... closed down -1 NG CLAUSES We can use an -ing form after (ever) since, after, before, while, when, whenever: Since reading that artide, Colin's refused to eat red meat AJter waitingfor agesfor a table, ... notice Expressing purpose and efect RESULT, CAUSE AND EFFECT Apart from linking clauses, we can express purpose and result in other ways PURPOSE AND INTENTION We can use vocabulary items with meanings ... bear Ladies and gentlemen, boys and girls, friends - If we can stand (1) and not give (2) to pressure, if we can keep standing up (3) what we believe in and not cave ...