhensufferingfromanillness.Scientificmedi-cineishighlyvalued,butitiscostlyandisnoteasilyavailableinruralareas.Herbsandplantsarealsousedintreatingill-nessandinjury.DeathandAfterlife.Deathis of centralsymbolicimpor-tanceforGurungs.Thefuneraryritual(pae)isthemaincere-monialoccasioninGurungsociety,involvingtwonightsandthreedays of ritualactivity.Itisattendedbykin,villagers,andalargenumber of peoplewhocomefortheconvivialityandspectacle.Buddhistlamasandthepanjuandklihbripriests of thepre-Buddhistreligionmayofficiateatthepae.Deathisbelievedtoinvolvethedissolution of elementsthatmakeupthebody,sothattheearthelementreturnstoearth,airtoair,firetofire,andwatertowater.Thisprocessleavestheplahorsouls(nineformenandsevenforwomen),whichmustbesentthroughtheperformance of thepaetotheLand of theAncestors.Therelifecontinuesmuchasitdoesinthepresent world, andfromtherethespiritcantakeotherrebirths.SeealsoGurkha;NepaliBibliographyMacfarlane,Alan(1976).ResourcesandPopulation:AStudy of theGurungs of Nepal.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Messerschmidt,DonaldA.(1976).TheGurungs of Nepal.Warminister:Aris&Phillips.Pignede,Bernard(1966).LesGurungs:UnePopulationhinalayenneduNepal.TheHague:Mouton.ERNESTINEL.McHUGH82GaroHajong,theKoch,theRabha,theDalau,andtheBanaiswhoresideontheadjacentplains of theneighboringdistrict.Thereremainsanobscurityabouttheorigin of theword"Garo."Theyareknownas"Garos"tooutsiders;buttheGarosalwaysdesignatethemselvesas"Achik"(hillmen).TheGarosaredividedintoninesubtribes:theAwe,Chisak,Matchi-Dual,Matabeng,Ambeng,Ruga-Chibox,Gara-Gan.ching,Atong,andtheMegam.Thesearegeographicsub-tribes,buttheyarealsodialectalandsubculturalgroups.Ac-cordingtotheirbeliefsandreligion,theGarosaredividedintothe"Songsarek"(thosewhofollowindigenousbeliefsandpractices)andtheChristians.Location.ThetwoGaroHillsdistrictsaresituatedbe-tween25°9'and26°1'Nand89°49'and91°2'E,coveringanarea of 8,000squarekilometers.ThedistrictsborderBangla-deshonthe south andwestandAssamonthenorth.Hillscovermost of thedistrict,withsomeadjacentfringes of plainsborderingthemonsoonarea,producingthickvegetationonthehills.Thereareanumber of hillystreamsandrivers;ex-ceptfortheSimsangRiver,whichformsawidefloodplain,noneisnavigable.Demography.Accordingtothecensus of Indiafor1971,Garosnumbered342,474.ChristianGaroswere54.3percent of thetotalGaropopulation;nowtheymaybemorethan60percent of thetotalGaropopulation.LinguisticAffiliation.AccordingtoSirGeorgeGrierson'sclassificationinTheLinguisticSurvey of India,GarobelongstotheBodoSubsection of theBodo-NagaSection,undertheAssam-BurmaGroup of theSino-TibetanorTibeto-BurmanLanguageFamily.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThereremainsnorecord of whentheGarosmigratedandset-tledintheirpresenthabitat.Theirtraditionallore,asre-cordedbyA.Playfair,indicatesthattheymigratedtotheareafromTibet.Thereisevidencethattheareawasinhabitedbystone-usingpeoples-PaleolithicandNeolithicgroups-inthepast.Aftersettlinginthehills,Garosinitiallyhadnocloseandconstantcontactwiththeinhabitants of thead-joiningplains.In177 5-1 776theZamindars of MechparaandKaraibari(atpresentintheGoalparaandDhuburidis.tricts of Assam)ledexpeditionsintotheGarohills.ThefirstcontactwithBritishcolonialistswasin1788,andtheareawasbroughtunderBritishadministrativecontrolintheyear1873.SettlementsThepopulationinaGarovillagemayrangefrom20to1,000persons.Thepopulationdensitytendstodecreaseasonemovestowardtheinteriorareasfromtheurbanareas of thedistricts.Villagesarescatteredanddistantfromoneanotherintheinteriorareas.Thesevillagesaregenerallysituatedonthetop of hillocks.Thehousesarebuilt,togetherwithgrana-ries,firewoodsheds,andpigsties,onpilesaroundtheslope of thehillock,usinglocallyavailablebamboo,wood,grass,etc.Theapproachtotherectangularhouseisalwaysbuiltfacingtheleveledsurface of thetop,whiletherearpart of thehouseremainshorizontaltotheslope.Nowadaysnewpile-typebuildingsusingwoodandironasmajorcomponentsarebeingmadeinsometraditionalvillagesalso.Inaddition,buildingssimilartothose of theneighboringplainsareconstructed.Thevillagesmayremaindistantfromagriculturalfields(hum).Inordertoguard...

... asbybanyans,pipals,bananas,andpapayas.SubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themajorcropsondrylandterracesaremaize,accountingforhalf of thehar-vest,wheat,anddryrice.Withtheexception of asmallamount of maize,theirrigatedterracesareplantedtorice.OvertheyearstheMagarshavealsomadeuse of buckwheat,hulledbarley,mustard,potatoes,sugarcane,bananas,arumlilies,radishes,sesame,lentils,beans,pumpkins,cucumbers,carrots,cauliflowers,cabbages,onions,tomatoes,yams,chil-ies,andtobacco.Inadditiontherearemanykinds of fruitandtreeswithleavessuitableforfodder,twoplantsprovidingleavesusefulasplates,andthreeplantsusedforfencing.All of BanyanHill'stillage,dryorirrigated,iswithinahalf-hour'swalkfromanyhouse.Thesameistrue of placeswheretherearetreesforfirewoodandgrassforcuttinghayorthatch.Waterforirrigationanddomesticuseisspring-fedandplentiful.Thecattlepopulationincludesbuffalo,cowsandcalves,andbullocks.Therearealsogoats,pigs,andhorses,andafewfamileskeepbeehivesandchickens.Buffaloarestall-fedandareseldomtakenfromtheirshedexcepttobebred.ThesayinginBanyanHillthat"everyonegetsenoughtofillhisbelly"doesnotmeanthateveryfamilyobtainsenoughgrainfromitsownlandtomeetevenitsminimumneeds.Itmeansratherthatifthefamilydoesnothaveasufficientlylargegrainincome,itcanmakeupthedeficitbyborrowingorbysendingoneormorefamilymemberstoworkashiredla-borers.Inthe1960s,onlyseven of BanyanHill'sfamilieshadtillagesolargeandproductivethatitprovidedasalablesur-plus.Thisproblemstillexiststoday.Familieswhoarenotamongthefortunatefewwithadequatelandhavetopurchaseorborrowgraininamountsvaryingfromwhatisrequiredtosupportanadultforayeartotheverylittleneededtofeedaguestonceremonialoccasions.Evenhouseholdsthatarecomparativelywell-offbecausetheyhavedrylandholdingsthataremorethanadequatemaylackpaddylandandthere-forehavetobuyrice.Mostpeopleprefertoselljewelryratherthansuffertheignominy of servingricelessmealstoguests.Themajority of thefamiliesalsoneedanincomegreaterthantheirlandcanproducesothattheycanbuytheservices of Munda183MarriageandFamilyMarriage.ApartfromtheAsur,Kora,Mahali,andpossi-blyTuri,allMundagroupshavepositivemarriagerules.AmongtheKoraputgroupstheprescribedcategoryinmar-riageisthebilateralcrosscousin(usuallyexcludingfirstcous-ins),butfarthernorththeprescribedcategoryismoreusuallytranslatableasa"sibling'sspouse'ssibling";oftentheindige-noustermalsocoversreferentsbelongingtothegenealogicallevels of thegrandparentsorgrandchildren(thoughtheynonethelessmaybe of roughlythesameageasEgo).Prefer-encesforasibling'sspouse'ssiblingusuallygowithadelay of onetothreegenerationsinrenewingalliancesbetweenthesamealliancegroups.Inmostcases(butexcludingtheHoandsomeSantal),spouseexchangeisoverallsymmetricratherthanasymmetric.Alliancegroupsarenormallyagnati-callydefinedbutmaybevillagesratherthandescentgroups.Indeed,because of theagnaticidentity of mostvillages,vil-lageexogamyisnormallyrequired,andnegotiations,celebra-tions,andprestationsfrequentlyinvolvethewholevillage,notjusttheprincipalsandtheirimmediatefamilies.Bride-price,notdowry,isthenorm.Howmuchchoice of partnertheprincipalsareallowedvariesfromtribetotribe:sometribeshaveyouthdormitoriesforbothsexes,thoughthesedonotnecessarilytakechoiceout of thehands of theparents(e.g.,notamongtheJuang).Therearenumeroustypes of weddingceremony,somesimpler,othersmore'Hindu."Resi-denceisnormallyvirilocal,thoughalltribesallowapooryouthtoliveuxorilocallywith(andeventuallyinheritfrom)hissonlessfather-in-law.Monogamyisthenorm,thoughthereissomepolygyny,especiallysororal(wife'sclassificatoryyoungerbutnoteldersister).Juniorlevirate,ortheinheri-tance of aman'swidowbyhisclassificatoryyounger(notelder)brother,isacommonlyrecognizedandinsometribesvirtuallymandatorypractice.Divorceandtheremarriage of divorcedandwidowedpeoplearenormallyallowed,eventhough,likethelevirate,thesearedistinctlylow-statusprac-ticesinIndiagenerally.DomesticUnit.Bothnuclearandextendedorjointfami-liesarefound,thoughasinglefamilyoftenoscillatesbetweenthedifferentforms,asnewmembersarebornandoldonesdie,orasquarrelssplitthemup.Forthehunting-and-gatheringBirhor,thetanda(band)istheunit.Inheritance.Irrigatedland,userightsregardingswiddens,thefamilyhome,fruittrees,andmostmovablesareinheritedinthedirectpatrilinealline.Theeldestsonreceivesthemost,thoughnotnormallyeverything,asthenewhead of thefam-ily(hemayberesponsibleforthewelfare,marriageexpenses,etc., of hisyoungersiblings,forexample).Insomecases,thesonswhohaveremainedathomearefavored(theyoungestsonsamongtheSoraandsomeSantal,forinstance).Inde-fault of sons,theclosestcollateralagnateoranuxorilocallylivingson-in-law(theghar-jawae-seeabove)inherits.Thereissomematrilinealinheritance of femaleclothesandorna-ments,butwomencannotinheritland,becausetheymarryout of theclan.Socialization.Infantsarebroughtupbytheirparentswiththehelp of eldersiblings,butitistheformerwhoaremainlyresponsibleforsocialization.Otheropportunitiesarepro-videdbychildrenwatchingandeventuallyhelpingwiththedailywork,andtheeldersplaytheirpartbytellingmythsandotherfolktalesonritualandotheroccasions.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Wehavealreadyseenthatmanytribesareinternallydividedbecause of someritualfaultordisagreementovercustom,etc.TheBirhor,Korwa,andsomeAsurdistinguishsettledgroupsfromnomads.Mosttribesdis-tinguishlandowningclansfromtenantclanswithuserightsonly,thoughsincetheclansinvolvedvarywiththevillage,thisdoesnotentailatribewideclasssystem.Santalclansareunusualinbeingrituallyranked,andthereissomehypergamybetweenthem.Inalltribes,villageofficerscommandamarkeddegree of respect,thoughthisrarelyleadstoaclasssystemortohypergamybetweenthemandtheordinaryvil-lagers(theSoraareanexceptioninthisregard).Kinshipre-mainsthebasis of socialorganization,andthereareanumber of ritualizedfriendshipsforbothmenandwomen,betweenvillagesandeventribes,thatareassimilatedtoit.Althoughalltribesdistinguishaffinesfromagnates(i.e.,marriageablefromnonmarriageablepersons),thesearerelativedesigna-tionsonly:despitethesystem of affinalalliance,therearenosociocentriccategories of thesortassociatedwithdualorgan-izationorfour-sectionsystems of someAustralianAboriginalpeoples.TheJuangandpossiblyothertribeshaveasystem of generationmoietiesinwhichEgo'sgenerationislinkedwiththose of hisgrandparentsandgrandchildreninoppositiontothesetformedbythose of hisparentsandchildren.Thisim-pingesonbothstereotypedbehaviorandmarriagechoices:jokingisonlyallowedwithmembers of one'sownmoiety,whichisalsothatfromwhichone'sspousemustcome(andeventhentherearenumerousexceptionsinbothregards),whileavoidanceorrespectinbehaviorandavoidance of mar-riageandsexualrelationsisenjoinedtowardmembers of theoppositemoiety.PoliticalOrganization.TheelectedgovernmentgrampanchayatwasintroducedinthisregionsoonafterIndepen-dencein1947,butitoftenhastocompetewiththetradi-tionalvillageassemblyorpanchayat.Thisconsists of theheadman,otherofficials,andtypicallyhouseholdheadsatleast,ifnotallmalesinthevillage.Itisunusualbutnotun-known(e.g.,amongtheSantal)forwomentoparticipateindecisionmaking,thoughtheyareoftencalledtogiveevi-denceindisputes.Theheadmanshipandotheroffices(as-sistantheadman,messenger,etc.)aremostlyhereditaryinthemaleline,thoughtheremaybeanelectiveelementinthechoice,andtheeldestsoncanalwaysbereplacedifbelievedtobeunsuitable.Villageheadmenarenomorethanfirstamongequals,fortheyhavetoconsultthepanchayatonallimportantmattersandareremovableformisconductorin-competence.InChotaNagpur,thoughnotKoraput,villagesareoftengroupedintofederations(oftencalledpirh),whichmayhaveoriginatedasregionalclancouncils,especiallysincetheirmainconcernisbreaches of therule of clanexogamy.Thereisscarcelyanyinstitutionalexpression of tribalunitytoday(thoughsometribeshadkingdomsoratleasttribalas-sembliesinthepast),andtribalidentityisnowonlyamatter of languageorperhapsacommonoriginmyth.SovereigntyandmostauthoritynowliewiththeIndiangovernment.180MogulappearedinIndia.Insodoinghewasfollowingafamilytradi.tion.Hisancestors,ChenghizKhanandTimurtheLame,hadbothinvadedIndia,theformerinthethirteenthandthelatterinthefourteenthcentury.Neither of theseinvasionshadanylastingeffects,thoughBaburdeclaredthattheprin.cipalobject of hisinvasionwastorecoverthelostpossessions of hisfamily.Babur'srulestartedin152 6-1 530.ItshortlyfelltoHumayun(153 0-1 540),wholostcontroltoanAfghanchieftain,SherShah(153 9-1 545).HissonAkbar(155 6- 1605)foughttheAfghanchallengeatPanipat(1556)andextendedtheempiretoincludealllandbetweenAfghanistanandtheDeccan.Akbar'stimewasaperiod of religiousfree-dom,inwhichapolicy of conciliationwaspursuedwiththeRajputstates.AlkbarwassucceededbyJehangir(160 5-1 627)andShahJehan(162 7-1 658).ItslastgreatemperorwasAu-rangzeb(165 8-1 707),whoextendedthelimits of theempirefarther south. TheempiredisintegratedunderMarathaandBritishpressure.Itslastemperor,BahadurShah11(183 7- 1857),wasexiledbytheBritishtoRangoonafterthe1857uprising.Thesplendorandstability of theMogulreignwereduetothesuccession of thosecapablerulers.Theyattemptedtobuildupanefficientadministrativesystem,andtheychosetheirprincipalofficerswithcareandonthebasis of merit.Anumber of factorswereresponsibleforwhatappearstohavebeenthesuddencollapse of theMogulauthorityafterthedeath of Aurangzeb,butonecausewaspredominant.TheMogulsmaintainedapowerfulempireforcenturiesandes-tablishedagovernmentandasocialorganizationimpressivebyAsiaticstandards,buttheywerenotabletokeeppacewiththerapid,almostcataclysmicchangesthatweretakingplaceinintellectualmatters,militaryorganization,instruments of offenseanddefense,andotherfactorsthatcontributetothestabilityandprosperity of astate.TheintellectualrevolutioninwesternEurope,thenewspiritandthenewdiscoveries,andthewidediffusion of knowledgeresultingfromtheintro-duction of printinghadreleasedforcesthatwereboundtore-sultinEuropeandomination.SeealsoMuslim;Pathan;Sayyid;SheikhBibliographyGascoigne,Bamber(1971).TheGreatMoghuls.NewYork:Harper&Row.Haig,Wolseley,andRichardBurn,eds.(1937).TheCam-bridgeHistory of India.Vol.4,TheMughulPeriod.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Hansen,Waldemar(1972).ThePeacockThrone:TheDrama of MogulIndia.NewYork:Holt,Rinehart&Winston.Majumdar,R.C.,J.N.Chaudhuri,andS.Chaudhuri,eds.(1984).TheMughulEmpire.TheHistoryandCulture of theIndianPeople,no.7.Bombay:BharatiyaVidyaBhavan.ALLIYAS.ELAHIMoor of SriLankaETHNONYMS:Marakkala,Musalman,Sonakar,SonarAconsensusonthenameforSriLankaMuslimshasnotbeenarrivedat.Theappellation"Moor"(fromthePortu-guese)isnotusedbythepopulationtoidentifythemselves.TheSinhaleseusetheterm"Muslim"or'Marakkala"afteraleadingMuslimfamilyname.SriLankaMuslimsoccasionallycallthemselves'Sonakar"or'Sonar,"thereforesettingthem-selvesapartfromtheMuslims of south India.TheUrduap-pellation"Musalman"isusedprincipallyaroundtheCo-lomboarea(theSriLankancapital).Ingovernmentpublicationsthedesignation"Tamil"impliesHinduorChris-tian;MuslimsarelistedasMoors.Themotivationispolitical,torepresentalargerproportion of SinhalesetoTamilspeak-ersinthepopulation.Muslimsrepresent7.36percent of thetotalpopulation of SriLanka(1989).SriLankaMuslimsrepresentanumber of differentethnicgroups,three of whicharerecognizedinthe1984governmentcensus:SriLankaMoors(1.1million);Malays(60,000);andIndianMoors,themajority of whomareethnicTamilsfromsouthernIndia(40,000).Tamilistheestablishedtongue of theSriLankaMoors.Inrecentyears,because of politicalconsiderations,manyhavelearnedtheSinhalalanguageandsomechildrenstudyitinschool.AhandfulspeakSinhalainthehillareasathome;however,Tamilremainsthelanguage of educationforthemajorityupthroughtheuniversitylevel.Allreligiousliteratureandser-monsaregiveninTamil.MalaysspeakMalayathome,al-thoughtheydonotwriteit,andtheyprefertoeducatetheirchildreninEnglish.Withtheexception of theBohras,whoareShiites,all of theothergroupsareSunniMuslims.SoonaftersettlinginIndia,MuslimArabsbeganarrivingintheeighthcentury.Accordingtolegend,theyestablishedthemselvesinBentottaandmarriedSinhalawomen.Bythetenthcentury,theywereapowerfulmerchantclass.Accord-ingtothehistorianIbnBattuta,inthethirteenthcentury,ColombowasaMuslimcity,while ... theMogulEmpireinA.D.1526wereachapoliticalandculturalwatershed.Therewasamuchgreatercontinuityinadministration,asmembers of thesamedynastysatonthethroneformorethan300years,whileMogulsalsousheredinanera of amuchricherculturallife.TheywerethefirstMuslimrulers of Delhitopa-tronizeandencouragepaintingandmusic,andintherealm of architecturetheirmonumentschallengecomparisonwithsimilarachievementsanywhereinthe world. In1519Babur,thefounder of theMogulEmpire,first182Mundatheirownoraltraditionsgivetheminsteadawesternorigin(fromUttarPradesh).Thereissomeevidence of tribalking-domsinpre-Britishtimes(e.g.,theHo/Mundakingdom of ChotaNagpur,andtheBhumijstates,especiallyBarabhum).Mainly,however,theMundahavelived,oftenfairlyautono-mously,undertherule of outsidepowers.MostMundaareconventionallyregardedastribesratherthancastes,despitethedefinitionalproblemsthisgivesscholarship.Itisaniden-titymost of thempromotethemselves,partlybecause of thelegaladvantagestheygainthroughbeingonthelist of Sched-uledTribes,butmainlybecause of oppositionto"Hindu"(i.e.,upper-caste)officialsandlandowners,who,fromearlyBritishtimes,havedisplacedmanytribalsfromtheirland.Thisstronglytribalandanti-Hinduidentityhasledtorebel-lioninthepast(theHorebellion of the1830s,theSantalre-bellion of 185 5-1 858,theBirsaMundamovement of 189 5- 1900),buttodayithasbecometranslatedintopoliticalactionthroughtheSantal-dominatedJharkhandParty,whichagitates,amongotherthings,foraspecificallyAdivasi(tri-bal)province.Despitethis,thereareanumber of Mundagroupswhohavesoughttogaincastestatusbyreformingcus-toms(banningalcohol,publicdancing,cross-cousinmar-riage)andacquiringaspecialistoccupationsuchasbasketmaking.Theseattemptstoimprovetheirlotearnthemthecontempt of the"tribal"Mundaand,sincetheyaremainlyar-tisancastes,ironicallylowertheirstatusbelowthat of thetri-balsintheeyes of theuppercastes,sincethetribalsatleastarenotinvolvedinapollutingoccupation.OnlytheBhumij,havingbeenrulers,canconvincinglyclaimamoderatelyhigh(Kshatriya)status.SettlementsMostMundaliveinvillages,thoughsomeliveandworkintownssuchasRanchiandJamshedpur,andsomeBirhorandKorwa,beingseminomadic,havetemporaryforestcamps.Traditionally,therewasatendencyforvillagestobefixedonlytemporarilybecause of therequirements of shiftingculti-vation,butwiththegovernmenttryingtodiscouragethisform of agriculture,villagesnowtendtobemorepermanent.Villagesmayconsist of detacheddwellingsorsometimes(asamongsomeSora) of dwellingsconnectedintoalonghouse.Housesarenotgenerallyorientedtowardparticularcompasspoints,buttheyareusuallysymbolicallydividedinternallyac-cordingtoprinciples of genderandage(theeldestmemberssleepnearestthehearth,malemembersontheright of thehouse,femalemembersontheleft,etc.).Thehearthisespe-ciallyimportantrituallyandisthespiritualcenter of thehomestead.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.MostMundaareagriculturalists;increasingly,permanentirrigatedsitesarereplacingthetraditionalswiddens.Theothermaintradi-tionaloccupationishuntingandgathering,withwhichtheBirhorandsomeKorwaareparticularlyassociated,thoughallgroupsparticipateintheseactivitiestosomeextenttosupple-menttheiragriculture.Today,however,governmentpolicyistopreservetheremainingforests,whicharenow ... theurbancentersforjobsaswellasfarm-relatedservices.EconomyIngeneral,themajority of Marathasarecultivators.Theyaremainlygrantholders,landowners,soldiers,andcultivators.Afewarerulingchiefs.Forthemostpartthepatils(villageheadmen)inthecentralDeccanbelongtothiscaste.Somearetraders,andmanyareinthearmyorotherbranches of governmentservice.Intheplateauregionthefieldsareplowedwiththehelp of bullocks.Almosteveryfarmerexceptthepooresthascattleandtakesgreatprideinthem.ThegreatestagriculturalfestivalisBendurorPola,whenthecat-tlearedecoratedandtakeninprocession.Thecattlearekeptonthefarminashed(gotha),anditisnotunusualforthemtosharethehousespacewithpeople,sothatacomer of thesuncourtmaybegivenovertothem.Thisistoavoidboththeftandpredationbywildanimals,whichoncewerecom-monontheplateau.Staplefoodsarewheatcakes,rice,len-tils,clarifiedbutter,vegetables,andcondiments.Lessafflu-entpeopleusuallyeatjowar(sorghum),bhajari(spikedmillet),andlentils,whilethepoorestwillsubsistonmilletsseasonedwithspices.AllMarathaseatfleshandfish,thoughnotbeeforpork.Marathasseldomdrinkliquor,thoughnocasteruleforbidsliquorornarcotics.Beedismokingiscom-monamongthemen.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyMarathaspracticekulordevakexogamy.Devaksaretotemicgroupsthatworshipacommondevaksymbol.Kulisliterallydefinedasa"family,"anditisactuallyalineagemadeup of extendedfamilies.Devakisanalternativenameforthis.Al-thoughtheyclaimtohavegotras,gotraexogamyisnotessen-tial.TheseareclancategoriesadoptedfromnorthIndia;butmost of theMarathasdonotknowtowhichgotratheybe-long.Similarly,northIndianvillageexogamyisnotpracticedbyMarathas.Cross-cousinmarriageisallowed;soismarriagewithadeceasedwife'ssister.Twobrothersmaymarrytwosis-ters.Polygynyisallowedandpracticed,butpolyandryisun-known.Boysaregenerallymarriedbetweentheages of 12and25,andgirlstraditionallybeforetheyattainpuberty.Asinmuch of southernIndia,bride-wealthispaidtothebride'sfamily,andgiftexchangeafterthemarriagebetweenthetwofamiliesismorereciprocalthaninthenorth.Giftsarealsore-quiredtofetchawifebackaftervisitinghernatalhome.Thethird,fifth,andseventhmonths of pregnancyarecelebrated.Agirlgoesforherfirstconfinementtoherparents'home.Widowremarriageanddivorcearestrictlyprohibited.Thelaws of inheritancethatprevailedinMaharashtraweregovernedbyMitakshara,amedievalcommentaryonYajnyavalkyaSmriti.Thepropertywasheldandtransmittedbymalestomales.Whennomaleheirexisted,adoption of onewastheusualrule:adaughter'ssoncouldbeadopted.Propertywasownedjointlybyallmalefamilymembersincer-tainproportions.Widowsandunmarrieddaughtershadrights of maintenance.SociopoliticalOrganizationMarathasclaimtobeKshatriyasdescendedfromthefourancientroyalvanshas,orbranches.Insupport,theypointoutthatmany of theirkula,orfamilynames,arecommonclannamesamongttheRajputs,whoareindubitablyKshatriyas.InthepastroyalMarathahouseshaveintermar-riedwiththeRajputs.TheyalsoobservecertainKshatriyasocialpracticeslikewearingthesacredthreadandobservingpurdah.TheseclaimsaremadeonlybytheMarathasproper(i.e.,thechiefs,landowners,andfightingclans).TheMarathacultivators,knownasKunbis,andotherservicecastes,suchasMalis(gardeners),Telis(oilpressers),andSutars(carpenters)donotconsiderthemselvesKshatriyas.Nevertheless,thefactthattheKunbisandMarathasbelongtoonesocialgroupisemphasizedbycommonoccurrence of Maratha-Kunbimarriages.SocialOrganization.Marathasocialorganizationisbasedontotemicexogamousgroupscalledkuls,each of whichhasadevak,anemblem,usuallysomecommontreethatiswor-shipedatthetime of marriage.Thedevakmayalsobeanani-mal,abird,oranobjectsuchasanax.TheMarathaproper,whoclaimdescentfromtheoriginalfourroyalhouses,belongto96namedkulas,althoughmuchdisagreementexistsaboutwhichkulabelongstowhichvansha.Further,quiteafewkulashavethesamenameastheKunbikulaswithwhomthearistocraticMarathasdenyallidentity.Some of theMarathasalsoclaimtohavegotras,whichisanorthIndianBrahmansocialcategory;butstrictgotraexogamydoesnotexist,andthisfactmightsuggestthatthegotras,likethevanshas,mighthavebeenadoptedatsometimeinthepasttobolsterMarathasocialstatus.PoliticalOrganizationandSocialControl.InthecitiesandsmalltownssomeMarathashaverisentoveryhighposi-tionsingovernmentservice,whichhasgiventhempoliticalpower.Positions of importanceinthecooperativesugarmills,inthemanagingcommittees of schools,inthemunicipalities,andinthepanchayatsamitisareheldbyMarathasinmostcases.AstheMarathasarethemajorityagriculturalcommu-nitywithsmallholdingsinthisregion,theystillbelongtothelower-incomegroupsasawhole;buttherehasarisenamongthemastratus of educatedelitewhoareinhigheradministra-tiveservicesandinindustryandwhoholdpoliticalpower.Mizo177BibliographyBarkataki,S.(1969).Tribes of Assam.NewDelhi:NationalBookTrust.Maloney,Clarence(1974).Peoples of South Asia. NewYork,Chicago,andSanFrancisco:Holt,Rinehart&Winston.Stack,Edward.(1908).TheMikirs.EditedbyCharlesLyall,London:D.Nutt.Reprint.1972.Gauhati:UnitedPublishers.HUGHRPAGE,JRMizoETHNONYMS:Lushai,ZomiOrientationIdentification.'Mizo,"meaning'people of thehighland,"isagenerictermfortherelatedpeopleswhospeaktheDuh.liandialectandlivemainlyinMizoram,Manipur,andTri-purastates of India.Intheearliestliteraturetheywerecalled'Kuki"bytheneighboringBengalis.TheBritishcalledthem"Lushai."Since1950theword'Mizo"hasbeenacceptedbythepeopleasmorecomprehensivethan"Lushai";thename of theirarea of concentrationhaschangedfromLushaiHillstoMizoram,meaning'country of theMizo."Location.Mizoramliesbetween24°and22°Nand93°and92"E.ItisboundedbythreeIndianstates-Manipur,Assam,andTripura-andbythecountries of Myanmar(Burma)andBangladesh.Mizoramconsists of amass of hillrangesaveragingfromabout1,000to1,800metersrunningfromnorthand south, withasmallplateauatChampai;mostarecoveredbythinjungles.Riversarehardlynavigable.Theclimate of Mizoramhastwoseasons-thehot,rainyperiodfromApriltoSeptemberandthecold,dryperiodfromOcto-bertoMarch.Demography.Accordingtothe1981censusthepopula-tion of Mizoramwas493,757;theScheduledTribesconsti-tuted93.55percent of thisnumber,whichincludedMizo,Lakher,Pawi,Chakma,Riang,andothers.TheMizoarecur-rentlyabout80percent of thepopulation of Mizoram,buttheyarealsofoundinneighboringstates,forinthe1971cen-sustheynumbered512,833inall of thenortheasternstates.LinguisticAffiliation.TheMizolanguagebelongstotheTibeto-BurmanFamily of theSino-TibetanBranch;itsKuki-ChinSubgroupiscomprised of theMeitei,Lushai,Thadou,Halem,andChinsubgroups.TheMizohavenoscript of theirown.TheMizoalphabetwasprintedbyChristianmissionar-iesin1898inRomanscriptonthebasis of phonetics.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheMizobelievethattheirancestorsoncelivedinChina.AroundA.D.996theymigratedtotheChindwinbelt of moun-tainsthroughtheHukungValley of MyanmarandlivedforcenturiesintheKabawValley.Toavoidanonslaught of ShaninfluencetheythenmigratedingroupstotheChinHills.Inabout1765theyestablishedalargevillageinMyanmarcalledSelsih(Zopuii)35kilometerstothewest of theTiauRiver.Thefirsthistoricalmention of theMizo(Lushai)isin1777.Inthatyearthechief of Chittagong,whichhadbeencededtotheBritishunderLordClivebyMirKasimin1760,appliedforadetachment of soldierstoprotectthepeopleagainstanincursion of theKuki,astheywerethencalled.By1810ChiefLallulaSailoandotherrelatedchiefscontrolledthewhole of thecountryfromtheTiauRivertoDemagiri.ThepressureontheeasternMizochiefsfromtheChinHillschiefssuchasSukteswassevere,asthelatterweremovingdownfromthehillstotheplainsintheCacharandSylhetareas.Britishpu-nitiveexpeditionstoMizorambeganin1844.InDecember1896aresolutionwaspassedtoamalgamatethenorthand south LushaiHillsadministrativelyattheChin-LushaiCon-ferenceheldatLunglei.BritishadministrationcontinueduntilIndiagainedindependencein1947.TheMizo,tosafe-guardtheirownidentityandculture,becamepoliticallyactivein1966,whichresultedin1983intheirrecognitionthattheconstitution of Indiawasamechanismforachievingsocio-economicdevelopment.SettlementsInthepastwhenthevillageswereunderthecontrol of chiefstheirnumberandnameswereconstantlychanging.Peoplewerecontinuallysearchingforlandforcultivationandwater.Thevillageswerealsosplitupamongthesons of chiefs.Atra-ditionalvillagelocatedonthespur of thehillswasshapelessandclustered.In1966villageswerereorganizedunderaproj-ectcalled"OperationSecurity,"whichinvolved68percent of thepopulation.Thesenewvillagesare of alinearclustertype:amainroadbisectseachvillageandallsmallerstreetsradiatefromacentralplaza,withgroups of housesarrangedalongtheroadsides.Eachvillagehasatleastonechurch,aschool,ablacksmith'sworkshop,andshops.Villagesrangefrom60to80houseswithapopulation of 400to700.Housesarecon-structedonraisedbambooorwoodenpoles.Therearetwomajorhousetypes:thosewithtwo-sidedroofsandthosewithfour-sidedroofs.Atypicalordinaryhouseisrectangularinshapewithathatchedtwo-sidedroof.Floorandsidewallsaremade of splitorplaitedbamboowithoneortwowindows.Thosewhoarewell-offusewoodenplanksforthefloorandcorrugatedironfortheroof.Generallyanearthenhearthisconstructedneartheleftsideinthecenter of theroof.Inthetraditionalhousesthemainbedoccupiedbythehead of thehouseisattherearside of thehearth.Thelargeroomisalsopartitionedtomakecubiclesforprivacy.Storage of grainandfoodisinacorner of theroom.Poultryandpigsarekeptei-therinthefrontverandaorinasmallenclosurebehindthehouse.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheMizosarenowheavilyinvolvedinthemoneyeconomy.About80per-162MagartheThum-twoMagarsandaBrahman.One of thetwoMa-garswasanex-soldierlivinginahamletnearBanyanHill,andhewastheoneturnedtomostoftenbythepeople of BanyanHill.Hecalledhimselfalama-implyingthathewasaTibetanpriest,thoughhewasnot-andhewasmostoftenreferredtobythatterm.Hewouldtellhisclientsthecause of apresenttrouble(forexample,asickbuffalo)andwouldad-visethemonthestepstotaketoremedytheproblem.Buthispracticewasmorethanremedial.Itwasalsoprescient:hewouldforetellwhatmisfortunesthefutureheldandhowtoforestallthem.Thisshaman'sspecialpowersderivedfromhisabilitytoenteratrancestate.Todothishedidnotdonanyspecialcos-tumeotherthananempoweringnecklace.Whileseated,heclaspedanumber of leafybranchesinbothhandsandheldthembeforehisfacewhilemutteringaseries of spells.Whenhebecamepossessedbythespirithehadsummoned,thebranchesshookviolently,andhebeganspeakinginthespirit'svoice.Thespiritwouldanswerquestionsfromtheaf-flictedfamilyandalsothose of anyinthelargeraudiencethatusuallyassembledwhenitwasknownthattheshamanwouldbeholdingaseance.Histechniqueswerenotlimitedtohisabilitytoenteratrancestate.Whenhedeemeditappropri-ate,heprovidedmedicinesconcocted...

... asconvertstoZoroastrianism,isbeingvehementlyde-batedamongParsisbothinIndiaandabroad.ThereappearstobeaprogressiveattitudeamongtheoverseasParsisthatmayinthefutureleadtoabroadening of thedefinition of aParsi.ParsidivorceratesarehigherthanthoseforotherIn-diancommunitiesbecause,whencomparedtoHindulaw,Parsilawhasalwaysmadedivorceeasier.Theeducationandeconomicemancipation of femalesalsocontributestothehighdivorcerate.Remarriageafterthedeath of aspouseispermittedforbothsexes.Adoptionispermittedandiscommon.DomesticUnit.Parsistraditionallylivedtogetherasex-tendedfamilies.Owingtospaceconstraintsinthecities,however,nuclearfamiliesarecommon;andbecause of de-cliningpopulation,manyelderlyParsistodaylivealone.Inheritance.Bothsonsanddaughtersmayinheritfrombothparents.Therearenorules of primogeniture.Despitetheaboveformalrules of inheritance,itisnotuncommonforwealthyParsistoleavetheirentireestatesforcharitablepur-poses:endowingschools,hospitals,firetemples,orthelike.Thestressongenerosityandasense of communalresponsi-bilityfortheweakandneedyfosteredduringchildhoodfindsitsexpressioninwillsandtrusts.Hencetherehasoccurredacontinuousredistribution of wealthfromtherichtothepoor.Socialization.Agreatdeal of consciouseffortgoesintothemaking of aParsichild.Parsiswerequicktograspthevalue of Westerneducationandwereleadersinfemaleeducation.ItisnosurprisethenthattheliteracyratesamongParsisareex-tremelyhigh(being90percentin1961,whentheaveragerateforBombaywas57percent).Bothboysandgirlsareen-couragedtoprepareforcareers.Childlaborisnotencour-aged,andin1961only0.06percent of Parsisunderage15weregainfullyemployed(asagainst8.72percent of allMaharashtrians).Anessentialpart of aParsichild'ssocializa-tionisthenurturing of anawareness of hisorherdifferencefromotherIndians.TothisendtherewasapreferenceforParsischoolsendowedbyParsicharitiesandstaffedentirelybyParsis,untiltheIndiangovernmentabolishedsectarianeducationinthe1950s.Thenumber of collegegraduatesisextremelyhigh.Duringthefirsthalf of thecenturythenum-bers of Parsisreceivingprofessionaldegreesinlaw,medicine,andengineeringweregreatlyout of proportiontotheirtinynumbersinthegeneralpopulation.AmongoverseasParsis,Zoroastrianassociationshavebeenestablishedwiththeex-plicitobjective of instillingParsiidentityintheyoung.TheParsichildisconstantlyobligedtoconformtoamoralcodederivedfromtheZoroastrianmotto,"tGoodthoughts,goodwords,gooddeeds."Transgression of thiscode of conductembodyingthevirtues of honesty,charity,andcleanlinessisseenasnotonlyapersonalbutalsoacommunalfailure.AchildisinductedintotheParsimoralcodethroughthecere-mony of naojot.Suchconstantreminders of achild'sParsiidentityareessentialifthecommunityistoenforceitsrules of endogamyinasecularandnonsectarian world. SociopoliticalOrganizationTherelationship of Parsistothestate of Indiahasalwaysbeenone of loyalty,sinceasaminoritytheirsurvivalde-pendedonaccommodationtothepoliticalauthority.TheZoroastrianidealstateisonethatisjustandtoleranttowardthepractice of religion.TheBritishenhancedthisloyaltybyelevatinganumber of Parsifamiliestonoblerank:out of fourhereditarybaronsinBritishIndia,threewereParsi.ForalongtimeParsisplayedadominantroleinlocalgovernment,par-Pahari223polyandrousPanduvasastheprecedentfortheirownmar-riagerules.Thereareinadditionavariety of othercategories of supernaturals:ancestralspirits,ghostsordemons,spritesorfairies,etc.Aswithdeities,each of thesehasdangerouspowersthatmustbeavoided,wardedoff,orproperlyattendedto.Variousdiviners,exorcists,curers,andotherspecialistscapable of dealingwiththemalevolence of suchsupernat-uralsaretobefoundineverylocality.ReligiousPractitioners.Paharireligiouspractitioners,asthroughoutHindusociety,are of twomajortypes.Thefirsttypeincludesthose of thepriestly(Brahman)caste,exclu-sivelyentitledbybirthtotheirprofession,whoseresponsibili-tiesaretoconvey,oversee,perpetuate,andperformthescrip-turallyprescribedaspects of Hinduismnecessarytothelong-termmaintenance of relationsbetweenthefaithfulandthesupernatural.Thesecondtypeincludestheindividuallygiftedandsupernaturallyinspiredpractitioners of folktradi-tions,who,whilenotincompatiblewithHinduismandinfactuniversallyassociatedwithit,arenotenjoinedbyit:namely,theshamans(calledbakiintheCentralPahariregion,andbhagatinthenorthIndianplains),diviners,exorcists,curers,andavariety of otherpractitioners-mostoften of lowcastebutpotentially of anycasteandeithersex-whoservetheim-mediate,pragmaticneeds of peoplebydealingviathesuper-naturalwiththefateful,unpredictableaspects of theirlives.Ceremonies.Ceremoniesarenumerousandoftencom-plex.Theyhonorandplacatedeitiesandancestors,celebrateorwardofftheeffects of astrologicalconcordances,memori-alizeandcelebratelife-cycleevents,protectandperpetuatethewell-being of individualsandgroups,etc.AmongseveralpeculiartothePahariregion(allwellwithintherange of Hinduceremonies)isthefamousrope-slidingceremony.Toocomplextodescribeadequatelyhere-andnowoutlawed-itisworthmentioningbecauseitincorporatesthefeatures of allHinduceremoniesinauniqueandspectacularPahariidiom.Basically,itisanattempttoappeasethewrath of themostpowerfuldeity of theregion,whohaswroughtdireandpersis-tentmisfortuneonavillage,byofferinghimamagnificentandexpensiveentertainmentaccompaniedbymanysubsidi-arysacrificesandsupplicationscarriedoutbyscores of priests,shamans,andotherspecialistsbeforehundreds of worshipfulparticipantsandspectators.Theclimacticeventoccurswhenarituallypreparedlow-castemanwhohasbeensecuredtoasaddleastrideagiganticoil-soakedropethatisstretchedbetweenatreeatthetop of acliffandanotheratadistancebelowtoformasteepincline,isreleased ... arethosewhodie of particularvirulentdis-easesandtherareholyindividualwhohasachievedsamadhi.Othersarecremated,preferablybytheside of astream,withtheremainsbeingcommittedtothewater.Theceremoniesattendingdeath,cremation,andthepostcremationperiodarecomplexbutnotnotablydifferentfromthoseprescribedinHinduism.Womendonotattendthefuneralcremation,butthey,likeallrelatives,participateinmourningaccordingtothecloseness of theirkinshiptothedeceased.Itisbelievedthatthestation of one'snextlifeinthecycle of reincarna-tion-one'skarma-isaconsequence of fulfillment of one'sdharma-thedonationtocharities,theperformance of aus-terities,etc.SeealsoNepali;TharuBibliographyBerreman,GeraldD.(1972).Hindus of theHimalayas:Eth-nographyandChange.2nded.Berkeley:University of Califor-niaPress.Grierson,G.A.(1916).LinguisticSurvey ... wellasnumerousanddiversetypes of man-ufacturing.Theestimated1981populations of theprincipaltownswereasfollows:Lahore,2,922,000;Lyallpur(Faisalabad),1,092,000;Multan,730,000;Sialkot,296,000;Amritsar,595,000;Ludhiana,607,000;Jalandhar,408,000;andPatiala,206,000.VillagesinthePunjabplainsarenucleated.Intheoldervillages-apartfromthecanalcolonies,wherevillageswerelaidoutinblocksatcrossroads-housesarebuilttogetherinacompactareaandtheouterwallsarejoinedtogethertomakeacommonrampart,withlimitedpoints of entry.Housesabutoneanotheralongnarrowlanes,sharingmanycommonwalls.Onecanreachmuch of thevillagebygoingoverrooftops,buttheonlyaccesstotherooftopsisfromtheinside of houses.Closeoutsidethiswallareworkareasandareasforstorage,orperhapsavillagemill.Beyondthistheag-riculturalfieldslieopen;onlyvaluableorchardswouldbefenced.Atsomedistanceinthefieldstherearealwaysoneortwocremationgroundsandsomeritualsites.Inlargervil-lages,therearecommonlyseparatesidesorneighborhoodsforupper-andlower-castegroups,andtheremaybeconcen-trations of households of specificcasteorlineagegroupsinaparticularlaneorarea.Stereotypically,andcommonly,themainentrytoavil-lageisthroughamasonrygateway,calledthedurwaza,whicharchesoverthemainroadandlimitsthesize of vehiclesthatcanenter.Itmaybeupto20meterslong.Inside,alongtheroadwayonbothsides,ithaswideraisedplinths,wherepeo-plecansit.Thedurwazaisalwaysanimportantmeetingplaceandthepreferredstoppingplaceforvisitingartisansandtraders.226Pandit of KashmirSociopoliticalOrganizationPanditsconsiderthemselvestobeacommunity(gaum)or"brotherhood"(baradari).Theyaredividedintotwoendoga-moussubcastes,Gor(priests)andKarkun(workers).Socio-economicstandingand"noble"ancestryareimportantintheorganization of socialrelations.FormostgoodsandservicesPanditsaredependentuponMuslimartisanandserviceoccu-pationalgroups.Whiletheserelationsaregovernedbycon-vention,thestatetooisincreasinglyinvolvedinthemas,forexample,intheregulation of relationsbetweenlandownersandtenants.Panditsocietyisfullyintegratedwithinthepolit-icalandlaw-and-orderframeworks of themodemstate.Theydonot,therefore,haveanyindependentinstitutions of politi-calorganizationorsocialcontrol.Asinanyothersociety,however,publicopinionandsocialpressuresareimportantasinstruments of socialcontrol.Publicesteem(yash)isamatter of deepsocialconcernamongPandits;itisindeedamajorculturalvalue.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.AsHindus,Panditsexhibitarepertoire of beliefsthatincludethenotions of dharma(moralconduct,duty),karma(action,fruits of action),samsara("flow,"rein-carnation),ashrama(stages of life),purushartha(instrumen-talandultimategoals),prarabdha(fate),anugraha(divinegrace),punya(meritoriousaction),andpapa(moralevil).Onamoreabstractplane,theyarelegatees of thenondual-isticschool of philosophyknownasKashmirShaivism.Ritu-alshelppeopletorelatetoahierarchy of supernaturals,rang-ingfromlocalpossessionspirits,ghosts,andgoblins,whocauseillnessandmisfortune,tohighSanskriticdeities(e.g.,Vishnu,Shiva,Shakti)andregionalgodsandgoddesseswhoareseenasbeingessentiallybenevolent.ReligiousPractitioners.Householdersarethepractition-ersparexcellence of domesticrituals,whetherthesepertaintoSanskriticdeities,locallyrecognizedsupernaturalbeings,orancestors.Whiletheperformance of ritualsisprimarilytheresponsibility of menandwomencannotbetheprincipaloffi-ciants,theparticipation of thelatterisneverthelessrequiredintheroles of wifeormother.Thepresence of priestsatSan-skriticritualsisessential.Ceremonies.Religiousceremoniesconsistprimarily of rites of passage(notablyinitiationandmarriagerituals),ritesforancestors,devotionalprayers,andpilgrimages.Thean-nualpilgrimagetothecave of Amamath(source of theGanges)inthevalleyattractspilgrimsfromalloverIndiaandfromNepal.Intheirworship of Sanskriticdeities,Panditsfol-lowtheeclecticsmarthamode.Indomesticritualstheyfollowtheschool of Laugaksha.Arts.ThePandithouseisawell-designedbuildingwithcarefullycraftedwoodendoors,windows,andceilings.Theseareoftenembellishedbycarving,butthisworkisdonebyMuslimcarpenters.Panditwomenpaintfloralandgeometri-caldesignsonthefacade of thehousetosymbolizedomesticauspiciousness.Theyalsochantauspicioussongsatinitiationceremoniesandweddings.Panditshaveanoldtradition of composingpoetry,mostlydevotionalpoems,and of groupsinging.Medicine.Illnessisbelievedtoarisefromanumber of causes,physicalaswellassupernatural.Homeremedies(mostlyherbalbrewsandpreserves)arecombinedwithcon-sultationwithpractitioners of traditionalUnani(Greco-Arabic)andmodemallopathicmedicine.Priestsandastrolo-gersareconsultedtodeterminesupernaturalandastralcausesandtoperformappropriatecurativerituals.DeathandAfterlife.Deathsareclassifiedasgood,bad,oruntimely.Ifonediesaftersuccessfullyfulfillinglegitimateworldlygoalsasahouseholder,withoutsufferingaprotractedillnessorlosinganyessentialfacultiesbeforepassingaway,thenoneissaidtohave"attained"thegooddeath.Thedeadareusuallycremated,thoughinfantswhodiebeforetheyhavecutteethareburied.Cremationisfollowedbyritualsspreadovertwelvedays.Theseareperformedtohelpthedisembod-iedspirittoreachthe"land" of themanes.Therearedaily.watering"andbiannual"feeding"ritualsforthemanes.Atthesametimeallexceptthemostspirituallyadvancedpeoplearebelievedtobereborn.Tobefreedfromthebondage of re-birthandredeathisthegoal of spiritualendeavor.Divinese-lectionorgraceistheultimatesource of suchsalvation(moksha).Postscript.TheabovedescriptionismoreapplicabletothePandits of ruralKashmirthantothoselivinginurbanareas.Thelatterarebasicallysimilartotheformerinterms of, forexample,thestructure of kinshipandthenature of reli-giousbeliefsandceremonies.Thecharacter of economiclifeisverydifferent,however,withtheurbanPanditsbeingprom-inentincivilservices,theprofessions(engineering,law,med-icine,teaching),business,andevenmanufacturing.Theirhighereducationalattainmentscontributetohighersocio-economicstatus.Theyhardlyeverpracticemarriagebyex-change of brides.Infact,theylookdownuponthatandsomeotherpracticesandthemanners of thePandits of ruralareas.Nevertheless,atthelevel of thecommunity(gaum)or"brotherhood"(baradari),allPandits,ruralandurban,con-siderthemselvesasonepeople,relatedtoKashmiriPanditsoutsideKashmirbutdistinctfromnotonlytheKashmiriMuslimsbutalsonon-PanditHinduslivinginKashmir.SeealsoBrahman;KashmiriBibliographyBamzai,P.N.K.(1962).AHistory of Kashmir.Delhi:Metropolitan.Chatterji,K.C.(1914).KashmirShaivism.Srinagar:Re-searchDepartment,KashmirState.Madan,TrilokiNath(1965).FamilyandKinship:AStudy of thePandits of RuralKashmir.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.2ndenl.ed.1989.Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Sender,Henny(1988).TheKashmiriPandits:AStudy of Cul-turalChoiceinNorthIndia.Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress.TRILOKINATHMADANPeripatetics233combinestheprinciples of revenge,hospitalitytoguests,de-fense of thosewhohavesoughtprotectioninone'scare,thechastity of marriedwomen,andrestrainttowardthosecon-sideredweakorhelpless(Hindus,women,andboys).Pakh-tunwaliinsomecasescontradictsandgenerallytakesprece-denceoverIslamiclaw.Itisharsh-thepenaltyforillicitsexualbehavior,forexample,isdeath-anditisenforcedbystrongsocialpressure.Violations of lawoutside of theactivi-tiesthecodeencompassesaredealtwithbythejirgaorthegovernmentadministration.Conflict.Asnoted,therivalrywithfather'sbrother'ssonforproperty,power,andwivesisaconstantsource of conflict,asisPakhtunwaliitself,sinceevenpettyquarrelscanescalatetoapointwherehonorisinvolved.EffortstoencapsulatethePathanintopoliticalsystemsseenasalienarealsoasource of conflict.Itisfrequentlyatsuchtimes of externalthreatthatreligiousleadersassumepoliticalimportancesinceresistancetakestheform of aholystruggleorjihad.Conflictresolutionisdonethroughthejirgaorthroughtheintervention of reli-giousfigures.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.IslamisanessentialandunifyingthemeinPathanlife,anditalsounitesthePathanwithaninterna-tionalcommunity of believers.Theoverwhelmingmajority of PathanisSunniMuslim of theHanafilegalschool.Somegroups,notablyintheKurramandOrakzaiagencies of Paki-stan,practiceShiaIslam.Anumber of supernaturalfiguresresideamongthePathan.Jinnarespiritsborn of firethatcanenterandpossesspeople.Othernegativebeingsincludetheghosts of disturbedorcursedsouls,witches,andfairies.Thesouls of piousfigurescanalsoreturntoEarthtoplayamorepositiverole.ReligiousPractitioners.WhileIslamhasnoordainedpriesthood,religiousleadersarerecognized.Atthevillagelevelthisroleisplayedbythemullah,amanwhohasattainedsomereligioustraining.Besidestendingthemosqueandmakingthecalltoprayerfivetimesaday,heofficiatesattherites of passagethatmarkthestages of life,birth,circumci-sion,marriage,anddeath.AnotherimportantfigureistheSayyedwhostandsoutsidethetribalstructure,sincehisgene-alogyextendstotheProphethimselfandnottotheancestors of thePathans.NotboundbythePashtuncode of honor,Sayyedsaresaintlyfigureswhocanarbitratebetweenconflict-inggroups.Ceremonies.Besidesceremoniesatthevariousrites of passage,thereligiouscalendarincludes:threedays of celebra-tionattheend of Ramazan,themonth of fasting;adayob-servedbytheritualslaying of sheepinmemory of Ibrahimslayingasheepinplace of hissononAllah'sorder;andthebirthday of theProphetMohammed.Arts.PoetryistheartmostesteemedbyPathans.Theirgreatestpoet,Khushhal(d.1689),wrotebothlovepoemsandpatrioticpoems.Embroideredwaistcoatsandelaboratelydecoratedriflebuttsweretraditionallythemajorvisualarts.Medicine.Whilesomemedicalfacilitiesarebeingintro-duced,peoplecustomarilygotothemullahortraditionalher-balistforcures.Ajinnpossessingthepatientiscommonlyheldtobethecause of disease.Indigenoustreatmentisinatraditionsaidtobe of Greekoriginorinareligioustraditionworkedoutcenturiesago.Acommoncureconsists of thewearing of talismansaroundtheneckcomposed of magicfor-mulasorverses of theQuransewnupinclothorleather.DeathandAfterlife.InIslamthebodyistobeburiedritu-allypuresothatthesoulispreparedtoenterHeavenonJudg-mentDay.Afterdeaththebodyiswashedandwrappedinawhitesheet.Amullahperformsthedeathrites,leadingthecongregatedmournersinaspecialprayer.ThebodyisburiedwiththefacepointingtowardMecca.Mourningobligationscontinueaftertheburial.Thedeceased'srelativesgatheratthegraveonthefirstfewFridaysandonthefortiethdayafterthedeath,andtheyobservethefirstyear'sanniversary of thedeathwithafinalmemorialceremony.SeealsoKohistani;SayyidBibliographyAhmed,AkbarS.(1976).MillenniumandCharismaamongPathans:ACriticalEssayinSocialAnthropology.London:Routledge&KeganPaul.Ahmed,AkbarS.(1980).PukhtunEconomyandSociety:Tra-ditionalStructureandEconomicDevelopmentinaTribalSoci-ety.London:Routledge&KeganPaul.Barth,Fredrik(1972).PoliticalLeadershipamongSwatPathans.LondonSchool of EconomicsMonographsonSo-cialAnthropology,no.19.London:AthlonePress.Caroe,Olaf(1958).ThePathans550B.C...

... thatlifecontinuesbe-yondthegrave,inalandwhereeach of theuyushasitsindi-vidualabode.Whenonedies,hisorhersoulistakentothedomain of theuyuwhowasthecause of death.Anindividualenjoysthesamestatusandlife-stylethatheorshehadwhilealive.Forthisreasonthedeceasedisprovidedwithfood,drink,possessions,andothertoolsandprovisionstoensurecomfortintheafterlife.BibliographyChowdhury,J.N.(1971).AComparativeStudy of AdiReli-gion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Duff-Sutherland-Dunbar,G.(1905).AborandGalong.Memoirs of theRoyalAsiaticSociety of Bengal,5(extranumber).Calcutta.Ffirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1954)."ReligiousBeliefsandRitualPractices of theMinyongAbors of Assam,India."Anthropos49:58 8-6 04. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III SOUTH AsiA AnavilBrahman7AhirETHNONYMS:Gahra,Gaolan,Gaoli,Gerala,Goala,Golkar,Mahakul,RawatTheAhirareacaste of cowherds,milkers,andcattlebreederswidelydispersedacrosstheGangeticPlain,espe-ciallyinthemoreeasternlypart(Bihar,Bengal,andeasternMadhyaPradesh).TheAhiirmustnumberwelloveramilliontoday:theynumbered750,000in ... thatlifecontinuesbe-yondthegrave,inalandwhereeach of theuyushasitsindi-vidualabode.Whenonedies,hisorhersoulistakentothedomain of theuyuwhowasthecause of death.Anindividualenjoysthesamestatusandlife-stylethatheorshehadwhilealive.Forthisreasonthedeceasedisprovidedwithfood,drink,possessions,andothertoolsandprovisionstoensurecomfortintheafterlife.BibliographyChowdhury,J.N.(1971).AComparativeStudy of AdiReli-gion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Duff-Sutherland-Dunbar,G.(1905).AborandGalong.Memoirs of theRoyalAsiaticSociety of Bengal,5(extranumber).Calcutta.Ffirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1954)."ReligiousBeliefsandRitualPractices of theMinyongAbors of Assam,India."Anthropos49:58 8-6 04. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III SOUTH AsiA AnavilBrahman7AhirETHNONYMS:Gahra,Gaolan,Gaoli,Gerala,Goala,Golkar,Mahakul,RawatTheAhirareacaste of cowherds,milkers,andcattlebreederswidelydispersedacrosstheGangeticPlain,espe-ciallyinthemoreeasternlypart(Bihar,Bengal,andeasternMadhyaPradesh).TheAhiirmustnumberwelloveramilliontoday:theynumbered750,000in ... Thus,"Abor"suggestsonewhodoesnotsubmitallegiance(i.e.,onewhoishostile,barbarous,orsavage).ThealternativeviewconnectsthewordwithAbo,theprimordialmaninAbormythology.Thefinal-ristakentobesimilartofinal-rrintribaldesignationssuchasAorr,Simirr,andYim-chungrr,whichmeans"man."Inthe1960s,theAborbegancallingthemselvesAdisbecause of thenegativeconnotations of theirformername(seeAdiintheAppendix).Location.AborcommunitiesinIndiaareconcentratedonthebanks of theSiangandYamnerivers.Theirterritory,totalingsome20,000squarekilometers,hastheIndia-Tibetborderasitsnorthernboundary,Pasighatasitssouthernboundary,andGallongcountryandtheSiyomriverasitswesternboundary.Theregion'sgeographiccoordinatesare28°and29°N,by95°and96"E.Demography.Accordingtothe1971censustherewere4,733Abor.AUnitedBibleSocietiessurveysuggestsatotalAdi-speakingpopulation of 84,026in1982.LinguisticAffiliation.TheAborspeakAdi(alsocalledMiri,Abor,Arbor,orMishing),alanguage of theTibeto-BurmanStockbelongingtotheSino-TibetanPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheAborsimmigratedtotheirIndianhomelandfromthenorthcrossingtheHimalayasintotheAssamValley.Eventu-allytheyretreatedintothehighlandregionsthattheycur-rentlyoccupy.Thecause of thismigrationisunknown,al-thoughnaturalcausesandpoliticalupheavalhavebeensug.gestedaspossiblecatalysts.Itisalsonotknownwhethertheymigratedasasolidbodyatasinglepointinhistory,orinsmallersubgroupsoveraperiod of severalhundredyears.Be-tween1847and1862,theBritishgovernmenttriedunsuc-cessfullytoconquerall of Aborterritory.Followingthefailure of severalmilitaryendeavors,atreatywasreachedthatguar-anteedlimitedBritishhegemonyanduninhibitedtradeandcommunicationonthefrontier.Inspite of occasionaltreatyviolations,anuneasypeacewasmaintained.AfterthefinalBritishmilitaryactionagainsttheAbor(inresponsetothemurder of theassistantpoliticalofficerandacompanion)in1912,thehillsnorth of Assamweredividedintowestern,central,andeasternsectionsforadministrativepurposes.Thelast of thesewerecollectivelygiventhename of SadiyaFron-tierTract.In1948,theTirapFrontierTractwasdividedintotheMishmiHillsDistrictandtheAborHillsDistrict.Finally,in1954,thename of theAborHillsDistrictwaschangedtotheSiangFrontierDivision.Sincethistime,theAborhaveundergoneconsiderableacculturation,whichhasresultedinanumber of changesinthenature of villagelife,thelocaleconomy,socialstructure,andpoliticalorganization.SettlementsVillagesareusuallybuiltonhilltops(thoughintheplains,Abortendtofollowthelocalpractice of buildingvillagesonlevelland).Preferenceisgiventothoselocationsthataffordaccesstoariverbyaslopinginclineononesideandthepro-tection of averysteepdeclineontheotherside.Housesarebuiltonelevatedplatforms.Theyarearrangedinrowsex-tendingfromthetoptothebottom of thehill,andarecon-structedsothattherearside of thehousefacesthehillitself.Publicbuildingsinatypicalvillageincludethemoshup(bach-elors'dormitory),therasheng(singlefemales'dormitory),andgranaries.Inoldervillages,stonewallswithwoodenrein-forcementsarefound.Majorbuildingmaterialsarebamboo,wood,thatchinggrass,andcane.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themajorsub-sistenceactivitiesarehunting,fishing,gathering,agriculture,andbarter of surpluscropsforbasicnecessitiesandluxuries.Slash-and-burn(orjhum)agricultureisthenorm.Forestandundergrowtharecut,dried,andburned,afterwhichseedsareplanted.Soilfertilityismaintainedforaperiod of onetothreeyearsusingthismethod.Agriculturallandisgradedac-cordingtolatentfertility,andcropsareassignedaccordingly.36AborFiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1962).TheApaTanisandTheirNeighbours.London:Routledge&KeganPaul.Lal,Parmanand,andBimanKumarDasGupta(1979).LowerSiangPeople.Calcutta:Government of India.Roy,Sachin(1960).Aspects of Padam-MinyongCulture.Shillong:Notth-EastFrontierAgency.Simoons,FrederickJ.,andElizabethS.Simoons(1968).ACeremonialOx of India:TheMithaninNature,Culture,andHistory.Madison:University of WisconsinPress.Srivastava,L.R.N.(1962).TheGallongs.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.HUGHRPAGE,JRAgariaETHNONYMS:Agariya,AghariaAlthoughtheAgariaarenotahomogeneousgroup,itisbelievedtheywereoriginallyaDravidian-speakingbranch of theGondtribe.Asaseparatecaste,however,theydodistin-guishthemselvesfromothersbytheirprofessionasironsmelters.Theirpopulationwas17,548in1971,andtheywerewidelydispersedacrosscentralIndiaontheMaikalrangeinMandla,Raipur,andBilaspurdistricts of MadhyaPradesh.Thereareothercastes of AgariasamongtheLoharsaswell.TheAgaria'snamecomesfromeithertheHindugod of fireAgni,ortheirtribaldemonwhowasborninflame,Agyasur.TheAgarialiveintheirownsection of avillageortown,orsometimestheyhavetheirownhamletoutside of atown.Sometravelfromtowntotownworkingtheirtradeaswell.Asalreadyindicated,thetraditionaloccupation of theAgariaisironsmelting.TheygettheirorefromtheMaikalrange,pre.ferringstones of adarkreddishcolor.Oreandcharcoalareplacedinfurnacesthatareblastedbyapair of bellowsworkedbythesmelters'feetandchanneledtothefurnacethroughbambootubes,aprocessthatiskeptupforhours.Theclayin-sulation of thekilnisbrokenupandthemoltenslagandcharcoalaretakenandhammered.Theyproduceplowshares,mattocks,axes,andsickles.Traditionallybothmenandwomen(inBilaspurmenonly)collecttheoreandmakethecharcoalforthefurnaces.Atduskthewomencleanandpreparethekilnsforthenextday'swork,bycleaningandbreakingupthepieces of oreandroastingtheminanordinaryfire;thetuyeres(cylindricalclayventsfordeliveringairtoafurnace)arerolledbyhandandmadebythewomenaswell.Duringsmeltingoperationsthewomenworkthebellows,andthemenhammerandfashiontheoreonanvils.Theconstruction of anewfurnaceisanim-portanteventinvolvingthewholefamily:themendigtheholesforthepostsanddotheheavywork,thewomenplasterthewalls,andthechildrenbringwaterandclayfromtheriver;uponcompletion,amantra(prayer)isrecitedoverthefur-nacetoensureitsproductiveness.TherearetwoendogamoussubcastesamongtheAgaria,thePathariaandtheKhuntias.Thesetwosubgroupsdonotevensharewaterwitheachother.TheexogamousdivisionsusuallyhavethesamenamesastheGonds,suchasSonureni,Dhurua,Tekam,Markam,Uika,Purtai,Marai,tonameafew.SomenamessuchasAhindwar,Ranchirai,andRattoriaare of HindioriginandareanindicationthatsomenorthernHinduspossiblyhavebeenincorporatedintothetribe.Indi-vidualsbelongingtoasectionarebelievedtoconstitutealineagewithacommonancestorandarethereforeexoga-mous.Descentistracedpatrilineally.Marriagesareusuallyar-rangedbythefather.Whenaboy'sfatherdecidestoarrangeamarriage,emissariesaresenttothegirl'sfatherandifac-ceptedpresentswillfollow.ContrarytoHindumarriagecus-toms,marriageispermittedduringthemonsoonswhenironsmeltingispostponedandthereisnowork.Abride-priceisgenerallypaidafewdaysbeforetheceremony.AswiththeGonds,firstcousinsarepermittedtomarry.Widowmarriageisacceptedandisexpectedwithone'slatehusband'syoungerbrother,particularlyifheisabachelor.Divorceisallowedforeitherpartyincases of adultery,extravagance,ormistreat-ment.Ifawomanleavesherhusbandwithoutbeingdivorced,theothermanbycustomisobligatedtopayapricetothehusband.Evenamongthewidelydispersedsubgroups of theAgariatheretraditionallyhasbeendiscrimination:amongtheAsur,marriagewassanctionedbycustomwiththeChokh,althoughbothgroupsrefusedtomarrywiththeHinduLoharsubgroup,owingtotheirlowerstatus.ThefamilygodisDulhaDeo,towhomofferings of goats,fowl,coconuts,andcakesaremade.TheyalsosharetheGonddeity of theforest,BuraDeo.Lohasur,theirondemon,istheirprofessionaldeity,whomtheybelieveinhabitsthesmeltingkilns.DuringPhagunandontheday of DasahiatheAgariamakeofferings of fowlasasign of devotiontotheirsmeltingimplements.Traditionally,villagesorcererswerere-cruitedduringtimes of sicknesstodeterminethedeitywhohadbeenoffended,towhomanatonementwouldthenbeoffered.BibliographyElwin,Verrier(1942).TheAgaria.Oxford:HumphreyMil-ford,OxfordUniversityPress.Russell,R.V.,andHiraLal(1916)."Agaria."InTheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India,byR.V.RussellandHiraLal.Vol.2, 3-8 .Nagpur:GovernmentPrintingPress.Reprint.1969.Oosterhout:AnthropologicalPublications.JAYDiMAGGIOAbor5SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Theprimaryallegiance of anindivid-ualistohisorherfamily.Thecohesion of largergroupswithinthesociety,suchassubclans,clans,andmoieties,canalsobeoccasionedbydisputesandconflictsthatthreatenoneormore of theconstituentmembers of theselargergroups.AmongtheAbor'sprimaryinstitutionsmustbein-cludedjhumagriculture,thenuclearfamily,themoshup,andtherasheng.Theanticipatedsecondaryinstitutions(i.e.,corereligiousbeliefs,ritualcults,andfolklorecorpus)alsoobtainamongtheAbor.Traditionally,socialstatuswasachievedthroughtheaccumulation of wealth.Today,educationandoccupationarealsoviewedassigns of status.PoliticalOrganization.Eachvillageisanautonomousunitwhoseaffairsareadministeredbyacouncil(kebang).Councilmembershipconsists of clanrepresentativesandin-dividualvillagemembers.Everyaspect of villagelifeisgov-ernedbythekebang.Thisincludesthemediation of localdis-putes.Groups of villagesareorganizedintobangos,whicharegovernedbyabangocouncil.Disputesbetweenbangosaremediatedbyabogumbokang(atemporaryinterbangocouncilmadeup of bangoeldersfromthesamegroup).SocialControl.Sources of conflictwithinAborsocietyin-cludemaritalandfamilialdisputes,divorce,theft,assault,andinheritancedisputes.Theresolution of conflictandtheregulation of behaviorwithin...

... adivinerhasidentifiedwhatistobedone.Thereareallmanner of privatecuringrituals,andtheseareheldbywhomeverknowshow,notbyprofessionals;theytendtoinvolvesacrificestointrudingspirits,soulrecall-ing,andtheleaving of miniatureimages of wealthoutsidethevillageforthespirits.Therearefewdefiniteseasonalcalen-dricalceremonies,butvillageritesmustbeheldbeforeclear-ing,planting,andharvesting.Allsorts of means(suchasob-servingcracksinheatedeggshells,thebileductsinpiglivers,orhowadyingfowlcrossesitslegs)areusedfordiviningthesource of troublesandtheauspiciousness of plans.Arts.Withminorexceptions,allChinartisnonrepresen-tative,andmanyChinusedtofindithardeventorecognizeadrawnorpaintedhumanfigure,thoughphotographswereclearenoughtothem.Floral-geometricdecorationisfoundintheweavingandinthememorialpostsmentionedearlier.Some of thedesignfiguresconventionallystandforthings-forexample,forvariouskinds of possessionsbelongingtoapersonbeingcommemorated-butnoneisiconic.DiseaseandCuring.Thefirstrecourseinthetreatment of diseasesandeven of woundsistheuse of mediumswhoar-rangefortheplacation of thespiritsresponsible,whomightotherwisepreventrecovery.Alongsidethisthereisawideva-riety of quiteidiosyncratictreatment,chiefly of anherbalna-ture,whichismainlypassedonfrommotherstodaughtersanddaughters-in-law.DeathandAfterlife.Thedeadareburied,andintheSouthernChinhillsthereissecondaryreburial of thebonesinasmalljar.Ingeneraltheblanket-wrappedcorpseisin-terredinastone-linedchamberinoneside of averticalpit.Thosewhohavediedaviolentdeathandwhothereforearelikelytohavebecomedangerousghostsareburiedinasepa-rategravesite,remotefromthevillageandsurroundingtrails.Therange of memorialconstructionsisconsiderable,butamongthemshouldbementioned-inadditiontothecom-memorativeposts-thestoneplatformsinandaroundthevillage,onwhichpeoplecanrestandonwhich,somesay,thespirit of thedeceasedmaysometimescomeandrest;andtheclusters of miniaturehousesontallstilts,inwhichperi-odicofferings of foodandminiaturefurnishingsareplacedforthespirit of thedeceased.Aninterestingfeature of thestoneplatforms(inthecase of deceasedmales),behindwhichthememorialpostsareraised,istheline of smallstonesthatmayalsobepresent,eachrepresentingeitherahumanvictim of thedeceasedor,equivalently,anotherman'swifeseducedbythedeceased.Modemmemorialstoneshavewrittenonthemlists of thedeceased'spossessionsinlife,ofteninastonishingdetail,downtotheoddenameledtincuporpair of woolensocks.SeealsoMizoBibliographyCarey,B.S.,andH.P.Tuck(1896).TheChinHills.2vols.Rangoon:GovernmentPress.Lehman,F.K.(1963).TheStructure of ChinSociety.Urbana:University of IllinoisPress.Lehman,F.K.(1970)."OnChinandKachinMarriageCy-cles."Man,n.s.5:11 8-1 25.Lehman,F.K.(1989)."InternalInflationaryPressuresinthePrestigeEconomy of theFeast -of- MeritComplex."InUpland-LowlandContrastsinMainlandSoutheast Asia, ed-itedbySusanB.Russell,8 9-1 02.NorthernIllinoisUniver-sityCenterforSoutheast Asia StudiesOccasionalPaper.DeKalb.Parry,N.E.(1932).TheLakhers.London:Macmillan.Shakespear,John(1912).TheLusheiKukiClans.London:Macmillan.CochinJew71dianSociety,editedbyMiltonB.SingerandBernardS.Cohn,39 7-4 11.Chicago:Aldine.Patterson,MaureenL.P.(1970)."ChangingPatterns of Oc-cupationamongChitpavanBrahmans."IndianEconomicandSocialHistoryReview7:37 5-3 96.Patterson,MaureenL. ... kinds of goods)insurroundingvillages.Thereweresmithswhomadethetraditionalsilver-amalgam(lateralumi-num)jewelry-suchasthebracelets,belts,earrings,rings,andnecklaceshungwithimportedbeadsandsilverrupeecoins-aswellasbrasshairpinsandotheritems,butthosear-tisanswereevenfewerinnumberthantheonesmentionedabove.indeed,thetradeinthelatteritemswasakintothelong-distancetradeinheirloomgoods,suchasthegreatgongsfromMyanmar(Burma),brassvesselsfromIndia,andothersorts of itemsthatsignifiedatleastanominalclaimuponthegoods of thevaaiplainscountry.Trade.All of thesemoreexpensiveitemsconstitutedthebasis of theprestigeeconomy of thesehillsandpassednotonlybysalebutbycirculation of myriadceremonialpaymentsandfines(especiallymarriage-prices,blood-moneypayments,andcompensationpaymentsfordefamation of status).Pres-tigegoodsandgayals-especiallyimportantfortheiruseinsacrificesassociatedwiththe"meritfeasts"bywhichsocialrankwasattainedorvalidated-werethetraditionalwealth of thesepeople.Furthermore,thedisplayorannouncement of theentirearray of whatonecurrentlyownedorhadownedinlife-symbolicallyindicatedoncarvedmemorialpostserectedforprestigiousdead-wasthedefinitivesign of one'ssocialandceremonialrank.Morespecifically,thepossession of asupposedlyuniqueobjectfromtheoutside world, likelytopossessaunique"personal"name of itsown,wasespeciallyimportant.Theideabehindtheprestigeeconomyisthatprosperityinthis world dependsuponthesacrificialexchange of goodswithinhabitants of theLand of theDead,andonlyifonehadconductedfeasts of meritwouldoneandone'sdescendantshavewealthandwell-being.Thus,too,thecon-tinuity of lineagebetweenthedeadandtbelivingwasimpor-tant;itwasespeciallyimportantforanyonetobememorial-izedafterhisorherdeath.Memorialservicewasdonenotonlybythedisplay of wealthandbyitsfigurationonmemor-ialpostsandstonesbutalsointhecomposition of songs(vahia)commemoratingaman'sgreatnessontheoccasion of one of hisfeasts.Sogreatlywerewealthandpossessionstiedupwithaperson'ssocialpositionthatamongthemosthei-noustraditionaloffencesinthissocietyweretheft,bastardy,andthesupposedpossession of "evileye"(hnam,theuncon-sciousandheritableabilitytocauseharmbylookingenvi-ouslyuponanother'sprosperity,orevensomeone'sconsump-tion of agoodmeal).Allthesesituationsmeantthatpropertyhadfailedtopassbymeans of expectedformalexchanges:ithadpassedinsteadbyarbitraryexpropriation,orthroughachildbornout of wedlockwithoutbenefit of marriage-price,orbymisfortunecausedbymurderousenvy of possessionstowhichonehadnolegitimateclaim.Division of Labor.Thefewclasses of part-timecraftspe-cialistarementionedabove.Womendomore of thedomestictasksandallthetraditionalweaving.Theyarealsoalmostex-clusivelythespiritmediumsbecausemalespiritfamiliarschoosethem.Menalonecutdowntheforestsandworkassmiths.Thereappeartobenofemalehuntersorwarriorsex-ceptinlegends,probablybecausenowomancanholdinherownnameafeast of celebrationforthekilling of amajorani-mal,orafeast of celebration of ahumantrophyheadorthat of atiger.(Inall of thesecasesthepointistotametheangryspirit of thedeceasedanimalorpersonandsendittoserveoneandone'sforebearsintheLand of theDead.)Awomancan,however,holdadomesticfeast of meritinthename of herdeceasedhusband,inwhichdomesticanimalsaresimi-larlysacrificedonbehalf of theLand of theDead.Neverthe-less,onlymencanbevillagepriests,whoaremostlyap-pointedbychiefsandheadmenbecausetheyhavememorizedtherequiredchantsandformulasandknowtheritualse-quences.Priestsserveasmasters of ceremonyatthefeasts of meritandcelebrationandatthevariouskinds of rite of placation-bothcyclicalandsporadic-addressedtothevar-iousspiritowners of theface of theland,greatandsmall.Al-mostallothertasksandactivitiescanbeundertakenbyeithersex;therehaveevenbeenhistoricalinstances of importantfemalechiefs,whoattainedofficethroughbeingwidowed.Therearefewifanyexploitablenaturalresourcesinthesehillsandvirtuallynomodernindustry,atleastnothingmadeforexport.Asidefromthesalaries of teachersandgovern-mentservants of allsortsandtheincomes of merchantsandshopkeepers,themainsource of moneyisthewages of Chinwhoworkontheoutside-preeminentlyinMyanmar,inthearmedforces.LandTenure.Thisaspect of Chincultureishighlyvaria-ble.Avillagehascompleteownership of itstract,andeventherighttohuntinitmustberequestedfromthevillage;however,itispossibletorentlandsinanothervillage'stractonanindividualoracommunalbasis.Villagetractbound-ariesarepreciselyindicatedbylandmarks.Frequentlyagivenhillsidetract,oreventhewholevillagetract,willbeownedbyachieforotherhereditaryaristocrat.Theright of achieftotheduesandservices of hisvillagersinfactderivesfromhisownership of theland,whiletheultimateownershipbyavil-lage of itslandasawholederivesfromtheheritablepactmadebytheancestralfounders of thevillagewiththespiritowners of theland.Theparamountrightisownership,sinceCoorg73tegratedintoKeralasociety,theywereinfluencedbymanyHindupracticesandbeliefs(e.g.,theemphasisuponpurity of descent,theweddingcustomsandcanopy,andthe"asceti-cism"associatedwithPassoverpreparations).Reportedly,theCochinJewshaveneversufferedfromanti-Semitismatthehands of theirHinduneighbors.ReligiousPractitioners.TheCochinJewsneverhadanyrabbis,butseveralmenservedasshochetim(ritualslaugh-terers)andhazanim(cantors)bothfortheirowncommuni-tiesandforanothercommunity of IndianJews,theBeneIs-raelinBombay.Ceremonies.Boththe'White"andthe"Black"Jewsper-formtheirceremoniesseparatelyintheirownsynagoguesandhomes.However,theceremoniesaresimilaranddistinctlyCochini,reflectingbothlocalHinduandChristianinflu-ences.Bothgroupsbuildamanara,oraperion,forthewed-ding,usuallyatthegroom'shouse.Afteraritualbaththebridereceivesatali,anIndianpendant,inimitation of localNayarpractice.Thegroomandbridedressintraditionalwed-dingdress.Thegroomentersthesynagogueonawhitecarpet-acustomapparentlyobservedby'Black"andnot'White"Jews-andsitsnearthepodiumuntilthebride'spro-cessionarrives.Thegroomhimself-andnotarabbi,asinotherJewishcommunities-actuallyannounceshisbetrothalandmarriagetohisbride.Arts.Dailyprayerswerechantedaccordingtotheshinglicustom,auniqueversion of thestandardJewishprayers.Inaddition,theCochinJewshavealargenumber of folksongsthattheysingregularly.Somearesungatweddings,somearelullabies,andsomespecificallyrecallthereturntoZion.In1984theCochinJewsinIsraelstagedahugepageantrelatinginsonganddancethestory of theiremigrationfromIndiaandtheirintegrationintoIsraelisociety.DeathandAfterlife.TheCochinJewsbelieveinanafter-life,influencedbothbyJewishandHindubeliefs.TheirdeadareburiedinJewishcemeteries.SeealsoBeneIsraelBibliographyKatz,Nathan,andEllenGoldberg(1989).'AsceticismandCasteinthePassoverObservances of theCochinJews."Jour-nal of theAmericanAcademy of Religion62:5 3-8 2.Mandelbaum,DavidG.(1975).'SocialStratificationamongtheJews of CochininIndiaandinIsrael."JewishJournal of Sociology17:16 5-2 10.Velayudhan,P.A.,etal.(1971).Commemorative Volume: CochinSynagogue,QuatercentenaryCelebration.Cochin:KeralaHistoricalAssociation.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1982).'SymmetrybetweenChristianandJewsinIndia:theCnaniteChristianandtheCochinJews of Kerala."ContributionstoIndianSociology16:17 5-1 96.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1984).FromCochintoEretzIsrael(inHe-brew).Jerusalem:KumuBerina.SHALVAJ.WEILCoorgETHNONYMS:Coorgi,KodaraCoorgisatiny,isolated,mountainousdistrictin south- westIndia,boundedontheeastbythehighMysorePlateau,averaginganelevation of 1,000meters,andonthewestbyamountainousfrontier3 0-5 0kilometersfromthewesterncoast.Itsgreatestlength,northto south, isabout100kilome-ters,anditsgreatestbreadth,easttowest,is65kilometers.TheWesternGhatmountainrangerunsfromnorthto south anditsmanyspursstrikeoutinalldirectionsthroughthesmallprovince,nowadistrict of KarnatakaState.Themainrivers,theKveriandLaksmanatirtha,areshallowandunnavigable.TheCoorgyearisdividedintothreeseasons-cold,hot,andrainy-withamarkedvariationinrainfallinthevariousregions.Theaverageyearlytemperaturerangesfrom10'to27'C.Coorgisprimarilyanagriculturalcountrywithcoffeeandricebeingthemainproducts.Coorgcontainsdensefor-ests of bamboo,sandalwood,andcardamom.Faunaincludeselephants,tigers,panthers,boars,anddeer.Theearlyhistory of CoorgcanbetracedbacktotheninthcenturyA.D.andconsists of asuccession of feudalrulersleadinguptothedynasty of theLingayatrajasbeginninginthe1600s.Thelastsurvivors of thedynastywerethebrothers,Doddavirarajendra(died1809)andLingarajendra(died1820).Theheirtothethrone,adaughter,Devammaji,was10atthetime of herfather'sdeathandthethronewasthere-foreusurpedbyanuncle.Theuncle,Lingarajendra,wassuc-ceededbyhissonChikkavirarajendra(ViraRajaII)whowaspoorlyacceptedbyhissubjects.Thisledtotheeventualan-nexation of CoorgbytheBritishin1834.Theannexationledtoanumber of economic,political,andsocialreforms,one of themostprominentbeingtheabolition of slavery.Therearethreelevels of territorialgroup;thevillageisthesmallestandthemostimportant.Villages,whicharemul-ticaste,containanumber of ancestralestates,eachcomprised of amainhouse of stoneandwoodandnearbyservants'huts of mudandbamboo.Thenad,consisting of severalvillages,isthenextlargergroup.Inthe1931census94percent of thepopulation of Coorglivedinsuchvillages.TraditionallyCoorgwasdividedintothirty-fivenadsandtwelvekombus,whichservejudicialpurposes.Everyvillagehasacouncil of eldersthatispresidedoverbyaheadmanwhosepositionishereditary.TherearetwotownsinCoorg:Mercara,(orMadikeri)withapopulation of 7,112;andVirarajpet,with4,106per-sons(as of 1931).Mercaraliesinthenorth-centralportion of theregion.Virarajpetisthemostimportantcommercialcentertoday. Of thetotal1931population of 163,327,89percentwereHindus,8percentMuslims,and2percentChristians.Thenumber of Kodaguspeakerswaslistedas72,085inthe1971census.TheprimarylanguagesspokeninCoorgareKodagu,Kannada(Dravidianlanguage),Hindi,andEnglish.CoorgsconsiderthemselvestobeKshatriyas,whocon-stitutethecaste of rulersandsoldiersinthetraditionalhier-archyandrankbelowonlyBrahmans.TodayCoorgsaresome of theprominentmilitaryleadersinIndia.Therearemore60Chakmadren.TheyaretaughtBuddhistideologyatanearlyage.Re-spectfor ... kinds of goods)insurroundingvillages.Thereweresmithswhomadethetraditionalsilver-amalgam(lateralumi-num)jewelry-suchasthebracelets,belts,earrings,rings,andnecklaceshungwithimportedbeadsandsilverrupeecoins-aswellasbrasshairpinsandotheritems,butthosear-tisanswereevenfewerinnumberthantheonesmentionedabove.indeed,thetradeinthelatteritemswasakintothelong-distancetradeinheirloomgoods,suchasthegreatgongsfromMyanmar(Burma),brassvesselsfromIndia,andothersorts of itemsthatsignifiedatleastanominalclaimuponthegoods of thevaaiplainscountry.Trade.All of thesemoreexpensiveitemsconstitutedthebasis of theprestigeeconomy of thesehillsandpassednotonlybysalebutbycirculation of myriadceremonialpaymentsandfines(especiallymarriage-prices,blood-moneypayments,andcompensationpaymentsfordefamation of status).Pres-tigegoodsandgayals-especiallyimportantfortheiruseinsacrificesassociatedwiththe"meritfeasts"bywhichsocialrankwasattainedorvalidated-werethetraditionalwealth of thesepeople.Furthermore,thedisplayorannouncement of theentirearray of whatonecurrentlyownedorhadownedinlife-symbolicallyindicatedoncarvedmemorialpostserectedforprestigiousdead-wasthedefinitivesign of one'ssocialandceremonialrank.Morespecifically,thepossession of asupposedlyuniqueobjectfromtheoutside world, likelytopossessaunique"personal"name of itsown,wasespeciallyimportant.Theideabehindtheprestigeeconomyisthatprosperityinthis world dependsuponthesacrificialexchange of goodswithinhabitants of theLand of theDead,andonlyifonehadconductedfeasts of meritwouldoneandone'sdescendantshavewealthandwell-being.Thus,too,thecon-tinuity of lineagebetweenthedeadandtbelivingwasimpor-tant;itwasespeciallyimportantforanyonetobememorial-izedafterhisorherdeath.Memorialservicewasdonenotonlybythedisplay of wealthandbyitsfigurationonmemor-ialpostsandstonesbutalsointhecomposition of songs(vahia)commemoratingaman'sgreatnessontheoccasion of one of hisfeasts.Sogreatlywerewealthandpossessionstiedupwithaperson'ssocialpositionthatamongthemosthei-noustraditionaloffencesinthissocietyweretheft,bastardy,andthesupposedpossession of "evileye"(hnam,theuncon-sciousandheritableabilitytocauseharmbylookingenvi-ouslyuponanother'sprosperity,orevensomeone'sconsump-tion of agoodmeal).Allthesesituationsmeantthatpropertyhadfailedtopassbymeans of expectedformalexchanges:ithadpassedinsteadbyarbitraryexpropriation,orthroughachildbornout of wedlockwithoutbenefit of marriage-price,orbymisfortunecausedbymurderousenvy of possessionstowhichonehadnolegitimateclaim.Division of Labor.Thefewclasses of part-timecraftspe-cialistarementionedabove.Womendomore of thedomestictasksandallthetraditionalweaving.Theyarealsoalmostex-clusivelythespiritmediumsbecausemalespiritfamiliarschoosethem.Menalonecutdowntheforestsandworkassmiths.Thereappeartobenofemalehuntersorwarriorsex-ceptinlegends,probablybecausenowomancanholdinherownnameafeast of celebrationforthekilling of amajorani-mal,orafeast of celebration of ahumantrophyheadorthat of atiger.(Inall of thesecasesthepointistotametheangryspirit of thedeceasedanimalorpersonandsendittoserveoneandone'sforebearsintheLand of theDead.)Awomancan,however,holdadomesticfeast of meritinthename of herdeceasedhusband,inwhichdomesticanimalsaresimi-larlysacrificedonbehalf of theLand of theDead.Neverthe-less,onlymencanbevillagepriests,whoaremostlyap-pointedbychiefsandheadmenbecausetheyhavememorizedtherequiredchantsandformulasandknowtheritualse-quences.Priestsserveasmasters of ceremonyatthefeasts of meritandcelebrationandatthevariouskinds of rite of placation-bothcyclicalandsporadic-addressedtothevar-iousspiritowners of theface of theland,greatandsmall.Al-mostallothertasksandactivitiescanbeundertakenbyeithersex;therehaveevenbeenhistoricalinstances of importantfemalechiefs,whoattainedofficethroughbeingwidowed.Therearefewifanyexploitablenaturalresourcesinthesehillsandvirtuallynomodernindustry,atleastnothingmadeforexport.Asidefromthesalaries of teachersandgovern-mentservants of allsortsandtheincomes of merchantsandshopkeepers,themainsource of moneyisthewages of Chinwhoworkontheoutside-preeminentlyinMyanmar,inthearmedforces.LandTenure.Thisaspect of Chincultureishighlyvaria-ble.Avillagehascompleteownership of itstract,andeventherighttohuntinitmustberequestedfromthevillage;however,itispossibletorentlandsinanothervillage'stractonanindividualoracommunalbasis.Villagetractbound-ariesarepreciselyindicatedbylandmarks.Frequentlyagivenhillsidetract,oreventhewholevillagetract,willbeownedbyachieforotherhereditaryaristocrat.Theright of achieftotheduesandservices of hisvillagersinfactderivesfromhisownership of theland,whiletheultimateownershipbyavil-lage of itslandasawholederivesfromtheheritablepactmadebytheancestralfounders of thevillagewiththespiritowners of theland.Theparamountrightisownership,sinceCoorg73tegratedintoKeralasociety,theywereinfluencedbymanyHindupracticesandbeliefs(e.g.,theemphasisuponpurity of descent,theweddingcustomsandcanopy,andthe"asceti-cism"associatedwithPassoverpreparations).Reportedly,theCochinJewshaveneversufferedfromanti-Semitismatthehands of theirHinduneighbors.ReligiousPractitioners.TheCochinJewsneverhadanyrabbis,butseveralmenservedasshochetim(ritualslaugh-terers)andhazanim(cantors)bothfortheirowncommuni-tiesandforanothercommunity of IndianJews,theBeneIs-raelinBombay.Ceremonies.Boththe'White"andthe"Black"Jewsper-formtheirceremoniesseparatelyintheirownsynagoguesandhomes.However,theceremoniesaresimilaranddistinctlyCochini,reflectingbothlocalHinduandChristianinflu-ences.Bothgroupsbuildamanara,oraperion,forthewed-ding,usuallyatthegroom'shouse.Afteraritualbaththebridereceivesatali,anIndianpendant,inimitation of localNayarpractice.Thegroomandbridedressintraditionalwed-dingdress.Thegroomentersthesynagogueonawhitecarpet-acustomapparentlyobservedby'Black"andnot'White"Jews-andsitsnearthepodiumuntilthebride'spro-cessionarrives.Thegroomhimself-andnotarabbi,asinotherJewishcommunities-actuallyannounceshisbetrothalandmarriagetohisbride.Arts.Dailyprayerswerechantedaccordingtotheshinglicustom,auniqueversion of thestandardJewishprayers.Inaddition,theCochinJewshavealargenumber of folksongsthattheysingregularly.Somearesungatweddings,somearelullabies,andsomespecificallyrecallthereturntoZion.In1984theCochinJewsinIsraelstagedahugepageantrelatinginsonganddancethestory of theiremigrationfromIndiaandtheirintegrationintoIsraelisociety.DeathandAfterlife.TheCochinJewsbelieveinanafter-life,influencedbothbyJewishandHindubeliefs.TheirdeadareburiedinJewishcemeteries.SeealsoBeneIsraelBibliographyKatz,Nathan,andEllenGoldberg(1989).'AsceticismandCasteinthePassoverObservances of theCochinJews."Jour-nal of theAmericanAcademy of Religion62:5 3-8 2.Mandelbaum,DavidG.(1975).'SocialStratificationamongtheJews of CochininIndiaandinIsrael."JewishJournal of Sociology17:16 5-2 10.Velayudhan,P.A.,etal.(1971).Commemorative Volume: CochinSynagogue,QuatercentenaryCelebration.Cochin:KeralaHistoricalAssociation.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1982).'SymmetrybetweenChristianandJewsinIndia:theCnaniteChristianandtheCochinJews of Kerala."ContributionstoIndianSociology16:17 5-1 96.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1984).FromCochintoEretzIsrael(inHe-brew).Jerusalem:KumuBerina.SHALVAJ.WEILCoorgETHNONYMS:Coorgi,KodaraCoorgisatiny,isolated,mountainousdistrictin south- westIndia,boundedontheeastbythehighMysorePlateau,averaginganelevation of 1,000meters,andonthewestbyamountainousfrontier3 0-5 0kilometersfromthewesterncoast.Itsgreatestlength,northto south, isabout100kilome-ters,anditsgreatestbreadth,easttowest,is65kilometers.TheWesternGhatmountainrangerunsfromnorthto south anditsmanyspursstrikeoutinalldirectionsthroughthesmallprovince,nowadistrict of KarnatakaState.Themainrivers,theKveriandLaksmanatirtha,areshallowandunnavigable.TheCoorgyearisdividedintothreeseasons-cold,hot,andrainy-withamarkedvariationinrainfallinthevariousregions.Theaverageyearlytemperaturerangesfrom10'to27'C.Coorgisprimarilyanagriculturalcountrywithcoffeeandricebeingthemainproducts.Coorgcontainsdensefor-ests of bamboo,sandalwood,andcardamom.Faunaincludeselephants,tigers,panthers,boars,anddeer.Theearlyhistory of CoorgcanbetracedbacktotheninthcenturyA.D.andconsists of asuccession of feudalrulersleadinguptothedynasty of theLingayatrajasbeginninginthe1600s.Thelastsurvivors of thedynastywerethebrothers,Doddavirarajendra(died1809)andLingarajendra(died1820).Theheirtothethrone,adaughter,Devammaji,was10atthetime of herfather'sdeathandthethronewasthere-foreusurpedbyanuncle.Theuncle,Lingarajendra,wassuc-ceededbyhissonChikkavirarajendra(ViraRajaII)whowaspoorlyacceptedbyhissubjects.Thisledtotheeventualan-nexation of CoorgbytheBritishin1834.Theannexationledtoanumber of economic,political,andsocialreforms,one of themostprominentbeingtheabolition of slavery.Therearethreelevels of territorialgroup;thevillageisthesmallestandthemostimportant.Villages,whicharemul-ticaste,containanumber of ancestralestates,eachcomprised of amainhouse of stoneandwoodandnearbyservants'huts of mudandbamboo.Thenad,consisting of severalvillages,isthenextlargergroup.Inthe1931census94percent of thepopulation of Coorglivedinsuchvillages.TraditionallyCoorgwasdividedintothirty-fivenadsandtwelvekombus,whichservejudicialpurposes.Everyvillagehasacouncil of eldersthatispresidedoverbyaheadmanwhosepositionishereditary.TherearetwotownsinCoorg:Mercara,(orMadikeri)withapopulation of 7,112;andVirarajpet,with4,106per-sons(as of 1931).Mercaraliesinthenorth-centralportion of theregion.Virarajpetisthemostimportantcommercialcentertoday. Of thetotal1931population of 163,327,89percentwereHindus,8percentMuslims,and2percentChristians.Thenumber of Kodaguspeakerswaslistedas72,085inthe1971census.TheprimarylanguagesspokeninCoorgareKodagu,Kannada(Dravidianlanguage),Hindi,andEnglish.CoorgsconsiderthemselvestobeKshatriyas,whocon-stitutethecaste of rulersandsoldiersinthetraditionalhier-archyandrankbelowonlyBrahmans.TodayCoorgsaresome of theprominentmilitaryleadersinIndia.Therearemore60Chakmadren.TheyaretaughtBuddhistideologyatanearlyage.Re-spectfor...

... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryendof...

... foursuchfamilies,eachfamilyconstitutingaunit.Thereisaper-vasiveemphasisonsexualegalitarianismandwomensome-timesformindependentcommensalunits,thoughtheseal-waysarepart of awidercampaggregate.Manyencampmentsconsistonly of asinglefamily,andsuchfamiliesmayresideasseparateandisolatedunitsforlongperiods.KinshipTerminology.Thekinshipterminology of theHillPandaramis of theDravidiantypecommonthroughout south India,thoughthereismuchvaguenessandvariabilityHillTribes101KrishnaIyer,L.A.(1937)."Malapantiram."InTheTravan-coreTribesandCastes.Vol.1,9 6-1 16.Trivandrum:Govern-mentPress.Morris,Brian(1981)."HillGodsandEcstaticCults:NotesontheReligion of aHuntingandGatheringPeople."ManinIndia61:20 3-2 36.Morris,Brian(1986).ForestTraders:ASocio-EconomicStudy of theHillPandaram.L.S.E.MonographsinSocialAnthro-pology,no.55.London:AthlonePress.Mukherjee,B.(1954).TheMalapandaram of Travancore:TheirSocio-EconomicLife.Bulletin of theDepartment of An-thropology,no.3.Calcutta.BRIANMORRISHillTribesETHNONYM:ScheduledTribesThisinexacttermwaslongappliedbyBritishandAmericantravelersandcolonialauthoritiestotheindige-nousinhabitants of uplandareasin South andSoutheast Asia (andsometimesinotherparts of the world) .Althoughitwouldseemclearenoughwhata'hilltribe"is,thetermfindslittlefavoramongmodemanthropologists.First of all,itseemstohavetones of racialinferiority;thusthetermhasneverbeenapplied,forexample,totheHighlandclans of Scotland,eventhoughtheydofittheusualmold of hilltribes.Second,Westernwritershavebeeninconsistentintheiridentification of hilltribes,usuallydefiningthemassomehowinoppositiontoothersocialcategories.IntheIn-diansubcontinenttribesorhilltribeshavelongbeende-pictedasdistinctfromcastes;inSoutheast Asia theyhaveoftenbeenpresentedasdistinctfromrice-cultivatingpeas-antsintheplainsandalluvialvalleys.TheNilgiriHills of south India,totakeaspecificexample,arehometoseveralsmall,moreorlessindigenousgroups,mostnotablytheTodas,Kotas,Kurumbas,andBadagas(alldealtwithelse-whereinthis volume) .BritishwritersandadministratorsthereduringthenineteenthcenturyalwaysidentifiedtheTodas,Kotas,andKurumbasashilltribesoraboriginaltribes;whereastheBadagas,whohadcomeuptotheNilgiriHillsfromtheMysorePlainsafewcenturiesbefore,wereusuallywrittenabout,eveninlegislation,asbeingsome-thingotherthanhilltribes.Yettheyhadlivedwithinafewmiles of theKotasandTodasforcenturies,andtheywereataverysimilarlevel of economicdevelopmenttotheKotas.TheNilgiricaseleadstotheconclusionthathilltribesaresimplytheindigenouscommunitiesthatliveaboveaneleva-tion of 1,000meters.Intraditionalsocietieslikethose of IndiaandThailandonecanstillfinddiscreteculturalunitsconventionallycalledtribes.Thesetendtobeendogamoussocialunits,occupyingadistinguishableruralterritory,bearingatribalnameandadis-tinctmaterialculture,andoftenspeakingtheirownlanguage.Butthesamefeaturescharacterizemanydominantcastesin South Asia aswell(e.g.,theRajputs).Inthisregiontheoldcategorieswillnotsimplydisappearasanthropologistsdevelopmoreusefulways of categorizinghumansocieties.ThisisbecausethelegalformulationinIndiasoonafterindependence of twobroadsocialcategories,ScheduledTribesandScheduledCastes,hasbynowtouchedhundreds of millions of peoplewhotherebyhavebecomeeli-gibleforspecialtreatmentbyvariousbranches of thegovern.ment,inanefforttoamelioratethesocioeconomicbackward-ness of thesegroupings.SovaluedhavethesegovernmentbenefitsbecomethattheIndianauthoritiestodayfindthem-selvesunabletoabandonthegranting of specialbenefits,twogenerationsaftertheywerefirstinstituted.ThereareevengroupsliketheBadagas,whowerenevercalledhilltribesnortreatedasScheduledTribes,whononethelesstodayareclam-oringforclassificationasScheduledTribesforthemostobvi-ous of reasons.TheBadagasactuallybecameaScheduledTribein1991.Althoughmany of theearlieraccountsdepictedhilltribesas'animists,"orbelieversinspiritentitieswhodidnotfollowone of thegreat South Asianreligions(e.g.,theHillPandaram),subsequentresearchhasdescribedhilltribesthatareHindu,Buddhist,Muslim,andevenChristian(theMizos,Garos).Alongwiththesedifferencesinbelief,thehilltribesshowagreatvariety of economicadaptations:whileagricultureispreeminentamongmost,therearesomewhoarepastoralists(suchastheTodas),somewhoareartisans(Kotas),andsomewhoareitinerantpeddlers,magicians,andentertainers.Morethan500namedtribescanstillberecognizedinthecountries of South Asia. Detailsabouttribaldemographyareelusive.Mostnationalcensuseshave ... foursuchfamilies,eachfamilyconstitutingaunit.Thereisaper-vasiveemphasisonsexualegalitarianismandwomensome-timesformindependentcommensalunits,thoughtheseal-waysarepart of awidercampaggregate.Manyencampmentsconsistonly of asinglefamily,andsuchfamiliesmayresideasseparateandisolatedunitsforlongperiods.KinshipTerminology.Thekinshipterminology of theHillPandaramis of theDravidiantypecommonthroughout south India,thoughthereismuchvaguenessandvariabilityHillTribes101KrishnaIyer,L.A.(1937)."Malapantiram."InTheTravan-coreTribesandCastes.Vol.1,9 6-1 16.Trivandrum:Govern-mentPress.Morris,Brian(1981)."HillGodsandEcstaticCults:NotesontheReligion of aHuntingandGatheringPeople."ManinIndia61:20 3-2 36.Morris,Brian(1986).ForestTraders:ASocio-EconomicStudy of theHillPandaram.L.S.E.MonographsinSocialAnthro-pology,no.55.London:AthlonePress.Mukherjee,B.(1954).TheMalapandaram of Travancore:TheirSocio-EconomicLife.Bulletin of theDepartment of An-thropology,no.3.Calcutta.BRIANMORRISHillTribesETHNONYM:ScheduledTribesThisinexacttermwaslongappliedbyBritishandAmericantravelersandcolonialauthoritiestotheindige-nousinhabitants of uplandareasin South andSoutheast Asia (andsometimesinotherparts of the world) .Althoughitwouldseemclearenoughwhata'hilltribe"is,thetermfindslittlefavoramongmodemanthropologists.First of all,itseemstohavetones of racialinferiority;thusthetermhasneverbeenapplied,forexample,totheHighlandclans of Scotland,eventhoughtheydofittheusualmold of hilltribes.Second,Westernwritershavebeeninconsistentintheiridentification of hilltribes,usuallydefiningthemassomehowinoppositiontoothersocialcategories.IntheIn-diansubcontinenttribesorhilltribeshavelongbeende-pictedasdistinctfromcastes;inSoutheast Asia theyhaveoftenbeenpresentedasdistinctfromrice-cultivatingpeas-antsintheplainsandalluvialvalleys.TheNilgiriHills of south India,totakeaspecificexample,arehometoseveralsmall,moreorlessindigenousgroups,mostnotablytheTodas,Kotas,Kurumbas,andBadagas(alldealtwithelse-whereinthis volume) .BritishwritersandadministratorsthereduringthenineteenthcenturyalwaysidentifiedtheTodas,Kotas,andKurumbasashilltribesoraboriginaltribes;whereastheBadagas,whohadcomeuptotheNilgiriHillsfromtheMysorePlainsafewcenturiesbefore,wereusuallywrittenabout,eveninlegislation,asbeingsome-thingotherthanhilltribes.Yettheyhadlivedwithinafewmiles of theKotasandTodasforcenturies,andtheywereataverysimilarlevel of economicdevelopmenttotheKotas.TheNilgiricaseleadstotheconclusionthathilltribesaresimplytheindigenouscommunitiesthatliveaboveaneleva-tion of 1,000meters.Intraditionalsocietieslikethose of IndiaandThailandonecanstillfinddiscreteculturalunitsconventionallycalledtribes.Thesetendtobeendogamoussocialunits,occupyingadistinguishableruralterritory,bearingatribalnameandadis-tinctmaterialculture,andoftenspeakingtheirownlanguage.Butthesamefeaturescharacterizemanydominantcastesin South Asia aswell(e.g.,theRajputs).Inthisregiontheoldcategorieswillnotsimplydisappearasanthropologistsdevelopmoreusefulways of categorizinghumansocieties.ThisisbecausethelegalformulationinIndiasoonafterindependence of twobroadsocialcategories,ScheduledTribesandScheduledCastes,hasbynowtouchedhundreds of millions of peoplewhotherebyhavebecomeeli-gibleforspecialtreatmentbyvariousbranches of thegovern.ment,inanefforttoamelioratethesocioeconomicbackward-ness of thesegroupings.SovaluedhavethesegovernmentbenefitsbecomethattheIndianauthoritiestodayfindthem-selvesunabletoabandonthegranting of specialbenefits,twogenerationsaftertheywerefirstinstituted.ThereareevengroupsliketheBadagas,whowerenevercalledhilltribesnortreatedasScheduledTribes,whononethelesstodayareclam-oringforclassificationasScheduledTribesforthemostobvi-ous of reasons.TheBadagasactuallybecameaScheduledTribein1991.Althoughmany of theearlieraccountsdepictedhilltribesas'animists,"orbelieversinspiritentitieswhodidnotfollowone of thegreat South Asianreligions(e.g.,theHillPandaram),subsequentresearchhasdescribedhilltribesthatareHindu,Buddhist,Muslim,andevenChristian(theMizos,Garos).Alongwiththesedifferencesinbelief,thehilltribesshowagreatvariety of economicadaptations:whileagricultureispreeminentamongmost,therearesomewhoarepastoralists(suchastheTodas),somewhoareartisans(Kotas),andsomewhoareitinerantpeddlers,magicians,andentertainers.Morethan500namedtribescanstillberecognizedinthecountries of South Asia. Detailsabouttribaldemographyareelusive.Mostnationalcensuseshave ... isinhernamethattheoperationisrit-uallyperformed.Ahijra,calleda"midwife,"performstheop-erationafterreceivingsanctionfromthegoddess.Theritual of thesurgeryandmany of thepostoperativerestrictionsin-volvingspecialdietandseclusionimitatethose of awomanwhohasjustgivenbirth.Attheend of theforty-dayisolationperiod,thenirvanisdressedasabride,istakeninprocessiontoabody of waterandsubsequentlytoaritualinvolvingfer-tilitysymbolismrelatingtomarriageandchildbirth,becomesahijra,andistheninvestedwiththepower of thegoddess.Inthehijraemasculationritual,wehaveaculmination of theparadoxesandcontradictionscharacteristic of Hinduism:im-potent,emasculatedman,transformedbyfemalegenerativepowerintocreativeascetics,becomesabletoblessotherswithfertilityandfortune.ArtandPerformance.Hijrasareperformersatpointsinthelifecyclerelatedtoreproduction,andthusmuch of theirexpressivecultureemploysfertilitysymbolism.Hijraperfor-mancesareburlesques of femalebehavior.Much of thecom-edy of theirperformancesderivesfromtheincongruitiesbe-tweentheirbehaviorandthat of ordinarywomen,restrainedbynorms of propriety.Hijrasusecoarsespeechandgesturesandmakesexualinnuendos,teasingthemalechildrenpres-entandalsomakingfun of variousfamilymembersandfam-ilyrelationships.Therearesomesongsandcomedicroutinesthatareatraditionalpart of hijraperformances,mostnotablyoneinwhichahijraactsasapregnantwomancommentingonthedifficultiesateachstate of thepregnancy.Inalltheperformancesblessingthenewbornmale,thehijrasinspecttheinfant'sgenitals.Itisbelievedthatanychildbornaher-maphroditewillbeclaimedbythehijrasfortheirown.Inad-ditiontotraditionalelementshijraperformancesalsoincludepopularsongsanddancesfromcurrentfavoritefilms.BibliographyBradford,NicholasJ.(1983)."TransgenderismandtheCult of Yellamma:Heat,Sex,andSicknessin South IndianRit-ual."Journal of AnthropologicalResearch39:30 7-3 22.Freeman,JamesM.(1979)."TransvestitesandProstitutes,196 9-7 2."InUntouchable:AnIndianLifeHistory.Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress.Nanda,Serena(1990).NeitherMannorWoman:TheHijras of India.Belmont,Calif.:WadsworthPublishers.O'Flaherty,WendyDoniger(1980).Women,Androgynes,andOtherMythicalBeasts.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.SERENANANDAHillPandaramETHNONYMS:MalaiPandaram,Malapa&tiramOrientationIdentification.TheMalapantiram(hereafteranglicizedastheHillPandaram)areaScheduledTribe of thestate of Keralain south Indiaandinhabittheforestedhills of theWesternGhatsbetweenLakePeriyarandthetown of Ten-mali,about9°N.Althoughtheysharethename"Pandaram"withacastecommunity of TamilNadu,thereappeartobenolinksbetweenthetwocommunities.Mala(mountain)referstotheirlongassociationwiththehillforests,theWesternGhats,whichformthebackbone of peninsularIndiaandrangefrom600to2,400meters.Anomadicforagingcommu-nity,theHillPandaramlooselyidentifythemselveswiththeforestandrefertoalloutsiders,whetherlocalcastecommuni-tiesorforestlaborers,asnattuharan(countrypeople).Location.CenteredonthePandalamHills,theHillPan-daramprimarilyoccupytheforestranges of Ranni,Koni,andAchencoil.TheGhatsaresubjecttotwomonsoonseasons;thesouthwestmonsoon,fallingbetweenJuneandAugust,beingresponsibleforthebulk...

... 106forest of itskindinthe world. Post -World WarIIdamproj-ects,includingthat of BhavaniSagar,createdtemporaryworkforothers.ManyIrulahaveenteredthegeneraljobmarketintheCoimbatore-Mettupalaiyam-Ootacamundregionandareemployedinawidearray of jobsinthepublicandprivatesec-tors.Suchjobsincludepositionsinairforceandarmycamps,nationalizedbanks,theincometaxoffice,thePostandTele-graphDepartment,theRailwayDepartment,theSugarcaneBreedingInstituteandPankajaMill,bothinCoimbatore(theonlymillthatemploysIrulas,out of twentysurveyed),thecorditefactoryatAruvankadu,andtheHindustanPhoto-FilmindustrynearOotacamund.TheIrulahavecattle,chick-ens,dogs,goats,andsheep,andafew of themmaykeepbuf-falo,pigeons,orpigs.Pigs,dogs,andchickensserveasscavengersinsomelowlandhamlets.Junglefowl,Nilgirilan-gurs,parrots,peacocks,quail,andassortedsquirrelsappeartobethemostcommonlytamedwildcreatures.IndustrialArts.TheIrulamaketheirowndrumsandwindinstrumentsfortheirmusicalenjoyment.TheKota of theupperNilgirisgenerallynolongersupplymusicastheyoncetraditionallydid,sotheIrulaarenowfrequentlyemployedasmusiciansatBadagaandTodafunerals.Trade.Akind of barteringtradehaspersistedforgenera-tionsbetweentheKina-r.Kota of theupperNilgirisandthenearbyIrula.TheKotaobtainhoney,brooms,winnowersandbasketsmade of bambooandbananasheathstrips,punkusedtolightfires(Kotapriestsmaynotusematchestolightfires)andresinincensefromtheIrulainreturnforironfieldandgardenimplementsmadebyKotablacksmiths.Division of Labor.Womenstillperformallthehouse-hold-relatedtasks.Whilemalesperformthoseagriculturaltasksrequiringmorestrength,suchasplowingorhoeingtheearthinpreparationforthesowing of grain,womenalso per-formmanyagriculturaltasks.Malestypicallydothesowing,andwomenoftendothemostboring of taskssuchasweed-ing,reaping,andthecarrying of loads of harvestedgardenproduceorgrain.Bothmalesandfemalesarehiredforahost of laboringtasks.Becauseinfantcarethusbecomesaprob-lem,itisnotunusualforwomentotaketheirinfantstowork-places.Olderchildrennotattendingschoolareoftentakencare of bytheelderlyinextendedfamilies.LandTenure.Members of theThengumarahadaCooper-ativeSocietycultivateallottedamounts of land.Afew of theIrulaowntitletoland,sometimesintheform of patta(landownership)documents.GaudasandChettiarsinparticularhavetakenoverIrulalandthroughloanmanipulation,andsometherebynowalsohaveIrulasworkingforthem.ManyIrulaleaselandfromlandowners.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheIrulaformanendogamouscastewithtwelveexogamouspatricians(inSanskritgotras,inTamilkulams)-Devanan(orThevananorDevala),Kal-katti,Koduvan(orKodugar),Kuppan(orKoppilingam),Kurunagan,Ollaga,Peratha,Porigan,Pungan(orPoong-karu),Samban(orChamban),Uppigan(orUppali),andVellagai(orVellai)-andaclanrepresentedbythethudaitree(Ilexdenticulata).Nevertheless,becausemembers of apatriciancannotmarrymembersinoneormore"brother"pa-tricians,thereareexogamouspatricianunitsamongtheIrula.Theoverallsize of theseunitsvariesfromoneareatoanother.Thus,theIrulakinshipsystemissimilartotheonethatdomi-natesinsouthernIndia.Inaddition,theIrulahaveasystemwherebyeachpatricianisaffiliatedwithafriendshippatricianwhosemembershelpwhenanevent,typicallyarite of pas-sage,requirescooperativeeffort.TheidealmarriageamongtheIrulais of afemalewithherfather'ssister'sson(i.e.,amalewiththe ... asthebridesmaid,andthebride'sbrotherwillserveasthebestman.Thebrideisbroughtbyherrelativesandthegroom'spartytothegroom'shouseontheweddingday.Inthehouseorwithinatemporaryshelter(pandal)erectednearthehouse,thegroominthemostpertinentact of themarriageceremonyandinconformitywiththewidespreadpracticeinsouthernIndia,tiesanecklace(tali,providedbyhismaternaluncle)aroundthebride'sneck.Afeastisthenprovidedbythegroom'speople.Milletwouldinpasttimeshavebeenserved,butitisnowfashionabletoservericewithcurry.Thegroomafterwardbowstothefeet of gueststoreceivetheirblessingandisfollowedinthisactbyhiswife.Alongwiththeirbless-ing,theguestsgivemoney(typicallyRs1,2,or5)tothecou-ple.Alllatergotothebride'shouse,andthereisthenan-otherfeast(again,withriceandcurry),whichrunsintothenight.Allfeastingisaccompaniedbythedancing of malesandfemales(usuallyinseparategroupsbutinonecircle).Theconsumption of intoxicatingbeveragesisalsoliabletotakeplace.Theestablishment of aseparatepatrilocalhouse-holdaftermarriageisthenorm.Conformingwiththewide-spreadpracticeinsouthernIndia,thewifeusuallyreturnstoherpaternalhomeinherseventhmonth of pregnancyandre-mainsthereuntilafterherinfantisdelivered.Whileawom-an'sinabilitytobearachildisnotconsideredgroundsfordi-vorce,anIrulamanmaymarryanotherwomanifhisfirstwifecannotconceive.Hethenismarriedtobothwomen.Theusualgroundsfordivorceareunfaithfulnessorahusband'slack of provisionforhiswife.Whenamarriageistroubled,aIndianChristian103BibliographyChaudhuri,NiradC.(1979).Hinduism,aReligiontoLiveBy.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress;London:Chatto&Windus.Zaehner,RC.(1962).Hinduism.London:OxfordUniver-sityPress.PAULHOCKINGSStutley,Margaret,andJamesStutley(1977).Harper'sDic-tionary of Hinduism:ItsMythology,Folklore,Philosophy,Liter-ature,andHistory.NewYork:Harper&Row.IndianChristianETHNONYMS:noneIndianChristiansarebelieversinthedivinity of JesusChrist.Despitethepersistingideain South Asia thatChris-tianityisthe"whiteman'sreligion,"ithasamassivefollowingtodayinthesubcontinent.Still,itisverymuchaminorityfaith,accountingfornearly8percent of theSriLankanpopu-lationbutlessthan3percentineach of theother South Asiancountries.In1991Indiahadanestimated21millionChristians,andtheother South Asiancountriestogetherhadanother3million.TheideathatChristianitywasintroducedbythecolo-nialpowers-RomanCatholicismbythePortugueseandthenAnglicanismbytheEnglish-isnotstrictlytrue.Keralaandsomeotherparts of thewestcoasthadcertainlybeenevangelizedbyNestorianmissionariessincethesixthcentury,andmanyin south IndiabelievethattheapostleThomascametoTamilNaduandwasmartyredandburiedinwhatisnowMadrascity.TheseearlyreligiousconnectionswerewithSyria(cf.SyrianChristians).ThePortuguesebroughtPortu-gueseandItalianpriestswiththem,andin1557Goa,theirmajorIndiancolony,becameanarchbishopric.Withthefounding of theEastIndiaCompanyin1600theEnglishin-troducedtheAnglicanfaith,andastimepassedotherProtes-tantsectsappeared.Theyears185 0-1 900werethehighpoint of Protestantmissionactivityin South Asia, withmin-istersfromAmericaandvirtuallyeverycountryinEuropevyingforconverts,especiallyamongtheUntouchables,tri-bals,anddowntroddenslumdwellers.Insomeareastheyweredramaticallysuccessfulatgainingconverts:theMizos of northeasternIndiaarenearlyallChristianstoday,thankstothesomewhatobscureWelshBaptistmission.Attheotherend of thecountry,though,theBadagasare97percentHinduafterseventyyears of concertedeffortbytheBaselEvangelicalmission,followedbyanotherseventyyears of othermissionaryactivity.TheRomanCatholicmissionarieshavenotfaredanybetteramongtheBadagas;butelsewheretherearelargeCatholiccongregationsinmanytownsandcit-ies.BytheCongregationdePropagandaFide(1622)theCatholicchurchencouragedthetraining of ... Indianpriests,andalsobroughtinlargenumbers of EuropeanJesuitsinasu-pervisorycapacity.Theyear1947markedalandmarkinProtestantchurchhistory,notjustbecausethiswastheyear of independenceforbothIndiaandPakistanbutalsobecauseitwastheyearwhentheChurch of South Indiacameintobeing-thefirstunifiedProtestantchurchanywhere.It of courseabsorbedtheformerAnglican,Methodist,andseveralothersectarianinstitutions.In1970therefollowedaunifiedProtestantChurch of NorthIndiaandaProtestantChurch of Pakistan.Thesechurches,bothProtestantandCatholic,arenowentirelyinthehands of South Asianbishopsandarchbish-ops,withveryfew of theformerEuropeanmissionariesre-maining.InSriLankaand south India,thegreatestgrowthshaverecentlybeenseenamongtheRomanCatholics,notprimarilybecause of newconversionsbutratherbecause of acalculatedavoidance of familyplanning.InNepalChristianandMuslimmissionaryactivityisprohibitedbylaw.Thehistory of Christianityin South Asia hasindeedbeenacheckeredone,butithasbeenanimportantinstru-ment of Westernization.ThefirstprintingpressesandthefirstmodemcollegeswereintroducedbyEuropeanmissionar-ies.Bythemiddle of thenineteenthcenturythesepeopleweremakingimportantcontributionstothegeneralsocialuplift of thecountry(andnotonlyforChristianconverts)bytheirpromotion of ruralandurbanschooling,adultliteracy,femaleeducation,colleges,hospitalsandclinics,andmodemurbancareers.AsaresulttheChristianpopulationhaswieldedadisproportionateinfluenceinmodemIndianandSriLankanlife.Littleconversionisstilltakingplace.IndianChristianstodaytendtobeurban,arealwaysmo-nogamous,andformnuclearfamiliesuponmarriage(whichtakesplaceinachurch).TheyusuallyfollowWesternizedprofessions,becomingteachers,nurses,bankclerks,andcivilservants.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; SyrianChristian of KeralaBibliographyCoutinho,Fortunato(1958).Leregimeparoissialdesdiocesesderitelatindel'Indedesorigines(XVIesiecleanosjours).Paris:EditionsBiatrice-Nauwelaerts.Gibbs,MildredE.(1972).TheAnglicanChurchinIndia,160 0-1 970.Delhi:IndianSocietyforPromotingChristianKnowledge.Nanjundayya,H.V.,andL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer(1930)."IndianChristian."InTheMysoreTribesandCastes,editedbyH.V.NanjundayyaandL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer.Vol.3, 1-7 6.Mysore:MysoreUniversity.Neill,Stephen(1984).AHistory of ChristianityinIndia.2vols.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Thomas,AbrahamV.(1974).ChristiansinSecularIndia.Rutherford:FairleighDickinsonUniversity.PAULHOCKINGSIrula105gosa)andtamarindareoftenpresentwithinlowlandsettle-ments.ThelowlandIrulawhoherdcattleforothers,typicallyindrierareaswiththornforest,areassociatedwithadistinc-tivesettlementpatterninwhichalargecattleenclosureissur-roundedbyathornywall of piledbranches.TheIrulaalsohaveburialgroundswithancestraltemples,calledkoppamanais,inwhichstonesassociatedwiththedepartedspirits of thedeadarehoused.Eachpatricianhasaburialplaceandakoppamanai,butthetwoarenotnecessarilytogether(forexample,whileSambanpeopleareonlyburiedatKallampa-layam,thereareSambankoppamanaisatHallimoyarandKunjappanai).Althoughaburialgroundisusuallyclosetoasettlement,itcanbefartheraway.Asinmanyotherparts of Asia andintothePacificBasin,thesacredness of aburialgroundisoftenassociatedwiththepagodatree(thePolyne-sianfrangipani).Largelybecausemany of theIrulaarelandlesslaborers,most of themliveinone-roomedhouses.Nevertheless,IrulaplantationlaborersinhabitingtheNilgirislopesstilloccupybipartitehouseswiththesacredcookingareaformallyseparated(typicallynotwithawallbutwithashallowearthenplatform)fromthelivingandsleepingareas.TheKasabatothenorth of theNilgirimassif,whoherdcattleforothers(Badagasincluded),occupytripartitestructureswithlivingquartersforhumanstooneside of aroomwithanopenfront,andacalfroomtotheotherside.Theopenfront of thecenterroomfacilitatesthewatching of theenclosedcattleatnight,anditismostusefulwhenpredatorsorwildel-ephantscomenear.WhiletraditionalIrulahousesaremade of wattleanddaub,withthatchedroofs(orinsomeinstancesbananasheathsforwallingandroofing),moreIrulaarelivinginhouseswithwalls of stoneorbrickandroofswithtiles,es-peciallyifthegovernmenthasprovidedfinancialassistance.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Theearliestre-portsindicatethatthehoe-usingIrula of theeasternNilgirislopesobtainedonecrop of milletinayearfromshiftedplots,involvingagrowingperiodthatcoincidedwiththewesterlymonsoon.Theythendependedupongardenproduce,gath-erededibles,andhuntingforsurvivaloncetheharvestedgrainhadbeenconsumed.ThattheseIrulawereprobablynamedafterayamspeciesisindicative of howimportantyamsweretothemwhentheyturnedtogathering.Severalwildyamspecieswereavailable.Irulaarestillwellknownforthegatheringandsupply of honeytotheirneighbors.Despitesculpturedrepresentations of bowsandarrowsinsomeNilgiridolmensathigherelevation,itisnoteworthythattheIrulaseemalwaystohaveusednetsandspearswhentheyhunted.Ourrecord of atleasteightyspecies of plantsgrowinginIrulagardenstestifiestothepastandcontinuingsignificance of gardenstoalltheIrula.Thatatleasttwenty-five of theidenti-fiedplantshadaNew World originalsoprovesthewilling-ness of theIrulatoincorporateintroducedspeciesintotheireconomy.Thecontinuedcultivation of fingermillet(Eleusinecorocana),Italianmillet(Setariaitalica),andlittlemillet(Panicumsumatrense)andnodryricebytheIrulaonthehigherslopesmayinitselfrepresentaNeolithicsurvival,be-causethecultivation of dryricehasinSoutheast Asia widelyreplacedtheearliercultivation of theItalianandlittlemilletsfromChina.TheIrulastillcommonlygrowthesetwospecies of millettogetherandthenharvesttheItalianmilletwhenthelittlemilletisfarfrommaturation.Verysmallsicklesareusedforharvestingindividualgrainheads.Whenfingermillet(grownapartfromtheothertwo)istobeharvested,theplantsarevisitedperiodicallytopermittheremoval of grainasitripens.Anothereconomicpursuitthatmayhavecontin-uedfromNeolithictimes,duringwhichcattlerearingwaswidespreadinsouthernIndia,isthemannerbywhichlow-landIrulainforestedareaskeepcattlefortheirneighbors(Kuruvasincluded).ThefewIrulawhostillmanagetoprac-ticeshiftingagriculturesetfireinAprilorMaytothevegeta-tiontheyhavecut,sothecultivation of milletwillthentakeplaceduringthewesterlymonsoon.Thebarnyardmillet(Echinochloa),bullrushmillet(Pennisetum),commonmillet(Panicummiliaceum)andsorghummillet(Sorghum),all of thelowland,renownedfortheirdroughtresistance,andthustypicallygrownondryfields,arecultivatedwiththeaid of plowsandmainlyintheseason of thewesterlymonsoon.Nowwiththecooperation of theForestDepartment,theIrulagatherforestproduce(includingmedicinalplants)forsale.SincemostIrula of theNilgirislopescurrentlyworkasplantationlaborers,plantationmanagementsstartingwiththoseinthetime of theBritishRajhadtoprovideperiodicre-leasetimeforthoseIrulawhoneededtoperformtheirownagriculturalchores.TheGandhianquesttoimprovethelives of members of theScheduledTribesisdemonstratedbythemannerinwhichthegovernmenthasenabledIrula of theeasternNilgirislopestoestablishcoffeeandteagardens of theirown,andatKunjappanaitheSilkBoard of thegovern-ment of TamilNaduisnowprovidingfinancialassistancetoenablesilkwormfarmingamongtheIrula.From1974thegovernmentgavesmallplotstoIrulaontheeasternslopes,andtheCooperativeLandDevelopmentBank(anagency of theTamilNadugovernment)atthenearesttown(Kotagiri)wasby1979helpingtofinancethegrowing of coffeeandteainnurseries,sothattheIrulacouldhavetheirowncommer-cializedgardens.WhileafewIrulawhowiselymanagedtheirgrantedlandsandloansprospered,manydidnotmanagetheirendeavorswellandthereturnpaymentonloansatalowratewaseventuallyendedinmanyinstancesbyaspecialbillpassedinMadrasbytheTamilNadugovernment.Itispri-marilythecooperation of thegovernment,withtheForestDepartment of TamilNaduplayinganimportantrole,thathasenabledmorelowlandIrulatobecomeinvolvedinthean-nualcultivation of irrigatedrice.Hallimoyar,Kallampalayam,andThengumarahada(withitsCooperativeSociety),inwhichtheIrulaliveclosetothemembers of severalcastes,haveirrigationnetworks.OnericecropstartedinMarchisharvestedinJune,andthesecondcropstartedinJulyisreadyinDecember.In1978anewlyconstructedricemillbecameoperationalatThengumarahada.Irulalivingtothe south of theNilgirimassifare...