Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 2 - Oceania - F potx

... thevillages.Most of thehousesaresetontheinlandside of theroad,withtheirhouseholdgardenplotsbehindthehouse.Theoval-shapedthatchedhousesaresur-roundedbylowconcretewallstokeepthepigsfromattackingthecropsandhaveopensides,exceptforcoconut-frondblindsthatcanbeletdowninbadweather.Mosthouseshaveveryrecentlybeenwiredforelectricityandhaveoutsidepipedwater.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Futunaisaveryfertileislandwithhighrainfall,soeverythinggrowswell.Themaindietaryitemsarestarchyvegetableswithalittleaccom-paniment,suchascoconut,fish,orafaikaipudding.Taroandyamsarethemainrootcropsgrownonarotationalsys-tem;breadfruit,bananas,andcoconutsarealsoimportant.All of thesecropsareliabletocyclonedamagesuchasthatin-flictedbyCycloneRajainDecember1986.Attheeasternend of theislandwherethecoastalbeltisnarrow,plantationsarecutintothehillside;atthewesternend,extensivefields of irrigatedtaroareplanted.Fishingislimitedbecause of thelack of aprotectingreefandhighseasformost of theyear.Menfishintheshelter of AlofiIsland,usingthefewboatsthatareownedjointly;olderwomenfishonthereefforsmallerfish.Pigspredominateinthevillages,roamingaroundtheirhouseholdsandonthereefwheretheyscavengeforfood;eachfamilyhasitsownpigsasthesearethemainrepre-sentation of wealth.Formerlycoprawassold;nowthepeoplerelyforcashonthefewadministrativeandpublic-worksjobs,thesale of handicrafts,pensionsforthoseoverage60,andoccasionalgiftsfromrelativesinNewCaledonia.IndustrialArts.Womenspendagoodpart of theirtimeweavingmatsandbeatingtapa;boththeseitemsareshippedtoNewCaledoniaasgiftsforrelativesandforsale.Some of thematsarealsousedlocallyasgiftsonlargecommunaloccasions.Trade.GoodsareimportedfromNewCaledoniaforsaleinFutuna,orsentasgiftsbyrelatives.Futuna'simportsfaroutweighitsexports,especiallysincecoprahasceasedtobeamarketablecrop.Division of Labor.Mencultivatetheland,includingbothhouseholdplotsandtheplantationsfartherafield.Thistaskrequiresthemtoclearanyvegetation,turnoverthesoil,plant,weed,andharvestthecrops;thelatterjobmaynecessi-tatecarryingloads of taroorkapekavaa)severalkilometers.Menalsogofishingtogether,thoughthisactivityisconsid-eredmorelikesportthanwork.Womenlookafterthehouse-hold,takecare of children,weavemats,andmaketapa.Olderwomenalsofishonthereef.Childrenfetchwaterandactasrunnersbetweenhouseholds,bearinggoodsandmessages.LandTenure.Thetwohalves of Futuna,SigaveandAlo,aredistinctentitieswithseparatelandholdings;itisrareforapersontoholdlandinbothkingdoms.Eachsau,orleader,iscustodian of alllandsinhisterritory,andinformertimeswagedwarinresponsetoanyviolation of hislands.Ineachvillagetheheadmanwasresponsibleforensuringthatlandswereproperlyused,butindividualfamiliescouldcultivatetheirhouseholdlandandalsousethevacantlandbehindthevillage.Somevillagelandwasmaintainedinproductionbyagroup of meninordertoprovideabountifulsupply of yamsandkapeforanylargecommunalfeast.Familiesdependedontheirhouseholdstripforday-to-daysupplies of taro,bread-fruit,bananas,kape,andcassava.Butinthesedays of largehouseholds,themenfinditnecessarytocultivatetheirownplantationland,andsometimesthat of theirwives,inordertogrowenoughtofeedthefamily.Landrightsarepassedontobothsonsanddaughters,butacouplepreferstoliveontheman'sland.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Kintieslinkingalargenumber of Futunansintooverlappingsocialentitiescenteronbroth-ersandsisters.Theoldestsisterhascertainprivilegeswithinthefamilygroup.Thereisastrongprotectiverelationshipbe-tweenbrothersandtheirsistersaswellasavoidanceregardingcertainissueswithsexualimplications.Theprivilegedrela-tionshiptoafather'ssister(vasu)thatallowstheyoungerpersontotakefoodfromherisrestrictedtoroyallineages.Kingroupsarethebasisforworkingparties,suchasforfish-ing,thatching,ormakingacanoe.Descentisreckonedthroughbothmothersandfathers,mainlyforinheritance of landrightsortotracearelationshiptoachieflyfamily.'Fam-ily"toaFutunanmeansabilaterallyextendedfamily,consist-ing of awide-ranginggroup of peoplelivingbothonFutunaandonWallis,aswellasinNewCaledonia.Relativesarerec-ognizedeventhoughcontactmaynothavebeensustainedforseveralyears.Futuna65ReligiousPractitioners.TherearenospecificallyreligiousspecialistsamongtheForealthoughsomepeople,bothmenandwomen,areknownforhavingsuperiorknowledge of andaccesstothespirit world. Chiefamongthesepeoplearecurersandsorcererswhoareabletomanipulatespiritualpow-erstotheirownends.Ceremonies.ThemostimportantritualcomplexamongtheForerevolvesaroundtheinitiation of boysintomanhood.Youngboysareremovedforciblyfromthecare of theirmoth-ersandtakentolivewithmen.Duringtheinitiationstages,whichlastseveralyears,theyaretaughttherationaleandtechniques of nosebleeding,caneswallowing,andvomitingdesignedtopromotegrowth,strength,andfertilityandtoprotecttheirhealthfromthepollutingpowers of women.Theyalsoareinstructedintheproperbeliefs,behaviors,andresponsibilities of adultForemen.Atpuberty,youngwomenalsoaresecludedbriefly,undergonosebleeding,andarein-formedbyolderwomen of theirnewresponsibilities.TheForealsoholdperiodicpigfeastsonceortwiceeachdecade,ofteninconjunctionwithinitiations.Thesearethelargestso-cialgatheringsintheregionandarehighlycompetitivepoliti-calevents.Arts.Amajorfocus of Foreartisitems of bodyadorn-ment,includingfeatherheaddressesandshellheadbandsandnecklaces.Traditionally,menalsocarvedwoodenbowsandarrowsandwarshieldswhilewomenfashionedclothingandknittednetbagswithintricategeometricdesigns.Medicine.Foreattributemostseriousillness,includingkuru,tosorcery,butlesserailmentsmaybecausedbywitches,ghosts,andnaturespiritsormayresultfromabrogation of so-cialrulesandexpectations.Curersrelyonpreparationsfromthelocalpharmacopoeia of medicinalplants,incantation,bloodletting,anddivination.Localcurers,called'barkmen"or"barkwomen,"treatrelativelyminorillnesses,butsorcery-causedsicknessrequirestheattention of powerfulandwidelyknown'dreammen'whoalwaysliveinadistantparishandmaybenon-Fore.Thesemenperformacts of divinationandcuringusinginformationgainedindreamstatesinducedbyingestion of hallucinogenicplantmaterialsandheavyinhala-tion of tobaccosmoke.DeathandAfterlife.Deathismarkedbyextendedmourningrituals,publicdisplay of thecorpse,andthegiving of giftsbypaternalrelativestothematernalrelatives of thedeceased.Inthepast,thebodycommonlywaseaten,espe-ciallybywomen,children,andtheelderlyandtheremainswereburiedinanoldgardensite of thedeceased.Humanfleshwasthoughttopromotefertilityandregeneratebothpeopleandgardens.TheForenolongerpracticemortuarycannibalism,andeachlinemaintainsacommonburialgroundforitsdead.Thespirit of thedeceasedisthoughttoremainforatimenearthegravesiteandfinallytomovetoone of theknownspiritplacestocontinueitsafterlifeindefinitely.SeealsoSambia,TairoraBibliographyBerndt,RonaldM.(19 62) .ExcessandRestraint:SocialCon-trolamongaNewGuineaMountainPeople.Chicago:Univer-sity of ChicagoPress.Gaidusek,D.Carleton(1977).-UnconventionalVirusesandtheOriginandDisappearance of Kuru."Science197:94 3-9 60.Hornabrook,R.W.(ed.)(1976).EssaysonKuru.Faringdon,U.K.:E.W.Classey.Lindenbaum,Shirley(1979).KuruSorcery:Diseaseand ... astheBishop of WallisandFutuna,thetwosau of Fu-tuna,thelavelua of Wallis,andthehighcommissionerrepre-sentingFrancesharethepower of decisionmakingaffectingthelives of WallisiansandFutunans.SocialControlandConflict.Thechurchisaverystrongagent of socialcontrol,alongwiththefamiliesandthefaipule of eachvillage.Moralguidanceissoughtfromthepriestsandnuns,andthissource of authorityhasdominatedthelives of Futunansformorethan100years.Thestavescarriedbythedeaconsinchurch,usedtokeepthecongregationawakeandseatedattentivelyduringservices,arebutonesymbol of thiscontroLConflictbetweenindividualsandbetweenfamiliesisresolvedthroughmediationbyaseniorfamilymember,thefaipule,or,ifseriousenough,byamember of thesau'sfamily.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBel"ef.Traditionally,manaandtapuwerecon,ceptsthatwerewidelyobserved.ThemaingodsincludedTa-galoa,theskygod;Mafuike,whobroughtfiretotheislands;SinaandthedemigodMaui;andancestralgodsandspirits of animalssuchasFeke(octopus),Fonu(tortoise),andTafolaa(whale).TheCatholicfaithhasdominatedthelives of Futinansfor150years,andithasdiminishedthoughnotcompletelyreplacedfaithinthesupernaturalpowers of thesau.FutunanstodayattendMassandbelongtovariousgroupswithintheCatholicorganization,thoughafewhaveexpressedtheirdissatisfactionwiththedominancethatthechurchhasovertheirlives.Thereisachurchineachvillage,aswellasseveralshrines,all of whicharecarefullytendedwithflowerseachweek.Asignificantthoughunknownpro-portion of people'sincomeisdonatedtothechurchforgen-eralupkeepaswellasforideologicalcauses.ReligiousPracaitione.TheCatholicpriestsonFutunaarebothEuropeanandWallisian,asarethenuns.FutunanstrainatthePacificTheologicalCollegeinFijitoenterthepriesthood.Ceremonies.Thechurchcalendardominates,withFirstCommunionaswellasChristmasandEasterasmajorsocialfestivities.BastilleDay(14July)andArmisticeDay(11No-vember),aswellasadaycommemoratingFatherChanel'sbeatification,areallcelebrated.Arts.TapamakingandmatweavingincorporateuniquelyFutunandesigns.TheFutunans'fineblack-inketchingontapaisparticularlydistinctive.Mencarvewoodenstavesandotherobjectswithparticulardesigns,mainlyforsale.Medicine.AcentralhospitalislocatedinLeava,Sigave,withaclinicinOnovillageandanotherinPoi.ThemedicalserviceisstaffedwithaFrenchdoctorandlocalnursingstaff.ManyFutunanpeoplealsousetheirtraditionaldoctors,whomaybewomenormen.Theymassageandrubaffectedareasusinglocaloilsandleaves;theymayalsogivemedicinesmade of localingredients.PregnantwomeninparticularvisittheFutunandoctorinordertoensureasuccessfulbirth.Somelovepotionsarealsoadministeredwhenrequested.DeathandAfterlife.FutunansareburiedaccordingtoCatholicritualincemeteriesinthedeadperson'svillage.EveryfuneralisfollowedbyaspecialMasseacheveningforsixdaysfollowingthedeath.Alargefeastalsomarksthepass-ing of eachFutunan.Catholicbeliefsintheafterlife,suchasHeavenandHell,areverymuchpart of Futunanthinking,re-64Forepolygyny,butthelack of marriageablewomencausedbythehighdeathratefromkurumeansthatrelativelyfewmensuc-ceed.Althoughmostyoungerwidowsdoremarry,manymenspendlongperiodswithoutwives.Undertheseconditions,mostmarriagesterminatewithadeath,anddivorceaccountsforonly 5-1 0percent of dissolutions.DonmeticUnit.Inthepast,theForeobservedstrictresi-dentialsegregationstemmingfrombeliefsaboutthedangersposedtomenbyfemalemenstrualpollution.Allmenabove 8-1 0years of agelivedcommunallyinlargemen'shouses,andwomenandyoungerchildrenresidedinsmallerseparatehouses.Today,residentialsegregation of thehouseholdisrarelymaintained.Nuclearfamilies,oftenaugmentedbyeld-erlyrelativesorunmarriedsiblings of thehusbandorwife,oc-cupyindividualhousesandaretheprimaryproductionandconsumptionunitsinForesociety.Inheritance.TheForeinheritlandrightsandvaluablesthroughtheirrecognizedpatriline.Althoughwomen,aftermarriage,retainrightstoland of theirnatalgroup,theycan-notpasstheseontotheirchildren.Socialization.Frombirth,Foreinfantsenjoynearlycon-stantphysicalcontactwithparents,siblings,andothercare-takers.Astoddlers,theyarefreetoinvestigatethe world nearbyandoftenareencouragedinspontaneousacts of ag-gression.Fromanearlyage,girlsareexpectedtoassisttheirmothersingardeningtasks.Youngboysformsmallgroupsbasedonfriendshipandroamhamletlandsexploring,hunt-ing,andplayingtogether.Occasionally,suchgroupsbuildtheirownhousesandcook,eat,andsleeptogether.At 8-1 0years of age,boysbegintheirformalinitiationintothesecret world of menwherethevalues of cooperation,mutualsup-port,andloyaltyarereinforced.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Foresocietyischaracterizedasrela-tivelyegalitarian,meaningthatmostsignificantdistinctionsinsocialstatusarebasedonlyonageandsex.Thereisnosys-tem of rankedstatusesandnosocialclasses.Nonetheless,in-equalitiesdoexist.Mendominatethepublicarenaandcon-siderthemselvessuperiortowomen,whoarecalled'thehands of men."Also,mencompetewitheachotherforpoliti-calinfluenceandprestigewiththemoresuccessfulindividu-alsachievingregionalprominenceandincreasedaccesstowives,valuables,andresources.PoliticalOrganization.Thetraditionalpoliticalorganiza-tionisbasedontheparish,or"district,"whichiscomposed of oneormoreadjacenthamletswhosemembersrecognizeanddefendacommonterritory,shareonesacredspiritplace,andideallysettleinternaldisputespeaceably.Parishesaresubdi-videdinto"sections"which,inthepast,weretheeffectivemilitaryunits.Parishsectionsrespondedjointlytothreatsandattackandnegotiatedthesettlement of hostilities.Sec-tions,inturn,arecomposed of "lines,"whichareexogamousdescentgroupsaswellaspoliticalunits.Althoughparishesandsectionsarecoresidentialgroups,ratherthandescentgroupswhosecompositionchangesconstantly,thetenuousgroupunityoftenisreinforcedinthelanguage of consanguin-itywithmembersreferringtothemselvesas'oneblood."Allsectionsandparishesareledbyleaders,calledbig-men,whocommandtherespectandloyalty of theirfollowersbydemon-stratingsuperiorskillinactivitiesnecessaryforsurvival of thegroup.Theyinitiateandorganizemostgroupactivities(in-cludingwarfare),directeconomictransactionswithothergroups,andrecruitimmigrantstobolstergroupnumbers.Abig-manmustbeastrong,dominatingfigure,anaggressivewarrior,andaskilledoratorandnegotiator.Healsomustfaceconstantcompetitionfromotherwould-beleaderswhowillusurphisauthorityifhefalters.Today,thelocalpoliticalsys-temiscomplementedbythenationalsystem of elective of- ficesandForebig-menoftenstandforprovincialandna-tionalassemblyseats.SocialControl.Big-men,asfightleadersandpeacenego-tiators,playanimportantroleincontrollingthelevel of hos-tilitiesbetweenparishes.Thethreat of sorceryalsoisapower-fulmeans of socialcontrolformembers of differentparishes.Withinparishes,unitydependsonreciprocityandcoopera-tionamongmembers.Perceivedviolations of thesegroupnormsarepubliclydenouncedbyoffendedpartiesandoftenleadtodemandsforrestitution.Actionsespeciallyprohibitedwithinaparisharestealing,adultery,fightingwithlethalweapons,andsorcery.Theimposition of sanctions,however,restslargelyontheauthority of big-menandtheirabilitytocommandthecooperation of others.Withinhouseholds,thestructuredantagonismbetweenmenandtheirwivescanbeinfluencedbytheintervention of closerelativesandalsoismodulatedbyfearthatwivessecretlymaycontaminateabu-sivehusbandswithmenstrualsecretions.Conflict.Inthepast,interparishwarfarewasanormalas-pect of everydayForelife.Drivenbyanethicthatdemandedretaliationforactualorsuspectedwrongs,sporadicraidsandcounterraidsweremadeintoenemyterritorytokillthosethoughtculpableandtodestroytheirhouses,pigs,andgar-dens.Fightingtendedtooccurbetweenmembers of neigh-boringparishes,andatanygiventimeaparishwaslikelytobeatpeacewithsomeneighborsandactivelyprosecutinghostil-itieswithothers.Bymutualconsent,peacecouldbedeclared,butthetenor of interparishrelationswassubjecttorapidturnabout.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligituBeliefs.Forereligionconsists of acomplexbody of beliefsconcerningnature,humannature,andthespiritualrealm.Itisanimatedbyahost of ancestorspirits,ghosts of therecentlydeceased,andnaturespirits.CentralfiguresinForecosmologyincludeasacredcreator-spiritcouplewhoemergedfromaswampinSouthForeandtraveledthroughtheregion,leavinghumansandmanyusefulspecies of plantsandanimalsalongtheway.Theyalsoprovidedfundamentalteachingsforacceptablehumanexistenceemphasizingthethemes of fertility,strength,cooperation,andloyaltythatareexpressedinmythsandritualactivities.ThiscoupleexistsinmanymanifestationsamongtheFore,andtheymaketheirpresenceknownmostfrequentlybygivingtheirvoicestotheplaying of sacredflutesonallimportantceremonialocca-sions.Ghostsandnaturespiritsarecapable of causingillnessormisfortunewhenoffendedand of rewardingrespectfulbe-haviorbyensuringabundantgardensandwildresources.Inrecentdecades,manyForehavebeenevangelizedbyChris-tianmissionaries.66Futuna.coast.IntheKeleMeaperiod,Futunanstookupresidenceintheinterior of theislandinfortifiedsites;Alofiwasalsoin-habitedduringthisperiod.KeleUlaistheperiodcoveredbyoraltradition,whenFutunawaslinkedwithTongaandSa-moa(andpossiblyFiji)throughvisitsbychiefsandtheirfol-lowersforbothpeaceableandwarlikepurposes.Oraltradi-tionalsorecordsthearrival of a'Chinese"shipwhosecrewleftnumerousdescendants.In1837FatherChanel,aFrenchMaristpriest,wasone of thefirstEuropeanstotakeupresi-denceonFutuna;hewasmurderedin1841,buttheCatholicmissioncontinueditsstrongpresence.Chanelwasbeatifiedandhisrelicsreturnedin1976torestinashrineonFutuna.In18 42, thelavelua(highchief) of WallissoughtprotectionfromFrance,amovewithwhichthetwotraditionalleaders of Futunaagreed.Futuna,togetherwithWallis,becameapro-tectorate of Francein1887andacolonyin1913.In1961,FutunaandWallisbecameanoverseasterritory of France.Futunawasmarginallyinvolvedin World WarIIwithafewshipsbeingwreckedthere,particularlyoffitsnortherncoast.WhennickelminesopenedinNewCaledonia,Futunanstookadvantage of theopportunitytoworkforwages;thestream of migrationhascontinuedtothepresentday,withafewreturningtotheirhomeisland,especiallyintheiroldage.SettlementsTheisland of FutunaisdividedbytheVaigaifoRiverintotwokingdoms,SigaveinthewestandAlo(includingtheisland of Alofi)intheeast.Villagesarelocatedaroundthecoastline of Futunaandlinkedbyoneroad;therearenopermanentin-habitantsonAlofi.ThemaincommercialandadministrativecenterisinLeavainSigave,buttherearesmallshopsandachurchineach of ... astheBishop of WallisandFutuna,thetwosau of Fu-tuna,thelavelua of Wallis,andthehighcommissionerrepre-sentingFrancesharethepower of decisionmakingaffectingthelives of WallisiansandFutunans.SocialControlandConflict.Thechurchisaverystrongagent of socialcontrol,alongwiththefamiliesandthefaipule of eachvillage.Moralguidanceissoughtfromthepriestsandnuns,andthissource of authorityhasdominatedthelives of Futunansformorethan100years.Thestavescarriedbythedeaconsinchurch,usedtokeepthecongregationawakeandseatedattentivelyduringservices,arebutonesymbol of thiscontroLConflictbetweenindividualsandbetweenfamiliesisresolvedthroughmediationbyaseniorfamilymember,thefaipule,or,ifseriousenough,byamember of thesau'sfamily.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBel"ef.Traditionally,manaandtapuwerecon,ceptsthatwerewidelyobserved.ThemaingodsincludedTa-galoa,theskygod;Mafuike,whobroughtfiretotheislands;SinaandthedemigodMaui;andancestralgodsandspirits of animalssuchasFeke(octopus),Fonu(tortoise),andTafolaa(whale).TheCatholicfaithhasdominatedthelives of Futinansfor150years,andithasdiminishedthoughnotcompletelyreplacedfaithinthesupernaturalpowers of thesau.FutunanstodayattendMassandbelongtovariousgroupswithintheCatholicorganization,thoughafewhaveexpressedtheirdissatisfactionwiththedominancethatthechurchhasovertheirlives.Thereisachurchineachvillage,aswellasseveralshrines,all of whicharecarefullytendedwithflowerseachweek.Asignificantthoughunknownpro-portion of people'sincomeisdonatedtothechurchforgen-eralupkeepaswellasforideologicalcauses.ReligiousPracaitione.TheCatholicpriestsonFutunaarebothEuropeanandWallisian,asarethenuns.FutunanstrainatthePacificTheologicalCollegeinFijitoenterthepriesthood.Ceremonies.Thechurchcalendardominates,withFirstCommunionaswellasChristmasandEasterasmajorsocialfestivities.BastilleDay(14July)andArmisticeDay(11No-vember),aswellasadaycommemoratingFatherChanel'sbeatification,areallcelebrated.Arts.TapamakingandmatweavingincorporateuniquelyFutunandesigns.TheFutunans'fineblack-inketchingontapaisparticularlydistinctive.Mencarvewoodenstavesandotherobjectswithparticulardesigns,mainlyforsale.Medicine.AcentralhospitalislocatedinLeava,Sigave,withaclinicinOnovillageandanotherinPoi.ThemedicalserviceisstaffedwithaFrenchdoctorandlocalnursingstaff.ManyFutunanpeoplealsousetheirtraditionaldoctors,whomaybewomenormen.Theymassageandrubaffectedareasusinglocaloilsandleaves;theymayalsogivemedicinesmade of localingredients.PregnantwomeninparticularvisittheFutunandoctorinordertoensureasuccessfulbirth.Somelovepotionsarealsoadministeredwhenrequested.DeathandAfterlife.FutunansareburiedaccordingtoCatholicritualincemeteriesinthedeadperson'svillage.EveryfuneralisfollowedbyaspecialMasseacheveningforsixdaysfollowingthedeath.Alargefeastalsomarksthepass-ing of eachFutunan.Catholicbeliefsintheafterlife,suchasHeavenandHell,areverymuchpart of Futunanthinking,re-64Forepolygyny,butthelack of marriageablewomencausedbythehighdeathratefromkurumeansthatrelativelyfewmensuc-ceed.Althoughmostyoungerwidowsdoremarry,manymenspendlongperiodswithoutwives.Undertheseconditions,mostmarriagesterminatewithadeath,anddivorceaccountsforonly 5-1 0percent of dissolutions.DonmeticUnit.Inthepast,theForeobservedstrictresi-dentialsegregationstemmingfrombeliefsaboutthedangersposedtomenbyfemalemenstrualpollution.Allmenabove 8-1 0years of agelivedcommunallyinlargemen'shouses,andwomenandyoungerchildrenresidedinsmallerseparatehouses.Today,residentialsegregation of thehouseholdisrarelymaintained.Nuclearfamilies,oftenaugmentedbyeld-erlyrelativesorunmarriedsiblings of thehusbandorwife,oc-cupyindividualhousesandaretheprimaryproductionandconsumptionunitsinForesociety.Inheritance.TheForeinheritlandrightsandvaluablesthroughtheirrecognizedpatriline.Althoughwomen,aftermarriage,retainrightstoland of theirnatalgroup,theycan-notpasstheseontotheirchildren.Socialization.Frombirth,Foreinfantsenjoynearlycon-stantphysicalcontactwithparents,siblings,andothercare-takers.Astoddlers,theyarefreetoinvestigatethe world nearbyandoftenareencouragedinspontaneousacts of ag-gression.Fromanearlyage,girlsareexpectedtoassisttheirmothersingardeningtasks.Youngboysformsmallgroupsbasedonfriendshipandroamhamletlandsexploring,hunt-ing,andplayingtogether.Occasionally,suchgroupsbuildtheirownhousesandcook,eat,andsleeptogether.At 8-1 0years of age,boysbegintheirformalinitiationintothesecret world of menwherethevalues of cooperation,mutualsup-port,andloyaltyarereinforced.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Foresocietyischaracterizedasrela-tivelyegalitarian,meaningthatmostsignificantdistinctionsinsocialstatusarebasedonlyonageandsex.Thereisnosys-tem of rankedstatusesandnosocialclasses.Nonetheless,in-equalitiesdoexist.Mendominatethepublicarenaandcon-siderthemselvessuperiortowomen,whoarecalled'thehands of men."Also,mencompetewitheachotherforpoliti-calinfluenceandprestigewiththemoresuccessfulindividu-alsachievingregionalprominenceandincreasedaccesstowives,valuables,andresources.PoliticalOrganization.Thetraditionalpoliticalorganiza-tionisbasedontheparish,or"district,"whichiscomposed of oneormoreadjacenthamletswhosemembersrecognizeanddefendacommonterritory,shareonesacredspiritplace,andideallysettleinternaldisputespeaceably.Parishesaresubdi-videdinto"sections"which,inthepast,weretheeffectivemilitaryunits.Parishsectionsrespondedjointlytothreatsandattackandnegotiatedthesettlement of hostilities.Sec-tions,inturn,arecomposed of "lines,"whichareexogamousdescentgroupsaswellaspoliticalunits.Althoughparishesandsectionsarecoresidentialgroups,ratherthandescentgroupswhosecompositionchangesconstantly,thetenuousgroupunityoftenisreinforcedinthelanguage of consanguin-itywithmembersreferringtothemselvesas'oneblood."Allsectionsandparishesareledbyleaders,calledbig-men,whocommandtherespectandloyalty of theirfollowersbydemon-stratingsuperiorskillinactivitiesnecessaryforsurvival of thegroup.Theyinitiateandorganizemostgroupactivities(in-cludingwarfare),directeconomictransactionswithothergroups,andrecruitimmigrantstobolstergroupnumbers.Abig-manmustbeastrong,dominatingfigure,anaggressivewarrior,andaskilledoratorandnegotiator.Healsomustfaceconstantcompetitionfromotherwould-beleaderswhowillusurphisauthorityifhefalters.Today,thelocalpoliticalsys-temiscomplementedbythenationalsystem of elective of- ficesandForebig-menoftenstandforprovincialandna-tionalassemblyseats.SocialControl.Big-men,asfightleadersandpeacenego-tiators,playanimportantroleincontrollingthelevel of hos-tilitiesbetweenparishes.Thethreat of sorceryalsoisapower-fulmeans of socialcontrolformembers of differentparishes.Withinparishes,unitydependsonreciprocityandcoopera-tionamongmembers.Perceivedviolations of thesegroupnormsarepubliclydenouncedbyoffendedpartiesandoftenleadtodemandsforrestitution.Actionsespeciallyprohibitedwithinaparisharestealing,adultery,fightingwithlethalweapons,andsorcery.Theimposition of sanctions,however,restslargelyontheauthority of big-menandtheirabilitytocommandthecooperation of others.Withinhouseholds,thestructuredantagonismbetweenmenandtheirwivescanbeinfluencedbytheintervention of closerelativesandalsoismodulatedbyfearthatwivessecretlymaycontaminateabu-sivehusbandswithmenstrualsecretions.Conflict.Inthepast,interparishwarfarewasanormalas-pect of everydayForelife.Drivenbyanethicthatdemandedretaliationforactualorsuspectedwrongs,sporadicraidsandcounterraidsweremadeintoenemyterritorytokillthosethoughtculpableandtodestroytheirhouses,pigs,andgar-dens.Fightingtendedtooccurbetweenmembers of neigh-boringparishes,andatanygiventimeaparishwaslikelytobeatpeacewithsomeneighborsandactivelyprosecutinghostil-itieswithothers.Bymutualconsent,peacecouldbedeclared,butthetenor of interparishrelationswassubjecttorapidturnabout.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligituBeliefs.Forereligionconsists of acomplexbody of beliefsconcerningnature,humannature,andthespiritualrealm.Itisanimatedbyahost of ancestorspirits,ghosts of therecentlydeceased,andnaturespirits.CentralfiguresinForecosmologyincludeasacredcreator-spiritcouplewhoemergedfromaswampinSouthForeandtraveledthroughtheregion,leavinghumansandmanyusefulspecies of plantsandanimalsalongtheway.Theyalsoprovidedfundamentalteachingsforacceptablehumanexistenceemphasizingthethemes of fertility,strength,cooperation,andloyaltythatareexpressedinmythsandritualactivities.ThiscoupleexistsinmanymanifestationsamongtheFore,andtheymaketheirpresenceknownmostfrequentlybygivingtheirvoicestotheplaying of sacredflutesonallimportantceremonialocca-sions.Ghostsandnaturespiritsarecapable of causingillnessormisfortunewhenoffendedand of rewardingrespectfulbe-haviorbyensuringabundantgardensandwildresources.Inrecentdecades,manyForehavebeenevangelizedbyChris-tianmissionaries.66Futuna.coast.IntheKeleMeaperiod,Futunanstookupresidenceintheinterior of theislandinfortifiedsites;Alofiwasalsoin-habitedduringthisperiod.KeleUlaistheperiodcoveredbyoraltradition,whenFutunawaslinkedwithTongaandSa-moa(andpossiblyFiji)throughvisitsbychiefsandtheirfol-lowersforbothpeaceableandwarlikepurposes.Oraltradi-tionalsorecordsthearrival of a'Chinese"shipwhosecrewleftnumerousdescendants.In1837FatherChanel,aFrenchMaristpriest,wasone of thefirstEuropeanstotakeupresi-denceonFutuna;hewasmurderedin1841,buttheCatholicmissioncontinueditsstrongpresence.Chanelwasbeatifiedandhisrelicsreturnedin1976torestinashrineonFutuna.In18 42, thelavelua(highchief) of WallissoughtprotectionfromFrance,amovewithwhichthetwotraditionalleaders of Futunaagreed.Futuna,togetherwithWallis,becameapro-tectorate of Francein1887andacolonyin1913.In1961,FutunaandWallisbecameanoverseasterritory of France.Futunawasmarginallyinvolvedin World WarIIwithafewshipsbeingwreckedthere,particularlyoffitsnortherncoast.WhennickelminesopenedinNewCaledonia,Futunanstookadvantage of theopportunitytoworkforwages;thestream of migrationhascontinuedtothepresentday,withafewreturningtotheirhomeisland,especiallyintheiroldage.SettlementsTheisland of FutunaisdividedbytheVaigaifoRiverintotwokingdoms,SigaveinthewestandAlo(includingtheisland of Alofi)intheeast.Villagesarelocatedaroundthecoastline of Futunaandlinkedbyoneroad;therearenopermanentin-habitantsonAlofi.ThemaincommercialandadministrativecenterisinLeavainSigave,buttherearesmallshopsandachurchineachof...

... wouldbeginwithabrief,secularoutburstthathadnoconnectionwithunplacatedghosts.Somecon-federationsinanalliancewouldturnagainsttheirsupposedalliesandmakeasurpriseattackonvillages,killingmen,women,andchildrenindiscriminately.Thealliancewouldbebrokenapart,andbothsideswouldwithdrawfromakilo-meter-widearea,whichwouldbecomeafallowno-man's-landonwhichtheperiodicbattles of theritualphase of warwouldbefought.Bythemid-1960s,theDutchandthentheIndo-nesianswereabletoabolishformalbattles of theritualphase of war,butsporadicraidsandskirmishescontinueinisolatedparts of theGrandValley.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheGrandValleyDaniexplainmost of theirritualasplacatingtherestlessghosts of theirownrecentdead.Theseghostsarepotentiallydangerousandcausemis-fortune,illness,anddeath.Thus,attemptsaremadetokeepthemfaroffintheforest.Danialsobelieveinlocallandandwaterspirits.Inthe1950s,theWesternDaniregionexperi-encednativisticcargocult-likemovementsthatsweptahead of theChristianmissionaryadvance.ButthesemovementshadnoeffectonthemoreconservativeGrandValleyDani.Now,inthe1990s,manyDani-GrandValleyaswellasothers-arepracticingChristians.Islam,themajorityreli-gion of thelargernation,wasnotabletocopewithDanipigsandhashadlittlesuccessthere.ReligiousPractitioners.Variouspeople,mainlymen,areknownfortheirmagicalcuringpowers.Ritualaswellassecu-larpoweriscombinedintheleadersatvariouslevels.Leaders of alliancesseemoftentohaveexceptionallystrongandevenuniquepowers.Ceremonies.Duringthetime of war,ceremonieswerefre-quent.Battlesthemselvescouldbeseenasceremoniesdi-rectedatplacatingtheghosts.Therewerealsoceremoniescelebratingthedeath of anenemyorfuneralsforpeoplekilledbytheenemy.Atthecremationceremonyforsomeonekilledinbattle,oneortwofingers of severalgirlswouldbechoppedoffassacrificestotheghost of thedeadperson.Menmightoccasionallychopofftheirownfingersorcutoffthetips of theirears,buttheseactionsweresigns of personalsacrificeandmourning.Funeralceremoniesaswellasweddingcere-moniescontinuedatintervalsafterthemainevent.Bothwereconcludedinthegreatpigfeastheldeveryfourtosixyears,inwhichthe ... therighttoshareinclanlandsandwealth.Thegarden of adeceasedpersongoestothesurvivingspouseorgardeningpartner,rightsinbearingtreesareinheritedpatrilineally.Socialization.Achildisnotpunishedforitsactsbeforeitisfelttoberational,thatis,beforeit"hasasoul"andcanspeak.Malechildrenaresocializedbypeersandbyparticipa-tioninmaleactivities,femalechildrenthroughtheirinvolve-mentinwomen'sgardeningandchild-rearingwork.48DaribiSociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Collectiveactivities,meetingsandarbitration,workgroups,andwarfareandvengeanceunder-takingshaveinthepastservedasactivefociforlineal,fac-tional,andcoresidentialgroupings.Often,butnotnecessar-ily,suchtaskgroupingscoincidewiththeclanorevenacoresidentialclustering of clans.Beforetheinstitution of centralizedadministrativecontrol,cooperativeparties of menorganizedthemselvesinthiswaytoclearlargetracts of landforgardeningorformilitaryaction.Influentialmen,oftentheeldest of agroup of brothers,taketheinitiativeinplanningandsupervisingcollectivetasks,morethroughtheexhorting of othersthanactualdirection.Kinrelationshipisoftenthestrongestormostconsistentsinglefactorinthegalvanizing of theseactivities,thoughitisbynomeanstheonlyone.PoliticalOrganization.Acoresidentialgrouping of thedimensions of aclanorvillagepredictablydivides,atanygiventime,intotwoopposedfactions,roughlyalongthelines of kinaffiliationoraffinity.Themen of afactionarethehana,followersandsupporters of abig-manorsignificantleader(genuaibidi).Suchleaderswouldoftenbidforthepa-tronage of youngermenbytransferringbetrothalstothemorbyfeedingthemwiththesurplusmealsreceivedeachdayfromtheirpluralities of wives.SocialControl.Body-substancesorcery(animani)andse-cretmurderthroughsorceryassassination(keberebidi)wereoftenresortedtoforvengeance;perhapsthethreat of theseactionshelpedtoensuresocialcompliance.Certainlythemosteffectiveinstrument of socialcontrolis"talk,"thatis,publicapprovalanddisapproval,anorgan of consensualen-forcementthathasbeenamplifiedbythevillage-courtsystem.Conflict.Bouts of hystericalpublicanger,oftenescalat-ingintofactionalconfrontations,markthestressesandstrains of ordinaryvillagelife.Ifaggravatedoveralongper-iodtheymayleadtoresidentialsplittingalongfactionallines."Thirdparties,"eitherleadersoradjacentgroups,willoftentrytomediatethesefights.Traditionalwarfaretooktheform of ambushes,skirmishesalongboundaries,sieges,andoccasionalmassacresbyorganizedgroupings of clansactinginconcert.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Whetherornottheybelieveinthem,andincidentaltoanyprofession of areligiousfaith,Daribifearthedispleasure,attack,orpossession of ghosts(izibidi)and,perhapslessfrequently, of "placespirits"-localbeingsdwellingbeneaththeground,inravines,orintrees.Ghosts,mostlikelythose of friendsorrelatives,arethoughttotakeactionagainstthosewhobetraythem,andplacespiritsagainstthosewhoviolatetheirhabitations.ReligiousPractitioners.TraditionalDaribireligiousprac-titionersincludespiritmediums,definedas"ill"becausetheyhaveaninsecurerelationtopossessingghosts,andshamans(sogoyezibidi),whohave"died"andattainedacompleterap-portwiththeirspirits.Sincemostforms of mentalandphysi-calillnesstraditionallywereconsideredtobeeffects of spiritpossession,shamansfunctionedaseffectivecurersandchargedfortheirserviceseveninprecontacttimes.Thelargemajority of bothkinds of practitionersarewomen.Ceremonies.Themajortraditionalriteisthehabu,per-formedto"bringbacktothehouse"theghost of someonewhohasdiedunmournedinthebush.Inthehabu,youngmenare"possessed"bythealienatedghostandspendweeksintheforesthuntinganimalsandsmokingthemeat.Whentheyreturntothehousetheybringtheghost"ontheirskins,"anditmustbedislodgedbywrestlingwiththe"housepeo-ple,"afterwhichthemeatisblamedfortheghost'shostilityandconsumedasamortuaryfeast.Otherritesincludethose of marriage,initiation,andthepigfeast,introducedfromthehighlands.Arts.Depictiveincisiononarrowshaftsandotherimple-mentsispracticed.Daribiexpressthemselvesmusicallywiththeflute,theJew'sharp,andmourninglaments.Storytelling(namupusabo)isthebest-developedartisticmedium,alongwithlyricpoetry.Medicine.Inadditiontoshamaniccurers,traditionalmedicineincludedherbalremediesandasurgicalpractitioner(bidiegabobidi)whoremovedarrowsthroughaskilledknowl-edge of bodymovements.DeathandAfterlife.TraditionalDaribiadmittedhumanmortalitybutdenieddeaththroughnaturalcauses.Thedeadarebelievedtosurviveasghostswhocommunicatewiththelivingthroughspiritmediumsandshamansandwhotravel,usuallyatnight,alongwatercourses.Theylivetogetheratanill-definedplacetothewest,possiblyinalake.SeealsoChimbuBibliographyHide,RobinL,editor(1984).SouthSimbu:StudiesinDe-mography,Nutrition,andSubsistence.Boroko,PapuaNewGuinea:Institute of AppliedSocialandEconomicResearch.Hughes,IanM.(1970).'Pigs,Sago,andLimestone."Man-kind7 :27 2 -2 7 8.Wagner,Roy(1967).TheCurse of Souw.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Wagner,Roy(19 72) .Habu.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Wagner,Roy(1978).LethalSpeech.Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress.Weiner,James F. ,editor(1988).MountainPapuans.AnnArborUniversity of MichiganPress.ROYWAGNERDobu51MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Marriageisforbiddenbetweentheowningsusu of avillageandbetweencrosscousins;thusvillagesareexogamous,thoughlocalitiestendtobeendogamous.Pre-maritalsexispermittedandadolescentpromiscuityisthenorm,thoughtheanthropologistReoFortunecharacterizedDobuansasprudishinspeechandpublicbehavior.Abe-trothedcoupleworkhardforayearfortheirrespectivein-laws.Marriageismarkedbyaseries of exchanges of cookedanduncookedfood,pork,fish,andgamebetweenthecon-tractingvillagesandbyagift of armshellsfromthegroom'stothebride'sgroup.Intervillageexchangesalsooccurannuallyinthename of eachmarriedcouple.Ideally,marriageex-changesbalanceinthelongrun.Monogamywasthenormandpolygynywaspracticedbyonlyafewwealthymen(esa'esa).Dobuisrenownedforthepractice of biocalresi-denceinwhichacouplelivealternately,forayearatatime,inthevillage of eachspouseinturn.Affinesshowgreatrespecttovillageowners,butfrictionbetweentheowningsusuandincomingspousesgivesrisetoquarreling,village'incest,"andattemptedsuicide.Fortuneregardedthepractice of bilocalresidenceasacompromisebetweenthedemands of thesusuandthose of theconjugalunit,thoughhejudgeditmorede-structive of thelatter.DivorceisveryfrequentinDobu.Bromilowlistedtwenty-tworeasonsfordivorce(including"filthylanguage"),butFortuneaccountedthecommonestcausetobe"cut-and-runadultery"withavillage"sister"or'brother."Affinesarefearedasikelywitchesandsorcerers.Intherevisededition of hisbookFortuneofferedanotherin-terpretation of bilocalresidence,statingthatitisassociatedwithanannualexchange of yamsforarmshellsbetweenresi-dentsusuwivesandtheirnonresidenthusbands'sisters.DomesticUnit.Thehouseholdnormallycomprisesamar-riedcoupleandtheiryoungchildren.Adolescentgirlsremainwiththeirparentsuntilmarriage,butatpubertyboysgotosleepelsewhere,usuallywiththegirls of neighboringvillages.Afteraman'sdeathhischildrenareprohibitedfromenteringhisvillage.Inheritance.Villageland,fruittrees,andmostgardenlandsareinheritedmatrilineally.Thecorpseandskull of apersonbelongtothesusu,asdopersonalnames.Canoes,fishingnets,stoneblades,ornamentalvaluables,andotherpersonalpropertyalsodescendwithinthesusu.Magic,how-ever,canpassfromafathertoone of hissons(aswellas ... hasbeencontinuedandintensifiedbytheIndonesiangovern-mentsince19 62. ETHNONYMS:Akhuni,Konda,Ndani,PesegemOrientationIdentification.DaniisageneraltermusedbyoutsidersforpeoplesspeakingdoselyrelatedPapuan(Non-Austronesian)languagesinthecentralhighlands of IrianJaya,Indonesia(formerlyNetherlandsNewGuinea,WestNewGuinea,IrianBarat).Location.ThevariousDanigroupsliveinandaroundtheBalimRiver,approximately4°S,138°to1390E.Thegreatestconcentration of DaniisintheGrandValley of theBalim.Tothenorthandwest of theGrandValley,intheupperBalimandadjacentdrainageareas,livetheWesternDani.Thisisgenerallyarugged,mountainouscountry,withatemperateclimate.Because of thehighaltitudeandtheshelteringranges,theDaniareaistemperateandunaffectedbymon-sooncycles.IntheGrandValley,themeanrange of tempera-tureisfrom 26 °Cto15°C.RainfallintheGrandVaileyisabout 20 8centimetersperyear,butwetanddryperiodsoccurirregularly.Forallpracticalpurposes,theGrandValleyDanidonotrecognizeanyyearlyseasonalcycles,nordotheyshapetheirbehavioraroundthem.Demograhy.Thebroadfloor of theGrandValley,at1,500meters,hasabout50,000people,orabouthalf of theentireestimatedDanipopulation.Itisdenselypopulated,one of severalsuchbroadvalleysfoundacrossthecentralranges of theisland.TheotherDaniarescatteredacrosstheroughmountainterrainfromabout900meterstoabout1,800metersabovesealevel.Themajorconcentration of non-DaniintheareaisinWamena,theIndonesianadminis-trativecenter,atown of some5,000peopleatthesouthernend of theGrandValley.linguisticAffliation.Thehalf-dozenlanguagesanddia-lects of theGreatDaniFamilyarerelatedtootherNon-Austronesianlanguagefamilies of theIrianJayaHighlandsStock,whichbelongstotheTrans-NewGuineaPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThewesternhalf of theisland of NewGuinea,wheretheDanilive,waspart of theNetherlandsEastIndiesuntil1949.Withtheindependence of therest of Indonesia,theDutchheldontoNetherlandsNewGuineauntilitwastransferredtoIndonesiain1963viaaUnitedNationsTemporaryExecu-tiveAuthority.ItisnowtheIndonesianprovince of IrianJaya.EvenastheJavanesecomponent of thepopulationisbeingincreasedthroughtheresettlementprogram(Transmi-grasi),asmallFreePapuamovementcontinuestodemandin-dependencefromIndonesia.ButneitherthenewsettlementsnortheinsurgentshavehadanydirecteffectontheDani.NoarchaeologyhasbeendoneintheDaniarea.SomeDanigroupswerecontactedbrieflybyexpeditionspriorto World WarII,butthefirstpermanentoutsidesettlementswerees-tablishedbyWesternChristianmissionariesinthe1950s.By1960,theDutchgovernmentwascarryingoutitsprogram of SettlementsDanicompoundsarescatteredacrossthefloor of theGrandValley.Thebasiccompoundisoneroundmen'shouse,asmallerroundwomen'shouse,arectangularcommoncookhouse,andarectangularpigsty.Thelargestcompoundsmayhaveuptohalfadozenmorewomen'shouses.Thestructuresarelinkedtogetherbyfencesandopenontoacommoncourt-yard.Behindthehouses,andenclosedbyanouterfence,arecasualhouseholdgardens.Thehousesarebuilt of woodandthatchedwithgrass.Compoundsvarygreatlyinsize.Theymaycontainjustasinglenuclearfamilyormanyfamiliesandassortedothers.Acompoundmaystandbyitselforitmaybephysicallyattachedtoseveralothercompounds.Thecom-pounditselfisasocialunit,atleastinterms of intensity of so-cialinteraction.Theselargestcompounddustersmayhousewellover100people,buttheydonotformsocialunits.Thepopulation of thecompoundisfairlyunstable,aspeopleoftenmoveaboutfromoneplacetoanother,usuallyinthesamegeneralarea,foravariety of reasons.AlthoughafewDaninowliveatthegovernmentcentersinhouseswithsawn-lumberwallsandcorrugated-zincroofs,mostsettlementsintheGrandValleyhavechangedlittleinfortyyears.EconomySubsistenceandCoamercialActivities.About90per-cent of theDanidietissweetpotatoes.Theyaregrowninthecomplex,ditchedfieldsystemssurroundingthecompounds.Themenpreparethefieldswithfire-hardeneddiggingsticks,andwomendomost of theplanting,weeding,andharvesting.Theditchsystemscapturestreamsandrunthewaterthroughthegardenbeds.Inwetperiods,theditchesdrainoffexcesswater.Thesegardensusuallygothroughafallowcycle,andwhentheyareagaincleared,therichditchmudisplasteredonthegardenbeds.Danilivingneartheedges of theGrandValleymayalsopracticeslashandburnhorticultureontheflankingslopes.Because of theabsence of markedgrowingseasons,thesweetpotatoesareharvesteddailythroughouttheyear.Inadditiontosweetpotatoes,GrandValleyDanigrowsmallamounts of taro,yams,sugarcane,bananas,cu-cumbers,athicksucculentgrass,ginger,andtobacco.Pan-danus,boththekindwithbrownnutsandthekindwithredfruit,isharvestedinthehighforests,andnowthetreesarein-creasinglyplantedaroundthevalleyfloorcompounds.Al-thoughtheWesternDanihadadoptedmanyWesternfruitsandvegetables,especiallymaize,beforeactualcontact,theGrandValleyDaniaremoreconservativeandevenbythe1980sonlyminoramounts of afewWesternfoodsweregrownthere.Domesticpigsareanimportantpart of theDanidiet,aswellasbeingmajoritemsintheexchangesateveryceremony.Thepigsliveonhouseholdgarbage,andforageinforestsandfallowgardens.Pigsaretemptingtargetsfortheftandsoareamajorcause of serioussocialconflict.TheGrandValleyitselfissodenselypopulatedthatlittlesignificantwild-lifeisavailableforhunting.Afewmenwholiveontheedge of theValleykeepdogsandhuntfortreekangaroosandthelikeintheflankinghighforests.IntheGrandValley,therewerenofishuntiltheDutchbegantointroducetheminthe1960s.DaiDaribi47fordefensiveadvantageandthewomen'squartersbelow.Sinceadministrativecontrolwasestablished,residenceinnu-cleatedvillagesorhamletshasbeenthenorm.Smallex-tendedornuclearfamiliesoccupysingle-storylonghousesfacingtheroadinparallelrows,usuallywithasmallyardorgardenareasurroundingeachone.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Intraditionalasinpresenttimes,mostsignificantproductionandconsump-tioniscenteredonthefamily,withitssexualdivision of labor.Subsistenceisbasedonbushfallowing,orswiddenhorticul-ture,withsweetpotatoesasthestaplecrop.Sagoisgrowntosupplementthisinlow-lyingregions,andotherimportantcropsincludebananas,pandanus,maize,yams,drytaro,pit-pit,sugarcane,andsweetmanioc.Tobaccoisgrownforhomeconsumptionaswellastrade,butitsearlierimportanceasacashcrophasbeensupplantedbycardamoms,grownexten-sivelyforcommercialexport.Pigsareraisedforpurposes of exchange,nurturedbywomenwhensmallandthenpermit-tedtoforageforthemselvesinthebush.Somechickensarealsokept,aswellascattletoalimitedextent.Huntingandforagingremainsubstantialcontributorstogeneralsubsis-tence;thefavoredquarryiswildpigsandmarsupials,andbush-fowleggs,sagogrubs,andawidevariety of mushroomsaremajorforageitems.Limitedamounts of fishandcrayfishareobtainedbydammingstreams.IndustrialArts.Dugoutcanoes,woodenbowls,bodyshields,andbowswereproducedfromhewnwood,whereasfences,rafts,houses,canebridges,andarrowswerecon-structedfromrawforestmaterials.Traditionalindustryalsoincludedthecrafting of bamboopipesandmusicalinstru-mentsfrombambooandtheproduction of barkcloth.Trade.Tobaccoisgrown,curedoverthedomesticfires of thelonghouse,andtwistedintolarge,spindle-shapedpacketstobeusedastheprincipaltradeitem.Itistradedfordecora-tivebirdplumagewithpeopleslivinginmoreheavilyforestedareas.Beforecontacttobaccoandplumageweretraded,to-getherwithextractedpandanusoil,forsalt,axblades,and,later,pearlshellswithSouthChimbupeoples.Presentlythefeathersareexchangedforcash.PriortoextensivecontactwithHighlandpeoples,DaribitradedwiththePolopa of theEraveRiverandtheWiru of Pangia.Division of Labor.Thebasicdivision of laborissexualandorientational:menworkwithvegetationabovegroundlevel,includingthefellingandcutting of trees,plantingandtendingtreecrops,andconstruction of houses,fences,otherexternalstructures,andtools.Menalsohunt,superviseani-malhusbandry,slaughter,butcher,andpreparemeats.Womenworkwithvegetationatorbelowgroundlevel,clearbrushwood,plant,weed,andharvestgroundcrops.LandTenure.Namedtracts of land,boundedinmostcasesbywatercoursesorothernaturalfeatures,aretradition-allyheldincommonbymembers of aclanorexogamousline-agegroup.Malemembersandtheirwivesarepermittedtousewhateverlandtheywishwithinatractforgardening,dwell-ing,orotherproductivepurposes,providedonlythatitisnotbeingusedbysomeoneelse.Plantsortreecrops,however,re-gardless of wheretheymaybelocated,belongexclusivelytothepersonwhohasplantedthem.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.ADaribichildshould,asamatter of moralprinciple,berecruitedtoitsfather'sclanthroughpayments(pagehaie,or,colloquially,'head"pay-ments)madetoarepresentative of itsmother'sline,usuallythematernaluncle(pagebidi).Shouldthepaymentsnotbegiven,thematernallinehastheright(notnecessarilyexer-cised) of claimingthechild.Theclan,whichholdsincom-monthewealththroughwhichthesepaymentsaremade,isthusideallypatrilineal.Clansarecomposed of zibi,minimallythesiblingsetthat'becomesagroup of brothersafterthesis-tersmarryout."Clansaregroupedintophratries,tracingde-scentfromanamedmaleancestor.KinshipTerminology.Aterminology of theIroquoistypeisusedwithrespecttoconsanguinealsinone'sownandas-cendinggenerations,whereasaHawaiian-typeterminologyisusedwithrespecttothoseindescendinggenerations.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Daribitraditionallybetrothedgirlsfromanearlyage,ofteninfancy,andtriedtobetroththemtowealthyorprestigiousmenifpossible.Thepeopleweretraditionallyhighlypolygynous;womenweremarriedatpuberty,whereasmen,whohadtoassembleabride-price,normallymarriedabouttenyearsafterward.Thisimbalanceinagepermittedmostmentobepolygynousatmiddleage,andmarriagetosis-tersorothercloserelatives of anearlierwifewasencouraged.Daribistatesummarilythattheymarryamongthosewithwhomtheydonot'eatmeat"orsharewealth.Thismakestheclan,whichlikewisesharesincontributingmeatandwealthtorecruitment of itsmembers,something of a'holdingcom-pany"forwives.Awoman'scloserelativesinhernatalclanarecalledherpagebidi,and,as...

... 54EasterIsland.sweetpotatoesbeingthemostimportant.Taro,yams,sugar-cane,bananas,gourds,turmeric,andarrowrootwerealsogrownwhileberriesandseabirdeggsweregathered.Fishpro-videdsomeprotein,althoughfishingwasneveramajorsub-sistenceactivity.EasterIslanderscontinuetofarmsmallplotstoday,althoughmaizeisnowthemajorcropandChileancui-sinehasreplacedthenativediet.Sincetheintroduction of sheepranching,sheepandcattleontheislandhavebeentheprimarysources of meat.Mostmaterialgoodsarenowob-tainedfromthestoreontheislandandfromtheChileangov-ernment.Inadditiontofarmingandfishing,EasterIslandersnowworkforthegovernment,inafewsmallbusinesses,andinthetouristindustry.IndustrialArts.EasterIslanderswerehighlyskilledstone-cuttersandstone-carvers,masons,woodcutters,andcanoemakers.Today,somecarvewoodimagesforthetouristtrade.Thestone-carvingtraditionhadalreadybeenabandonedatthetime of contact,thoughthelargestonestatuessurvivedanddrewtheattention of visitorstotheisland.EasterIsland-ersalsomadevariousutensils,implements,andtoolsfromstoneandwood,baskets,nets,mats,cordage,tapa(aclothmadefrombark),andbodyornaments.Trade.Because of theirisolation,EasterIslandersevi-dendydidnottradewithothergroupsinPolynesia.TherehasbeenconjecturethatsomecultureelementsdevelopedthroughcontactwithSouthAmerica,mostnotablythefacialimagesonthestonemonuments.Theseideasremainunproven.Division of Labor.Menwereresponsibleforplantingthegardens,fishing,andbuildingthestonestructures.Womenharvestedcropsandhandledmostdomesticchores.Therewasalsoaweil-definedoccupationalhierarchy,withexpertreciters of genealogiesandfolklore,stone-carvers,wood-carvers,andfishermenpaidfortheirserviceswithproduce.Stone-carverswereaprivilegedgroupwiththeroleandstatuspassedfromfathertoson.LandTenure.Intraditionaltimes,landwasownedbylineageswithdwellingandfarmplotsallotedtofamilies.Since1888Chilehasmaintainedownership of all of EasterIslandandhasrestrictedtheEasterIslanderstolandinandaroundHangoroa.Newlywedsaregivenafewacres of landfortheirusebytheChileangovernment.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thepopulation of EasterIs-landwasdividedintotensubtribesorclans(mata),each of whichevidentlyoccupiedadistinctterritoryinprecontacttimes.Byhistorictimes,subtribemembersweremorewidelydispersedasaresult of exogamousmarriage,adoption,andcaptureduringwar.Thetenclansformedtwolargerdivisions,withonecontrollingthewesternhalfandtheothertheeast-ernhalf of theisland.KinshipTerminology.Traditionalkintermusagefol-lowedtheHawaiiansystem,whichhasbeenmodifiedovertimetoreflectchangesinfamilyorganization.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Intraditionaltimes,mostmarriagesweremo-nogamous,thoughsomewealthymenhadmorethanonewife.Marriagesweregenerallyarranged,withinfantbetrothalnotuncommon.Today,marriageisbyfreechoice,althoughthefathers of boththegroomandbrideareinvolvedinap-provingandmakingarrangementsforthemarriage.Mar-riagesaremarkedbythreeceremonies-acivilceremony,churchceremony,andalargefeasthostedbythegroom'sfather-reflectingthesurvival of atraditionalpractice.Uponmarriage,thecouplegenerallylivewithonefamilyortheotheruntilmaterialscanbeobtainedtobuildtheirownhome.Inthepast,manymarriagesendedindivorce,whichcouldbeinitiatedbyeitherpartyforvirtuallyanyreason.TheRomanCatholicchurchhasmadedivorcemoredifficultandlessfrequent.DomesticUnit.Inthepast,thebasicfamilyandresiden-tialunitwasthelaterallyextendedfamilycomposed of broth-ers,theirwives,andtheirchildren.Today,thenudearfamilyisthenorm,althoughotherrelativessuchasgrandparentsandbrothersmightalsobepresent.Inthepastandtoday,thefatherwastheauthorityfigure,althoughtodaythewife'sfa-therhasmorepowerthanthehusband'sfatherandason-in-lawwilloftenseekhisfather-in-law'sapprovalforeducationalandcareerdecisions.UnderChileaninfluence,therole of godparent(compadre)hasdeveloped,andgodparentsoftenplayaroleinchildrearing.Inheritance.Inthepastandtoday,bothmenandwomencouldinheritandbothmenandwomencouldleaveproperty.Socialization.Pubertyintraditionaltimeswasmarkedforboysandgirlsbysecludingthemonanislandforsomemonthsandthenholdinglargeseparatefeastsattheend of theseclusionperiod.Theseritesdisappearedlongago,andpubertyisnolongermarkedbyritual.TheChileangovern-mentprovidesaschoolforelementaryeducationandsomeEasterIslandersattendhighschoolinChile.SocialandPoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Inadditiontosocialdistinctionsbasedonkinship,EasterIslandtraditionallyhadfourdistinctsocialclasses:noblemen(anki);priests(ivi-atua);warriors(matatoa);andservantsandfarmers(kio).Therulerwasthemainhighchief(ariki-mau)whotracedhisstatustodescentfromHotu-matua,thefounder of theisland.Inreality,arikiwereinvestedwithconsiderablemanaandweresubjecttonu-meroustaboos,althoughtheyhadlittleactualpower.Littleisknownabouttheactivities of priests,astherolehaddisap-pearedbythetimemissionariesarrived.Kiowerewarcaptiveswhoworkedforothersorpaidtributeintheform of percent-age of theircrops.PoliticalOrganizato.Asnotedabove,thenominalrul-erscamefromthearikiclass,withsuccessiontotheposition of highchiefgoingtotheoldestsonatthetime of hismar-riage.However,sincethismarriagewasoftendelayedmanyyearsbeyondthat of mostEasterIslanders,chiefsoftenheldtheirpositionforsomeyears.Atthetime of sustainedcon-tact,warriorsweretheactualpoliticalleaders,reflectingalonghistory of fightingamongthesubtribesandthealmostcontinuousfightingthatfollowedthekidnapping of menin18 62. Today,theEasterIslandersaregovernedbyChile,withaChileangovernor,civilservice,andpoliceforceprovidingservices.EasterIslanderrepresentationisthroughthemayor of Hangoroa.56Eipodenareasandcoversthemountainsaboveabout 2, 400me-tersuptothetreelineat3,500meters.Annualrainfallin197 5-1 976was590centimeters,withrainmostlyfallingdailyintheafternoonsandevenings.Temperaturesrangefromabout1 1-1 3°to 21 -2 5 °C.Littleseasonalchangeistobeobserved,butthetime of flowering of aparticulartree(Eodiasp.)istakenbytheEipoasamarker of certainfeastsandotheractivities.In1976twosevereearthquakesde-stroyedlargeareas of gardenlandandsomevillages;itislikelythatsimilarcatastropheshaveoccurredinthepast.Demography.TheEiponumbereddoseto800peoplein1980;indicationsarethatthepopulationisgrowing.linguisticAffiliation.Eipo, of whichtherearethreedia-lects,isamember of theMekFamily of Non-Austronesianlanguages,clearlyseparatefromtheOklanguagestotheeast,theYaliandDanilanguagestothewest,andlanguagesspo-kentothenorthandsouth.Localpeopletraditionallyunder-stand-and,toalesserextent,speak-oneortwodialectsorlanguagesotherthantheirown.Childrenusuallylearntheirspeechfromtheirmothers(who,duetorules of exogamy,oftencomefromdifferentvalleys)andoftendonotadoptthedialectspokenbythemajorityinaparticularvillage.BahasaIndonesia,unknownbeforethe1970s,isslowlygaininggroundasalinguafranca.HistoryandCulturalRelationsNoarchaeologicaldataareavailablefortheMekregion,andethnohistoricsurveysaremissingaswell.Itisprobable,how-ever,thatparts of theMekareahavebeeninhabitedformanythousands of years.Linguisticandhistoricalresearchontheintroductionanddiffusion of tobaccoshowsthattheMek(andtheirOkneighborstotheeast)mayhavebeencentralinthisprocess,andcomparativestudiesonreligiousbeliefsprovethatimportantconcepts(e.g.,that of amythicalances-tralcreator)havetraveledfromeasttowest.Whileitisun-knownasyetatwhattimethesweetpotato(lpomoeabatatas)wasintroduced,onecanconcludefromthesignificance of taro(Colocasiaesculenta)inallceremonialreligiouscontextsthatthislatterfoodplantwas of vitalimportanceinpre-Ipomoeantimes.ThefirstknowncontactbyoutsiderswithMekpeopleswasmadebyateam of Dutchsurveyorsearlyinthiscentury;theymetagroup of peoplenearMountGoliathinthesouth of theareaandreportedthefirstrecordedwords of aMeklanguage.Someothergroupswerecontactedin1959inthecourse of aFrenchexpeditionacrossWestNewGuinea.Itsleader,PierreGaisseau,laterreturnedwithafilmteamandIndonesianmilitarypersonnelin1969,parachutingintothesouthernEipoValleywheretheyconductedasmallbutsoundsurveyontheareaandthepeople.Members of aninterdisciplinaryGermanresearchteamconductedresearchintheEipoValleyandsomeadjacentareasbetween1974and1980.SettlementsThevillages of theEipoandtheirneighborsintheMekareahave30 -2 5 0inhabitantsandareusuallybuiltonspotsthatfacilitatedefense.Oneormorecircularmen'shouses(whichoftenhavesacredfunctions)occupyconspicuousplaces,ei-therinthecenterorattheend of thevillage.Themuchsmallerandlesswell-builtfamilyhouses,also of circularshapebutsometimeswithrectangularroofs,arethelocationsforfamily-centeredactivities.Womenstayinseclusionhouses,usuallysituatedattheperiphery of thevillage,duringmenstruation,childbirth,andpuerperium,andsometimesduringseriousillnessesandforsanctuary.Allmen'shousesandmostfamilyhouseshaveelevatedfloorsandacentralfireplace.Protectionagainstthecold of thenightisnotveryadequate.Duetomissioninfluence,whichchieflyemploysDanievangelistsandteachers,Danihousestylesarebecom-ingfashionable.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheEipoandtheMekingeneralareskillfulhorticulturalistsandmaketheirgardensinvariousplaces:sometimesonsteepself-drainingmountainslopes,butalsoinflat,wetareaswhereditchingandbuildingmoundsareparticularlyimportantforthemainstaplecrop,sweetpotatoes.Mulchingiswidespread.Fallowperiodsarefifteenyearsormore;sufficientregeneration of thesoilisjudgedbythesize of atree(Trematomentosa)thatsoonstartstogrowinoldgardens.Numerousvarieties of taro,some of whichreachconsiderablesizeandweight,arealsocultivated.Theyarereservedforceremonies,especiallyfeastsforguests.Othercultigensincludeleafygreens(whichcon.tributemost of thevegetableprotein,especiallyformen),ba-nanas,sugarcane,ediblepitpit,nativeasparagus(Setariapalmifolia),variouspandanusspecies,andotherwildfoods.Beans,cheyote(Secchiumedule),cucumbers,maize,cassava,andpeanutshavebeenintroducedandsuccessfullyculti-vated.Thefewdomesticatedpigsdonotcontributemuchtothediet,onlyaboutonegramperdayperson;theyarecare-fullyraisedandusuallyusedonlyinceremonialcontexts.Smallmarsupialsaresnaredorhunted,oftenwiththehelp of dogs,buthuntingisdonemoretosatisfyemotionalneedsthantoprovidemeat.Womenandgirlsobtainvaluableani-malproteinintheform of frogs,tadpoles,lizards,snakes,spi-ders,andotherinsectsaswellastheeggsandlarvae of theseanimals.Traditionandreligioustaboosreservethesefoodsaswellasmost of thebirdspeciesforinfants,girls,andwomen.Inthepastdecade,theEipohavebecomedependentonmis-sionstationsassources of modemtools,clothing,tinnedfood,andothergoods,whicharepurchasedwithmoneyre-ceivedfromsellingservicesorproductstothemission.IndustrialArts.Thematerialcultureispoor,evencom-paredtootherhighlandsgroups,andwhenresearchwasbegunin1974,theEipoandmany of theirneighborswerestillusingstone,bone,andwoodentools.Theirworldlybe-longingsincludestringbags,bows,arrows,stoneadzes,stoneknivesandscrapers,woodendiggingsticks,boars'tusksandmarsupialteethusedascarvingtools,bonedaggersandawls,lianasforstartingfiresbyfriction,bambooorcalabashcon-tainersforwater,penisgourdsforthemen,andgrassskirtsforgirlsandwomen.TheMekcookinhotashes,bamboocon-tainersovertheopenfire,orinearthovensforlargergroups of people,especiallyguests.Trade.TheEipoandotherMekgroupsmayseemself-sufficientnow,buttraditionallytheyreliedonvariousgoodsfromtheoutside.Unpolishedstoneadzebladeswerepro-ducedbyspecialistsintheHeimeValleyandexchangedmainlyforstringbagsandgardenproducts.Otheritemsthat58Eipovillagecommunitiesaspersonswhotakeinitiative,pursueplans,andrespectrulesandtraditions,thoughtheyalsousethemtotheiradvantage.Inthisprotomeritocracy,leadershipisdependentontheactualpower of theleader.Personswhoshowsigns of losingtheircapacitieslosetheirpositions,too.Inheritance of big-manstatusfromfathertosonisnotinsti-tutionalized,butitsometimesoccursdefacto.SocialControl.Big-menexerciseacertainamount of so-cialcontrol,butmoreimportantistheprocess of enforcingsocialnormsthroughpublicopinion.Thisprocess,intum,iseffectedthroughgossip,discussion of disputedissues,andtheuse of extrahumanpowersinblackmagicallegedlyper-formedbyfemaleormalewitches.Theinfliction of illnessthusfunctionsaspunishmentforsocialwrongdoing.Conflict.DespitethefactthattheEipoareusuallyfriendlyandcontrolled,thepotentialforaggressiveactsisquitehighanddoesnotneedmuchtriggering.Untilrecently,inbothin-traalliancefightsandinteralliancewarfare,approximately 3-4 personsper1,000inhabitantsdied of violenceperyear.Verbalquarrelsandphysicalattackswithsticks,stoneadzes,andarrowswastheusualsequence of escalationleadingtofightsinthevillage.Neighborsinadjacentvalleyssometimeswerehereditaryenemieswhofoughtwarsthatwerelessritua-lized(andthereforelesscontrolled)thantheintraalliancefights;inthepasttheseconflictsoccasionallyledtocannibal-ism.Formalpeaceceremoniesendedthesewarsforperiods of monthsoryears.Warfareagainstideologicallydefinedanddehumanized"others"increasedone'sownsense of identityandstrengthenedbondswithinthegroup.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief.Thevisible world isconsideredtobein-habitedbynumerous,usuallymonstrous,beings:souls of thedeceased,zoomorphicspirits of theforestsandrivers,andpowerfulshapers of natureandbringers of culturewho,sincemythicaltimes,haveinfluencedthelife of people.Yaleenye(anamethatmeans'theonecomingfromtheeast")isthemostprominentsuchculturehero.Mythicalpowers,symbolizedbyholyrelics,weretraditionallyhousedandhonoredinsacredmen'shouses.Variousceremoniesthatpervadedeverydaylifewereperformedtoensurethewell-being of humans,domesticanimals,andfoodplants.FundamentalistChristianityhasreplaced-sometimesradically-traditionalpracticesand,toalesserextent,beliefs.Syncreticideasandceremoniesarequitecommonandcargo-cultconceptsexist.ReligiousPractitioners.Seersaretheonlyoneswhocancommunicatedirectlywiththeextrahumansphereanditsagents.Theymayalsoactassorcerers,inflictingharm,dis-ease,anddeathonothers.Malecultleaders,whoweresome-timesalsobig-men,wereresponsibleinthepastforreligiousceremonies.Thesmallgroup of specialistsinreligiousmattersincludedhealers.Ceremonies.Untilrecently,thefirstandmostimportantinitiation of boysbetweenabout4and15years of agewasamajoreventthatinvolvedparticipantsfromothervalleys.Itwasheldatintervals of about10years,dependingonhowmanyboyswereavailableforthiscostlyceremony.Coiniti-ateskeptalifelongbond.Secondandthirdstagesinvolved,respectively,thebestowal of thecanewaistbandandpenisgourd,andthepresentation of themum,abackdecorationthathungdownfromthehead.Largeandcostlyceremonialdancefeastsforvisitorsstrengthenedtieswithtradeandmarriagepartnersfromothervalleys.Warfareandallianceformationinvolvedceremonies,andthekilling of anyenemywascelebratedtriumphantly.Morerarely,greatceremonies,bringingtogetherinhabitantsfromdistant,sometimesinim-icalvalleys,wereheldtoensurethefertility of thesoil.Arts.TheEipomakeveryfewcarvedorpaintedobjects.SomeMekgroupshavesacredboardsandlargesacredshieldsthatwerenotusedinwar.Drumsareknownonlyinsomear-eas,buttheJew'sharpisfoundeverywhere.Thetexts of pro-fanesongsandsacredchantsconvincinglyusepowerfulmet-aphorsandarehighlysophisticatedexamples of artisticexpression.Medicine.Comparedtootherareas of NewGuinea,sur-prisinglyfewplantmedicinesareused.Leaves of thestingingnettleareappliedascounterirritants.Othertraditional(psy-chosomatic)treatments,carriedoutbyhealerswhowereusu-allymales,involvedsacredpig'sfatandchantstoinvokethehelp of extrahumanpowers.Healersusuallywerenotpaidfortheirservices.Inrecentyearsmodemmedicineshavebeenadministeredatsomemissionstations.DeathandAfterlife.Thedeath of ... 54EasterIsland.sweetpotatoesbeingthemostimportant.Taro,yams,sugar-cane,bananas,gourds,turmeric,andarrowrootwerealsogrownwhileberriesandseabirdeggsweregathered.Fishpro-videdsomeprotein,althoughfishingwasneveramajorsub-sistenceactivity.EasterIslanderscontinuetofarmsmallplotstoday,althoughmaizeisnowthemajorcropandChileancui-sinehasreplacedthenativediet.Sincetheintroduction of sheepranching,sheepandcattleontheislandhavebeentheprimarysources of meat.Mostmaterialgoodsarenowob-tainedfromthestoreontheislandandfromtheChileangov-ernment.Inadditiontofarmingandfishing,EasterIslandersnowworkforthegovernment,inafewsmallbusinesses,andinthetouristindustry.IndustrialArts.EasterIslanderswerehighlyskilledstone-cuttersandstone-carvers,masons,woodcutters,andcanoemakers.Today,somecarvewoodimagesforthetouristtrade.Thestone-carvingtraditionhadalreadybeenabandonedatthetime of contact,thoughthelargestonestatuessurvivedanddrewtheattention of visitorstotheisland.EasterIsland-ersalsomadevariousutensils,implements,andtoolsfromstoneandwood,baskets,nets,mats,cordage,tapa(aclothmadefrombark),andbodyornaments.Trade.Because of theirisolation,EasterIslandersevi-dendydidnottradewithothergroupsinPolynesia.TherehasbeenconjecturethatsomecultureelementsdevelopedthroughcontactwithSouthAmerica,mostnotablythefacialimagesonthestonemonuments.Theseideasremainunproven.Division of Labor.Menwereresponsibleforplantingthegardens,fishing,andbuildingthestonestructures.Womenharvestedcropsandhandledmostdomesticchores.Therewasalsoaweil-definedoccupationalhierarchy,withexpertreciters of genealogiesandfolklore,stone-carvers,wood-carvers,andfishermenpaidfortheirserviceswithproduce.Stone-carverswereaprivilegedgroupwiththeroleandstatuspassedfromfathertoson.LandTenure.Intraditionaltimes,landwasownedbylineageswithdwellingandfarmplotsallotedtofamilies.Since1888Chilehasmaintainedownership of all of EasterIslandandhasrestrictedtheEasterIslanderstolandinandaroundHangoroa.Newlywedsaregivenafewacres of landfortheirusebytheChileangovernment.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thepopulation of EasterIs-landwasdividedintotensubtribesorclans(mata),each of whichevidentlyoccupiedadistinctterritoryinprecontacttimes.Byhistorictimes,subtribemembersweremorewidelydispersedasaresult of exogamousmarriage,adoption,andcaptureduringwar.Thetenclansformedtwolargerdivisions,withonecontrollingthewesternhalfandtheothertheeast-ernhalf of theisland.KinshipTerminology.Traditionalkintermusagefol-lowedtheHawaiiansystem,whichhasbeenmodifiedovertimetoreflectchangesinfamilyorganization.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Intraditionaltimes,mostmarriagesweremo-nogamous,thoughsomewealthymenhadmorethanonewife.Marriagesweregenerallyarranged,withinfantbetrothalnotuncommon.Today,marriageisbyfreechoice,althoughthefathers of boththegroomandbrideareinvolvedinap-provingandmakingarrangementsforthemarriage.Mar-riagesaremarkedbythreeceremonies-acivilceremony,churchceremony,andalargefeasthostedbythegroom'sfather-reflectingthesurvival of atraditionalpractice.Uponmarriage,thecouplegenerallylivewithonefamilyortheotheruntilmaterialscanbeobtainedtobuildtheirownhome.Inthepast,manymarriagesendedindivorce,whichcouldbeinitiatedbyeitherpartyforvirtuallyanyreason.TheRomanCatholicchurchhasmadedivorcemoredifficultandlessfrequent.DomesticUnit.Inthepast,thebasicfamilyandresiden-tialunitwasthelaterallyextendedfamilycomposed of broth-ers,theirwives,andtheirchildren.Today,thenudearfamilyisthenorm,althoughotherrelativessuchasgrandparentsandbrothersmightalsobepresent.Inthepastandtoday,thefatherwastheauthorityfigure,althoughtodaythewife'sfa-therhasmorepowerthanthehusband'sfatherandason-in-lawwilloftenseekhisfather-in-law'sapprovalforeducationalandcareerdecisions.UnderChileaninfluence,therole of godparent(compadre)hasdeveloped,andgodparentsoftenplayaroleinchildrearing.Inheritance.Inthepastandtoday,bothmenandwomencouldinheritandbothmenandwomencouldleaveproperty.Socialization.Pubertyintraditionaltimeswasmarkedforboysandgirlsbysecludingthemonanislandforsomemonthsandthenholdinglargeseparatefeastsattheend of theseclusionperiod.Theseritesdisappearedlongago,andpubertyisnolongermarkedbyritual.TheChileangovern-mentprovidesaschoolforelementaryeducationandsomeEasterIslandersattendhighschoolinChile.SocialandPoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Inadditiontosocialdistinctionsbasedonkinship,EasterIslandtraditionallyhadfourdistinctsocialclasses:noblemen(anki);priests(ivi-atua);warriors(matatoa);andservantsandfarmers(kio).Therulerwasthemainhighchief(ariki-mau)whotracedhisstatustodescentfromHotu-matua,thefounder of theisland.Inreality,arikiwereinvestedwithconsiderablemanaandweresubjecttonu-meroustaboos,althoughtheyhadlittleactualpower.Littleisknownabouttheactivities of priests,astherolehaddisap-pearedbythetimemissionariesarrived.Kiowerewarcaptiveswhoworkedforothersorpaidtributeintheform of percent-age of theircrops.PoliticalOrganizato.Asnotedabove,thenominalrul-erscamefromthearikiclass,withsuccessiontotheposition of highchiefgoingtotheoldestsonatthetime of hismar-riage.However,sincethismarriagewasoftendelayedmanyyearsbeyondthat of mostEasterIslanders,chiefsoftenheldtheirpositionforsomeyears.Atthetime of sustainedcon-tact,warriorsweretheactualpoliticalleaders,reflectingalonghistory of fightingamongthesubtribesandthealmostcontinuousfightingthatfollowedthekidnapping of menin18 62. Today,theEasterIslandersaregovernedbyChile,withaChileangovernor,civilservice,andpoliceforceprovidingservices.EasterIslanderrepresentationisthroughthemayor of Hangoroa.56Eipodenareasandcoversthemountainsaboveabout 2, 400me-tersuptothetreelineat3,500meters.Annualrainfallin197 5-1 976was590centimeters,withrainmostlyfallingdailyintheafternoonsandevenings.Temperaturesrangefromabout1 1-1 3°to 21 -2 5 °C.Littleseasonalchangeistobeobserved,butthetime of flowering of aparticulartree(Eodiasp.)istakenbytheEipoasamarker of certainfeastsandotheractivities.In1976twosevereearthquakesde-stroyedlargeareas of gardenlandandsomevillages;itislikelythatsimilarcatastropheshaveoccurredinthepast.Demography.TheEiponumbereddoseto800peoplein1980;indicationsarethatthepopulationisgrowing.linguisticAffiliation.Eipo, of whichtherearethreedia-lects,isamember of theMekFamily of Non-Austronesianlanguages,clearlyseparatefromtheOklanguagestotheeast,theYaliandDanilanguagestothewest,andlanguagesspo-kentothenorthandsouth.Localpeopletraditionallyunder-stand-and,toalesserextent,speak-oneortwodialectsorlanguagesotherthantheirown.Childrenusuallylearntheirspeechfromtheirmothers(who,duetorules of exogamy,oftencomefromdifferentvalleys)andoftendonotadoptthedialectspokenbythemajorityinaparticularvillage.BahasaIndonesia,unknownbeforethe1970s,isslowlygaininggroundasalinguafranca.HistoryandCulturalRelationsNoarchaeologicaldataareavailablefortheMekregion,andethnohistoricsurveysaremissingaswell.Itisprobable,how-ever,thatparts of theMekareahavebeeninhabitedformanythousands of years.Linguisticandhistoricalresearchontheintroductionanddiffusion of tobaccoshowsthattheMek(andtheirOkneighborstotheeast)mayhavebeencentralinthisprocess,andcomparativestudiesonreligiousbeliefsprovethatimportantconcepts(e.g.,that of amythicalances-tralcreator)havetraveledfromeasttowest.Whileitisun-knownasyetatwhattimethesweetpotato(lpomoeabatatas)wasintroduced,onecanconcludefromthesignificance of taro(Colocasiaesculenta)inallceremonialreligiouscontextsthatthislatterfoodplantwas of vitalimportanceinpre-Ipomoeantimes.ThefirstknowncontactbyoutsiderswithMekpeopleswasmadebyateam of Dutchsurveyorsearlyinthiscentury;theymetagroup of peoplenearMountGoliathinthesouth of theareaandreportedthefirstrecordedwords of aMeklanguage.Someothergroupswerecontactedin1959inthecourse of aFrenchexpeditionacrossWestNewGuinea.Itsleader,PierreGaisseau,laterreturnedwithafilmteamandIndonesianmilitarypersonnelin1969,parachutingintothesouthernEipoValleywheretheyconductedasmallbutsoundsurveyontheareaandthepeople.Members of aninterdisciplinaryGermanresearchteamconductedresearchintheEipoValleyandsomeadjacentareasbetween1974and1980.SettlementsThevillages of theEipoandtheirneighborsintheMekareahave30 -2 5 0inhabitantsandareusuallybuiltonspotsthatfacilitatedefense.Oneormorecircularmen'shouses(whichoftenhavesacredfunctions)occupyconspicuousplaces,ei-therinthecenterorattheend of thevillage.Themuchsmallerandlesswell-builtfamilyhouses,also of circularshapebutsometimeswithrectangularroofs,arethelocationsforfamily-centeredactivities.Womenstayinseclusionhouses,usuallysituatedattheperiphery of thevillage,duringmenstruation,childbirth,andpuerperium,andsometimesduringseriousillnessesandforsanctuary.Allmen'shousesandmostfamilyhouseshaveelevatedfloorsandacentralfireplace.Protectionagainstthecold of thenightisnotveryadequate.Duetomissioninfluence,whichchieflyemploysDanievangelistsandteachers,Danihousestylesarebecom-ingfashionable.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheEipoandtheMekingeneralareskillfulhorticulturalistsandmaketheirgardensinvariousplaces:sometimesonsteepself-drainingmountainslopes,butalsoinflat,wetareaswhereditchingandbuildingmoundsareparticularlyimportantforthemainstaplecrop,sweetpotatoes.Mulchingiswidespread.Fallowperiodsarefifteenyearsormore;sufficientregeneration of thesoilisjudgedbythesize of atree(Trematomentosa)thatsoonstartstogrowinoldgardens.Numerousvarieties of taro,some of whichreachconsiderablesizeandweight,arealsocultivated.Theyarereservedforceremonies,especiallyfeastsforguests.Othercultigensincludeleafygreens(whichcon.tributemost of thevegetableprotein,especiallyformen),ba-nanas,sugarcane,ediblepitpit,nativeasparagus(Setariapalmifolia),variouspandanusspecies,andotherwildfoods.Beans,cheyote(Secchiumedule),cucumbers,maize,cassava,andpeanutshavebeenintroducedandsuccessfullyculti-vated.Thefewdomesticatedpigsdonotcontributemuchtothediet,onlyaboutonegramperdayperson;theyarecare-fullyraisedandusuallyusedonlyinceremonialcontexts.Smallmarsupialsaresnaredorhunted,oftenwiththehelp of dogs,buthuntingisdonemoretosatisfyemotionalneedsthantoprovidemeat.Womenandgirlsobtainvaluableani-malproteinintheform of frogs,tadpoles,lizards,snakes,spi-ders,andotherinsectsaswellastheeggsandlarvae of theseanimals.Traditionandreligioustaboosreservethesefoodsaswellasmost of thebirdspeciesforinfants,girls,andwomen.Inthepastdecade,theEipohavebecomedependentonmis-sionstationsassources of modemtools,clothing,tinnedfood,andothergoods,whicharepurchasedwithmoneyre-ceivedfromsellingservicesorproductstothemission.IndustrialArts.Thematerialcultureispoor,evencom-paredtootherhighlandsgroups,andwhenresearchwasbegunin1974,theEipoandmany of theirneighborswerestillusingstone,bone,andwoodentools.Theirworldlybe-longingsincludestringbags,bows,arrows,stoneadzes,stoneknivesandscrapers,woodendiggingsticks,boars'tusksandmarsupialteethusedascarvingtools,bonedaggersandawls,lianasforstartingfiresbyfriction,bambooorcalabashcon-tainersforwater,penisgourdsforthemen,andgrassskirtsforgirlsandwomen.TheMekcookinhotashes,bamboocon-tainersovertheopenfire,orinearthovensforlargergroups of people,especiallyguests.Trade.TheEipoandotherMekgroupsmayseemself-sufficientnow,buttraditionallytheyreliedonvariousgoodsfromtheoutside.Unpolishedstoneadzebladeswerepro-ducedbyspecialistsintheHeimeValleyandexchangedmainlyforstringbagsandgardenproducts.Otheritemsthat58Eipovillagecommunitiesaspersonswhotakeinitiative,pursueplans,andrespectrulesandtraditions,thoughtheyalsousethemtotheiradvantage.Inthisprotomeritocracy,leadershipisdependentontheactualpower of theleader.Personswhoshowsigns of losingtheircapacitieslosetheirpositions,too.Inheritance of big-manstatusfromfathertosonisnotinsti-tutionalized,butitsometimesoccursdefacto.SocialControl.Big-menexerciseacertainamount of so-cialcontrol,butmoreimportantistheprocess of enforcingsocialnormsthroughpublicopinion.Thisprocess,intum,iseffectedthroughgossip,discussion of disputedissues,andtheuse of extrahumanpowersinblackmagicallegedlyper-formedbyfemaleormalewitches.Theinfliction of illnessthusfunctionsaspunishmentforsocialwrongdoing.Conflict.DespitethefactthattheEipoareusuallyfriendlyandcontrolled,thepotentialforaggressiveactsisquitehighanddoesnotneedmuchtriggering.Untilrecently,inbothin-traalliancefightsandinteralliancewarfare,approximately 3-4 personsper1,000inhabitantsdied of violenceperyear.Verbalquarrelsandphysicalattackswithsticks,stoneadzes,andarrowswastheusualsequence of escalationleadingtofightsinthevillage.Neighborsinadjacentvalleyssometimeswerehereditaryenemieswhofoughtwarsthatwerelessritua-lized(andthereforelesscontrolled)thantheintraalliancefights;inthepasttheseconflictsoccasionallyledtocannibal-ism.Formalpeaceceremoniesendedthesewarsforperiods of monthsoryears.Warfareagainstideologicallydefinedanddehumanized"others"increasedone'sownsense of identityandstrengthenedbondswithinthegroup.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief.Thevisible world isconsideredtobein-habitedbynumerous,usuallymonstrous,beings:souls of thedeceased,zoomorphicspirits of theforestsandrivers,andpowerfulshapers of natureandbringers of culturewho,sincemythicaltimes,haveinfluencedthelife of people.Yaleenye(anamethatmeans'theonecomingfromtheeast")isthemostprominentsuchculturehero.Mythicalpowers,symbolizedbyholyrelics,weretraditionallyhousedandhonoredinsacredmen'shouses.Variousceremoniesthatpervadedeverydaylifewereperformedtoensurethewell-being of humans,domesticanimals,andfoodplants.FundamentalistChristianityhasreplaced-sometimesradically-traditionalpracticesand,toalesserextent,beliefs.Syncreticideasandceremoniesarequitecommonandcargo-cultconceptsexist.ReligiousPractitioners.Seersaretheonlyoneswhocancommunicatedirectlywiththeextrahumansphereanditsagents.Theymayalsoactassorcerers,inflictingharm,dis-ease,anddeathonothers.Malecultleaders,whoweresome-timesalsobig-men,wereresponsibleinthepastforreligiousceremonies.Thesmallgroup of specialistsinreligiousmattersincludedhealers.Ceremonies.Untilrecently,thefirstandmostimportantinitiation of boysbetweenabout4and15years of agewasamajoreventthatinvolvedparticipantsfromothervalleys.Itwasheldatintervals of about10years,dependingonhowmanyboyswereavailableforthiscostlyceremony.Coiniti-ateskeptalifelongbond.Secondandthirdstagesinvolved,respectively,thebestowal of thecanewaistbandandpenisgourd,andthepresentation of themum,abackdecorationthathungdownfromthehead.Largeandcostlyceremonialdancefeastsforvisitorsstrengthenedtieswithtradeandmarriagepartnersfromothervalleys.Warfareandallianceformationinvolvedceremonies,andthekilling of anyenemywascelebratedtriumphantly.Morerarely,greatceremonies,bringingtogetherinhabitantsfromdistant,sometimesinim-icalvalleys,wereheldtoensurethefertility of thesoil.Arts.TheEipomakeveryfewcarvedorpaintedobjects.SomeMekgroupshavesacredboardsandlargesacredshieldsthatwerenotusedinwar.Drumsareknownonlyinsomear-eas,buttheJew'sharpisfoundeverywhere.Thetexts of pro-fanesongsandsacredchantsconvincinglyusepowerfulmet-aphorsandarehighlysophisticatedexamples of artisticexpression.Medicine.Comparedtootherareas of NewGuinea,sur-prisinglyfewplantmedicinesareused.Leaves of thestingingnettleareappliedascounterirritants.Othertraditional(psy-chosomatic)treatments,carriedoutbyhealerswhowereusu-allymales,involvedsacredpig'sfatandchantstoinvokethehelp of extrahumanpowers.Healersusuallywerenotpaidfortheirservices.Inrecentyearsmodemmedicineshavebeenadministeredatsomemissionstations.DeathandAfterlife.Thedeath of ... apersonleadstoemo-tionaldistressamongothersandisspontaneouslyandcere-moniallylamented,sometimesformonths.Thecorpsetradi-tionallywasplacedinatreeandprotectedagainstrainfallwithbarkandleaves.Aftermummificationthebodywasputundertheroof of agardenhouse.Later,inathirdceremony,theboneswereplacedunderrockshelters.Thecompletecycle of ceremonieswasnotperformedinallcases,andtodaythroughmissioninfluencethedeadareburied.Thesouls of thedeceasedarethoughttoleavethebody,astheydoduringfaintingspellsorsevereillness,anditishopedthattheywillquicklyproceedtothemythicalancestralvillage of theirre-spectiveclanshighupinthemountains.Thespirits of thedeadarethoughttobebasicallyangryandjealous of thejoysonearth,andpeoplethinktheycancomebacktoharmor,lessfrequently,tohelptheliving.BibliographyEibl-Eibesfeldt,I.,W.Schiefenh5vel,andV.Heeschen(1989).KommunikationbeidenEipo:EinehumanethologischeBestandsaufnahmeimzentralenBerglandvonIrianJaya(West-Neuguinea),Indonesien.Mensch,Kultur,undUmweltimzentralenBerglandvonWest-Neuguinea,no.19.Berlin:D.Reimer.Heeschen,V.,andW.Schiefenh6vel(1983).Wo-rterbuchderEipo-Sprache:Eipo-Deutsch-English.Mensch,Kultur,undUmweltimzentralenBerglandvonWest-Neuguinea,no.6.Berlin:D.Reimer.Koch,G.(1984).Malingdam:EthnographischeNotizeniibereinenSiedlungsbereichimoberenEipomek-Tal,zentralenBerglandvonIrianJaya(West-Neuguinea),Indonesien.Mensch,Kultur,undUmweltimzentralenBerglandvonWestNeuguinea,no.15.Berlin:D.Reimer.EasterIsland53EasterIslandETHNONYMS:IsladePascua,Pito-O-TeHenua,RapaNuiOrientationIdentification.EasterIsland,theeasternmostislandinPolynesia,wassonamedbyJacobRoggeveenwhocameuponitonEasterSundayin1 722 .EasterIslandersevidentlyneverhadaname of theirownfortheisland.'RapaNui"(alsoRapa-nui,Rapanui)cameintouseinthe1800sandeventu-allybecamethepreferrednameforEasterIslandthroughoutPolynesia.Theorigin of RapaNuiisunclearbutthenamewasevidentlygivenbypeoplefromanotherisland,perhapsRapa.In18 62 and1863EasterIslandexperiencedaseveredepopulationthatledtothedestruction of much of itstradi-tionalculture.SubsequentcontactwithChile,whichtookpossession of EasterIslandin1888,hasproducedaculturecontainingmanyelementsborrowedfromSouthAmerica.EasterIslandiscurrentlyadependency of Chile.Location.EasterIslandislocatedat 27 °8'Sand190 25 'W,about4 ,20 0kilometersoffthecoast of Chileand1,760kilometerseast of PitcairnIsland,thenearestinhabitedis-land.Itisatriangular-shapevolcanichighislandwithatotalarea of 180squarekilometers.Themostprominentphysicalfeaturesarethethreevolcanicpeaks,eachlocatedatonecor-ner of theisland.Thelandiseitherbarrenrockorcoveredbygrassorshrubs,althoughpartswereheavilyforestedinthepast.Onlyflocks of seabirdsandthePolynesianratwerein-digenoustotheisland,withchickens,dogs,pigs,sheep,andcattleintroducedbypeoplefromotherislandsorEuropeans.Theclimateistropical.Waterwasobtainedfromspringsandbycollectingrainwater.Demography.PopulationestimatesbyEuropeanexplor-ersintheeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturiesrangedfrom600to3,000,althoughnonecanbeconsideredreliable.Thereareindicationsthattheprecontactpopulationcouldhavebeenasmuchas10,000people.From18 62 to1871se-veredepopulationresultedfromthekidnapping of about1,000menbyPeruvianslavers,asmallpoxepidemic,andre-locationtoMangarevaandTahiti.In18 72 reliablemission-aryreportsindicatedonly175peopleonEasterIsland.Thepopulationcontinuedtodeclineuntilthelate1880sandthenslowlyincreasedto456in1934.In1981,therewereabout1,900EasterIslandersonEasterIslandandothersliv-inginChile,Tahiti,andtheUnitedStates.EasterIslandersmakeupabouttwo-thirds of theislandpopulation,withtheothersbeingmainlyChileanmilitarypersonnelorgovern-mentemployees.LinguisticAffiliation.EasterIslandersspeakRapaNui(Pascuense),aPolynesianlanguagethathasbeendescribedascloselyrelatedtothelanguagesspokenonTahiti,Mangar-eva,andbytheMaoriinNewZealand.Sincecontact,wordsfromFrench,English,andSpanishhavebeenaddedtothelexicon.Because of theChileanpresence,manyEasterIs-landersalsospeakSpanish.Thereisdebateoverwhethersymbolsfoundcarvedinwoodboardscalledrongorongoareaprecontactwrittenlanguage,pictographs,symbolicornamen-tation,orcopies of Spanishdocumentsleftbyearlyexplorers.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThesettlement of EasterIslandhasbeenatopic of consider-ableconjectureanddebate.ThorHeyerdahl'sKon-Tikiexpe-ditionshowedthattheislandcouldhavebeensettledfromSouthAmerica,althoughlinguisticandarchaeologicalevi-dencesuggestssettlementfromotherPolynesianislandsper-hapsasearlyasA.D.400.WhereverthefirstEasterIslandersmigratedfrom,itislikelythat,giventheremotelocation of theisland,theywererelativelyisolatedfromotherPolynesi-ans.FirstcontactwithEuropeanswaswiththeDutchex-plorerJacobRoggeveenin1 722 .Thereissomeevidencethatbecause of deforestationandwarsbetweensubtribes,thepopulationwasalreadydecliningandtheculturedisintegrat-ingatthistime.Theislandwassubsequentlyvisited,usuallyinfrequentlyandbriefly,byasuccession of Spanish,English,French,American,andRussianexplorers,traders,andwhal-ers.Thefirstmajorandthemostsignificantcontactoccurredin18 62 whenPeruvianslaversraidedtheislandandkid-nappedabout1,000mentotheguanoislandsoffthePeru-viancoast.TheretheEasterIslanderswereforcedtomineguanoforoneyearduringwhichtime900died.Facinganin-ternationalscandal,thePeruviangovernmentsentthere-maining100menhome,althoughonly15survivedthetrip.Infectedwithsmallpox,theyspreadthediseasetothoseontheisland,furtherreducingthepopulationtoperhaps 25 per-cent of whatithadbeenin18 62. Thedepopulation,disease,fear of outsiders,anddeath of manyleadersledtoculturaldisintegrationandaloss of much of thetraditionalculturewithinadecade.Catholicmissionariesarrivedin1863,be-ginningasmallthoughcontinuousEuropeanpresencetothisday.Withintenyears,allsurvivingEasterIslanderswerecon-vertedtoRomanCatholicism,withmany of theeconomicandsocialpracticestaughtbythepriestsreplacingtraditionalculturepractices.In1888Chileannexedtheislandandsub-sequentlyleased160squarekilometerstotheWilliamsonandBalfourCompany,whichestablishedsheepranchingforwool.Theremaining 20 squarekilometersweresetasideforusebytheEasterIslanders.In1954governance of theislandandthesheep-ranchingbusinesswasturnedovertotheChil-eannavy,andin1965,inresponsetoislandercomplaints,theislandwasputunderciviliancontrol.EasterIslandiscur-rentlyadependency of ChileandEasterIslandersareChil-eancitizens.SettlementsSince18 62 theEasterIslandershavelivedinoraroundthevillage of Hangoroainthesouthwestcomer of theisland.European-stylestoneandwoodhouseshavecompletelyre-placedthetraditionalforms.Before18 62, villageswerelo-catedalongthecoast,leavingtheinteriormostlyuninhab-ited.Dwellingsincludedthatchedhuts,semisubterraneanhouses,andcaves.WealthierEasterIslandersevidentlylivedinlargerhouses,oftenwithstonefoundations.Inadditiontodwellings,villagesoftencontainedcookingshelters,under-groundovens,stonechickencoops,turtlewatchtowers,andstone-walledgardens.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Priorto18 62, EasterIslanderssubsistedmainlyoncultivatedcrops,withEipo57hadtobeimportedincludedblack-palmwoodforbows,feathers of birds of paradiseandcassowaries,andvarioushighlyvaluedshells.Division of Labor.Traditionally,theonlyspecialistswereproducers of stoneadzeblades;allotherworkactivitieswerecarriedout,sometimesinsex-specificways,byeveryone.Theclearing of virginforest(rarelydonetraditionally),thefelling of largertrees,andthebuilding of housesorlogandcanebridgesareallmaletasks.Thephysicallydemandingwork of clearingsecondaryvegetationfornewgardensisdonejointlybymenandwomen,asarevariousactivitiesinthegardens,suchaspreparingtheground,planting,weeding,andharvest-ing.Withregardtothelatter,thewomenhaveaheavierwork-loadthandomenandareknowntocarrytheirownbodyweight(about40kilograms)forseveralkilometersatatime.Huntingandsnaring,aswellaskillingdomesticatedpigs,isdonebythemen.Womenmakemost of thehandicrafts,es-peciallystringbags of varioussizes.LandTenure.Allland,withthepossibleexception of thatintheveryhighmountains,belongstoindividuals(mostlymen)orclans.Inthelattercasethecorrespondingrightsareusuallyexercisedbytheclans'mostinfluentialmalemem-bers.Someclans,namelythosewhoaresaidtohave"always"livedinacertainarea,mayownmuchmorelandthanothers;inafewcases"latecomers"maynothaveanylandpropertyatall.Still,enoughgardenlandismadeavailabletoeveryoneinaprocess of formaldistribution.AmongtheEipoitispossibletogainuserightstolandthatonehasmadeintoagardenifithasbeenunusedorunclaimedforacertainperiod of time.In-dividuallyownedorclan-ownedgardenlandismarkedbyspeciallyplantedCordylineshrubs,theconnectinglines of whichdesignatethesacrosanctborders.Despitethis,dis-putesoverlandarequitecommonandcanleadtoarmedfights.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Descentisreckonedpatriline-ally.Clanoriginsaredatedbacktomythicaltimes.Animals,thesun,andthemoonareconsideredtherespectiveforefa-thers of clansandareworshippedastotems.Patriciansandpatrlineagesareexogamous,arulethatisquitestrictlyad-heredto,evenwhenchoosingpremaritalorextramaritallov-ers.Evenchildrenknowsurprisinglywellthedetails of thein-tricatekinshipnetwork.KinshipTerminology.Kinshiptermsfollowtheconven-tions of theOmahatype of system.Additionalclassificationprinciplesincludethespecificationthatmother'sbrother,mother'sfather'sbrother'sson,andmother'sbrother'ssonareallcalledbythesameterm.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.TheEipotermkasignifiesamarriageableclan,lineage,orpartner;Jaibmeanstosecureamarriageablepart-nerandisthetermforarrangingamarriage.Thisformisseenasideal,butinrealityitdoesnotoccurtoooftenbecauseboththebrideandgroomhavetherighttorejectthearrange-mentandbecauseloveaffairsarequitecommon.Thelattermayleadeitherdirectlytomarriageortotheman'sabductingtheconsentingwomanfromherhusband,towhomsheisoftenmarriedasasecondwife.Ratherthanapayment of bride-pricethereisasystem of mutualexchange of gifts:thegroom'ssideandthat of thebridehandoversubstantialvalu-ables,shellandfeatherdecorations,tools,etc.Withafewex-ceptions,particularlyinyoungcouples,virilocalityistherule.Inthe1970s 12 percent of themenlivedinpolygynousmar-riages,allwithtwowives,exceptforonemanwhohadthree.Because of thefacultativepolygynyandtheimbalancedsexratio(133forallagegroups,aresult of preferentialfemalein-fanticide,whichisone of themechanismscontrollingpopu-lationsize),approximately5percent of allmenmustliveper-manentlywithoutaspouse,whereasvirtuallyallsexuallyactiveand/orphysicallyhealthywomenaremarried.Inonecase,awomanwas'officially"livingwithtwobrothers.Whethersuchpolyandroussettingsareinstitutionalizedmar-riagesorad-hocsolutionsisunknown.Premaritalsexualin-tercourseisallowed.Fidelityisexpected of married...

... 166Malekulatimes.Sincemissionization of SeniangandMewun,officialpoliticalpowerintheform of chiefdomshasbeenrotatedeveryyearortwoamongvariousmembers of each'place."Priortoindependence,MewunandSeniangwereeachrepre-sentedbyanassessor,whoofficiatedatthetrials of small of- fensesbutcalledintheBritishorFrenchdistrictagentsincases of majordisputesorcrimes.Outsidetheofficialrealm,powerisheldbybig-menwhoareempoweredbytheirabilitytocontrollargenetworks of kinandaffinesandbytheirspeakingtalents.Ingeneral,postcontactpowerismuchmorediffusedamongsociallyprominentcitizens,politicalrepre-sentatives,andchurchofficialsthanitreportedlywasinear-liertimes.SocialControLThemostfrequentcauses of intragroupconflictarelanddisputesandadultery.InMewunandSeni.ang,suchdisagreementsaresettledbylongdiscussionsmoni-toredandguidedbyelectedchiefs.Adulteryisfrequentlypunishedbyfines,leviedonbothparties,orbypublicservice,suchascaringforcommunalgroundsorrepairingpublicproperty.InLaus,disputesarestillsettledbybig-men,justastheywereinMewunandSeniangpriortomissionization.Condict.Untilthearrival of Europeans,warfarewasanin-tegralpart of lifeinSouthWestBay.Members of adescentgroupusuallyremainedatpeacewithoneanother,butwarcouldbreakoutbetweendifferentkingroupswithinMewun,Seniang,orLaus.Aggressionbetweenmembers of thesecul-turalgroupswasalsocommonbeforemissionization.Dis.putesbetweengroupsnowadaysaremostcommonlyoveradulteryorland.Whe-nthesedisagreementsdooccur,thecasesaretriedbychiefsfromtheinvolvedcommunities.Veryseverecrimes,suchasassaultandbattery,aretriedbythena-tionalcourtsystemandguiltypartiesmayserveprisonterms.Wheneverpossible,disputesaresettledbyreciprocalex-changes of goodsorservices.Theobject of alllocallytriedcourtcasesisthereduction of illwillbetweentheparties,soallcourtproceedingstendtoinvolveagreatdeal of negotia-tionratherthanarbitrarylegalsanctions.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Althoughpeople of SeniangandMewunconsiderthemselvesgoodPresbyterians,theynever-thelesssharecertainbeliefswiththeunmissionizedpeople of Laus.Essentially,allthreegroupsbelievethe world isinhab-itedbyspirits,some of whomtakeonhumanformtemporar-ilyuntilthedeath of apersonsetsthespiritlooseagain.ReligiousPractitioners.Certainmenarereputedtobees-peciallycleverinmagic.Theirservicesaresoughttoresolvehumanproblemsorpunishgrievances.Traditionally,therewassaidtobeoneshamanforeachpatrilocality.Somewomenalsoaresaidtohavegreatpowerstodreamandtherebyenterthespirit world wheretheycanfindwaystocurehumanillnessesandotherproblems.Ceremonies.Ceremonialdances,usuallyaccompaniedbygiantslitgongsordrumslocatedinvillagedanceareas,arefrequentlyheldinLaus.Forexample,funerarydances,per-formedwithpuppetsmadefromcobwebsandclay,arepart of theritualsforthedead.Priortomissionization,allthreegroupshadnimangigradingsystems.Advancementalongtheladder of gradesalwaysinvolvedceremonies,includingspe-cialdancesandpigslaughters,foreachlevelattained.One of themostfamousMewunceremonies,apparentlydefunctsincemissionization,wasknownasthe'Making of Men"cer-emony,or"NoghoTilabwe."Performedperiodically,itwasbelievedtoincreasefertilityandpreservethehealthandstrength of theMewunpopulation.ASouthWestBaypre-contactceremonythathasbeenreworkedintolocalPresby-terianritualisayamharvestfestival,followedbyexchange of yamsinmemory of thedead.Whenthefirstyamsarehar-vested,familiesdecoratethemwithcolorfulflowersandleavesbeforetakingthemtothelocalchurchwheretheyareblessed.Aftertheceremony,eachyamisgiventosomeonewhoisunrelatedtothedeadpersoncommemoratedbythatyam.Sinceindependence,whenmostmissionariesleft,MewunandSeniangpeoplehaverevivedanumber of olddancesandceremonies,whichtheyresearchedamonglocalelderswithanthropologicalzealandprecision.Arts.SouthernMalekulahasbeenpraisedasacenterforexceptionallyfineart.Mostfamousaretherhamberamb,orlife-sizedfunerarystatues of thedead,whichareprizedbymu-seumcollectors.Whilethepeople of Laushavecontinuallycreatedtheseandotherartobjectsforceremonialuse,therehasalsobeenarenaissance of traditionalartobjectsinSeniangandMewunsinceIndependence.DeathandAfterlife.Althreeethnicgroupsbelievethatthespirits of thedeadaredangerousinfluencesonthelivingforayearafterthedeceased'sfuneral.Mewunmournfortwelvehoursfollowingadeathandthentakepainsnottoangerthedeceased'stroublesomespiritpresence.Afterayearhaspassed,spiritspasstothe ... apig.Itisnotunusual,however,forachildlessmantoadoptone of hissister'ssons.KinshipTerminology.Mailuemployasystem of classifi-catorytermsforallrelatives of previousgenerations(i.e.,grandparents,parents,uncles,andaunts)inordertogetaroundthetaboo of usingpersonalnameswhenspeaking of ordirectlyaddressingtheserelatives.Thesetermsmarknotonlyone'sgenealogicalpositionbutalsodifferentiatebe-tweenelderandyoungermembers of asinglegeneration.However,whileseveraldifferentrelationsmaybedesignatedbyasingleterm(e.g.,aman'selderbrother,hisfather'selderbrother'sson,andhismother'ssister'seldersonmayallbere.ferredtobythetermuiniegi),othertermsorqualifiersareusedtomarkmorespecificallytheactualrelationship of therelativewhennecessary.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Mailumarriagesarearrangedthroughbe-trothal,oftenwhenthegirlisstillquiteyoungbutusuallywhenshehasreachedhermid-teens.Theboy'sfamilypro-videsaseries of gifts of increasingvalueovertime,andbothfamiliesparticipateinroughlyequivalentfoodexchanges.Uponbetrothal,boththeboyandgirlareexpectedtoremaincelibate-anaffairbyeitheroneissufficienttonullifythebe-trothal.Bride-wealthispaidinpigs,tobacco,andotheritems of locallyrecognizedwealth.Sincepigscanonlybegivenawayatfeasts,atsomepointpriortotheactualmarriagethecontractingparents of thebetrothedpairwillusetheocca-sion of amadunatomakethisgift.Marriageitselfisnotmarkedbyelaborateceremony:thebridepreparesamealforherbetrothedinhisfather'shouse,thenreturnstoherownforaninterval of aboutaweek.Afterthattime,themarriagemaybeconsummated,andthebrideleavesherfamilyhometoliveinherfather-in-law'shouse,assumingmembershipinhisclan.Withmarriage,amanentersintoavoidancerela-tionswithcertain of hiswife'skin,mostparticularlywithheroldersister.Polygynyispermittedbutrarelypracticed,duetothegreatexpense of pig-basedbride-wealthentailedbymar-riage.Adulteryisconsideredagrievousoffenseforbothmenandwomen,butthepunishment of anadulterouswife-ase-verebeating,evendeath-isfarmoreonerousthanthepubliccensureandgossipthatservesaspunishmentforaman'sadultery.Divorceappearstobepossiblebutrare.Inheritance.Personalornamentsandwealthareinheritedbyaman's'real,"asopposedtohisclassificatory,brothers.Hiscoconutpalmsarepassedtohisbrothersandhissons.Theownership of ahousepassestotheeldestsurvivingson.Womendonotholdorinheritproperty,exceptincaseswhereawoman'sfatherdieswithoutsons.Socialization.Duringtheirearlyyears,Mailuchildrenarecaredforbytheirmothersandotherfemalemembers of thehousehold.Childrenenjoyagreatdegree of independence,rarelybeingcorrectedorchastisedandgenerallybeingleftfreetoindulgeingamesandsport.Boysaregivenminiatureboats,similarindesigntothoseusedbytheireldersontheseas,andtheyarealsoprovidedwithsmallversions of hunt-ingandfishingnetsandspears.Forbothboysandgirls,earlytrainingintheiradultrolesisacquiredbyobservingtheireld-ersattheirdailytasksandbyhelpingoutwhentheypossesssufficientskillandinterest,thisparticipationisallowedtode-velopatitsownpace.Bothboysandgirlshavetheirears(and,formerly,thenasalseptum)piercedshortlyafterbirth.Atabouttheage of 4,girlsbegintoundergothelongprocess of bodytattooing,whichculminateswhentheyhaveattainedmarriageableagewiththetattooing of theirfaces-doneinconjunctionwithwomen-onlyfeasts.Maleinitiation,whichoncewasanimportantritualeventandrequiredtheacquisi-tion of humanheadsduringaraid,isnolongerpracticed.In-fanticideispracticedwhentwinsareborn-theyoungertwinMejbrat195MejbratETHNONYMS:Brat,Mejprat,MeybratOrientationIdendfication.TheMejbratareswiddencultivators of theBird'sHeadPeninsula of IrianJaya.Locaion.Mejbratterritoryislocatedintheinland of theBird'sHeadPeninsula,inamixedriverineandlacustrinere-gionsomedistancefromthecoast.Therearefourminorlakesintheregion,eachsurroundedbyamarshygrasslandzonewhichisitselfencircledbyahilly,secondary-forestzone.Be-yondthisforestbeltthereismountainoushighcountry,denselycoveredwithprimary-growth,tropicalrainforestveg-etation.Theinhabitedportions of Mejbratterritoryarecriss-crossedwithpathsthatlinksettlementsanddottedwithswiddengardens.Demography.RecentpopulationfiguresfortheMejbrataredifficulttocomeby,buttherewere16,000Mejbratspeak-ersestimatedin1956.LinguisticAffiliation.Brat,withsevendialects,isamem-ber of theCentralBird'sHeadFamily of Non-Austronesianlanguages.Thelanguageappearstohavebeenmuchinflu-encedbyMalay,introducedthroughMoluccantradersintheregionasearlyasthe1600s.HistoryandCulturalRelationsIndirectcontactwithpeoplesnotindigenoustotheregionoccurredasearlyasthesixteenthcentury,whenthefirstMo-luccantradersarrivedtoseekslavesandlocallyavailablespices(principallynutmeg).TheDutcharrivedonthepenin-sulaatthestart of theseventeenthcentury.Itwasnotuntilthe1 920 s,however,thatanysort of governmentpresencewasdirectlyfeltintheMejbratterritory,andsustainedprograms of governmentintervention-organizingtheinhabitantsintoregisteredkampongsorvillages-didnotoccuruntil1934.Thisprocess of villageformationcontinueduntilwellintothe1950sbeforeitwascompleted.Thelargest of thesekampongshadaschoolthatdoubledasthelocalmissionchurch,andtheschoolteachers-IndonesianorPapuan-diddoubledutyasmissionaries.Most of Mejbratterritorywasmission-izedbytheProtestantchurch,buttheeasternportion of theareabecameCatholic.Thereislittleinformationavailablere-gardingthehistoryandculturalrelations of precontacttimes,butitseemssafetosaythattherewastradebothwithintheMejbratterritoryandbetweenMejbratandnon-Mejbrat.SettlementsKampongformationwasintendedtointroducenucleatedset-tlements of severalMeibrathouseholdseach,withdwellingsfacingoneanotheracrossacentralroadorpathand,insomecases,associatedwithalocalchurch-school,buttodaytheseartificialvillagesaregenerallyuninhabitedorsparselypopu-lated.Mejbrattraditionalsettlementsconsist of scatteredhomesteads,eachlocatedclosetoitsassociatedswiddengar-densandalllooselycenteredonaregional'spirithouse,"thelocationwherethefoundingspiritwasthoughttohaveemergedfrombeneaththeground.Mejbratdwellingsarewood-framed,pandanus-thatched,andbuiltonstilts.Mejbratdonotbuildseparatemen'shouses.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialAcDivities.Mejbratsubsist-encedependsheavilyuponthecultivation of taro,theprinci-palcrop,whichisgrownalongwithyamsandsweetpotatoesintheswiddengardens.Most of thepeople'sproteinneedsaremetbygatheringgrubsandlarvae,locusts,lizards,snails,frogs,eggs,birds,andmice.TheMejbrathuntwithblowgunsandspears,killingflyingfoxes,wildboars,opossums,andkangaroos,butthemeatgainedfromhuntingisusedprimar-ilyinceremonialexchange,ratherthanconstitutingamajorpart of theday-to-daydiet.Fishinginthelakesandriversismoreimportantinsomeregionsthaninothers,dependingupontheavailability of fish.Itismostimportantforthepeo-plelivingnearthethreecentrallakes of theterritory,fortheselakeshavebeenstockedbytheterritorialgovernment.Fish-ingisdonewithpoison,withtrapsindammedrivers,andwithbaitedlines,aswellaswithspears.Nonsubsistenceculti-vationfeaturestheintroducedcashcrops of groundnuts,greenpeas,andbeans.Maizehaslongbeengrownasatradecropinthenorthernparts of theregion.Trade.Throughouttheirknownhistory,Mejbratpeopleshaveparticipatedinextraregionaltrade.Moluccantradersbroughtbushknives,blacksugar,rice,and-mostimpor-tantly-dothtotheregionfromwhichtheysoughtlocalbark,nutmeg,andslaves.Thistradewasbymeans of 'ad-vancepayment"-thetradegoodswereleftforlocalconsider-ation,tobecompensatedforbylaterdelivery of thedesiredlocalgoods.BythetimethattheDutcharrivedintheseven-teenthcenturythistradingsystemwasalreadyinplace,andtheyintroducedfinercloth -of cotton-aswellaschinawareandirontotheinventory of itemsimportedintotheregion.Bythenineteenthcenturygongsandglassbeads,aswellasgunsandopium,hadalsobeenintroducedintothelocaltradesystem.Tradewithintheregioncenteredonceremonialexchange,conductedundertheauspices of feastcycles.Theprincipalform of wealthcirculatedinteriorlyiswoven,pat-ternedcloth.IndustrialArts.Items of localmanufactureincludebarkcloth,generallyembroideredaccordingtopatternsfoundonimportedcloth,stringbags,andthebasictoolsandutensilsusedingardening,hunting,andfishing:diggingsticks,blow-guns,fishtraps,fishinglines,andthelike.Menweavedecora-tivearmbands.Housesaremade of woodframeswithpan-danus-leafthatching.Damsarebuilt of brush.Division of Labor.Mendotheheaviertasksinhousebuilding:preparingthewoodframesandattachingthethatch.Women,however,preparethepandanus-leafbundlesusedinthatching.Whilebothmenandwomenworkatpre-paringgardenlandsbyburningoffthegroundcover,onlymenbuildtheswiddenfences,andthebulk of actualgarden-ingchoresfalltowomen.Mendamriversandpreparethepoisonusedinfishing,butasidefromspearfishing,whichisdonebybothmenandwomen,itisthewomenalonewhofishwithlines,spreadthefishpoison,collectthestunnedfish,andusethefishtraps.Hunting-withsnares,spears,orblow-guns-isdoneonlybymen.Gatheringactivitiesareconsid-Mardudiara181mosthouseholdsprovidefoodandshelterforashiftingnum-berandrange of relatives.Inheritance.Materialpossessionswereminimal,andweregenerallyburiedwithapersonupondeath;today,theyareburnedorgivenawaytodistantrelatives,andhouses,orareassurroundingthedeceased'scamp,arevacatedformonthsoryearsatatimefollowingadeath.Socialiation.Infantsandchildrenareraisedbyparents,siblingsandotherclosecoresidentrelatives;grandparentstypicallyplayanimportantroleassocializers.Childrentendtobegreatlyindulgedbyadultsandcanalwaysgetmoneyandfoodfromawiderange of relatives.Freedfromthenecessity of observingkinshiprules,theyspendmuchtimeatplayinlargegroups.Traditionally,theyspentmoretimewithwomen,whomtheyaccompaniedonfood-gatheringexpedi-tions.Today,mostattendschoolfromtheage of 5or6,butthisrequirementisfrequentlybreached.Attheonset of theteenageyears,thefortunes of boysandgirlsbegintodivergedramatically.Thetransition of girlsintowivesandmothersisunmarkedbyritual,whereasboysenteruponaprotractedandrituallyhighlyelaboratedprocessthattransformsthemintoadults.Thisculturallyveryimportanttransitiontakesabout15yearsfromthefirstphysicaloperations,suchasnosepierc-ing,tothefinalstagesprecedingfirstmarriage,whichoccursinthelatetwentiesandmarkstheyoungmanassociallyadult.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrpnizatio.Families,bands,estategroups,and'bigmeetings"(periodicaggregations of peoplefromanum-ber of neighboringdialect-namedterritories,whomettocon-ductritualandotherbusiness)werethemajorelements of so-cialorganizationtraditionally.Thesewerecrosscutbyamultiplicity of memberships(totemic,kin-based,ritual-grade,etc.),includingmoietiesandsections,whichweldeddesertsocietytogether.Today,thefamiliesandthe'bigmeet-ings"remainimportantinstitutions,buttheyexistparalleltointroducedformssuchascommitteesandcouncils.PoliticalOrganiztion.Informertimes,politicalactionwasthedomain of smallgroups,andsexandagewerethemaincriteriafordifferentiation.Althoughthestatus of womenwaslowerthanthat of men,anegalitarianethospre-vailed,andleadershipwasverymuchcontext-dependentandchangeable.Most of thetime,thenorms of kinshipprovidedanadequateframeworkforsocialactionandtheallocation of roles.Thesocialandpoliticalautonomy of thetraditionalbandandestategrouphasbeenreplacedbyencapsulationandminoritystatuswithinthenation-stateandtheintroduc-tion of Western-styleinstitutionssuchaselectionsandcoun-cils.HighmobilityandinvolvementinregionallandcouncilsreflectacontinuinginterestinthewiderWesternDesertsoci-etyas"allonepeople,"andtheMarduspendmuchtimeandeffortmaintainingthesecontacts.Politically,theyremainde-pendentongovernmentsforsurvivalandonWhiteadvisersforassistanceindealingwiththebureaucracies of Australiansociety.Inthepastfewyears,however,therehasbeenamarkedincreaseinMardupoliticalawarenessandconfidenceindealingwithoutsiders.SocialControl.Traditionalsocialcontrolsreliedheavilyonahighlevel of self-regulation,butphysicalsanctionswereinvokedonoccasion.Westerninfluenceshaveseriouslyun-derminedthesecontrolsinthecontactsituation.Forexam-ple,spearingandotherforms of physicalpunishmenthaveoccasionedpoliceinterventionsandarrests of "lawful"pun-ishers;unprecedentednumbers of childrenhaveledtoprob-lems of vandalism;thereisanincreasingincidence of mar-riagebetweenimproperlyrelatedpartners;andyoungwomenhavesuccessfullyresistedattemptstomarrythemofftotheirbetrothedpartners.Alcoholhascontributedgreatlytoaloos-ening of traditionalsocialcontrols,anduncontrolledvio-lence(aswellasdrunkendriving)hasledtomanydeaths.Conflict.Conflictwascloselycontrolledtraditionally,andtheritualizedsettlement of disputeswasavitalpreliminarytoevery"bigmeeting."Today,addingtolesseasilycontrolledintracommunityconflictsarepoliticalstruggles,mostlywithminingcompaniesbutalsowithaneighboringAboriginalgroupthathaslongsought,unsuccessfully,tobringtheMarduunderitscontrol.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Religion,likekinship,ispervasiveinAboriginalsociety.Foundedonthenotion of acreativeera,nowcommonlyknownas"theDreaming,"wheneverythingcameintobeingandtherulesforlifewereinstitutedbyances-tralbeings,religionisembodiedinthelandscape,myths,ritu-als,songlines,andsacredparaphernalia.Lifewasprofoundlyunderspiritualauthority,butprayersandworshiphadnoplace.Mencontrolledthemostpowerful,innersecrets,andritualperformancewasbelievedtoensurethecontinuance of society,underthewatchfuleyes of all-powerful,butwith-drawn,spiritualbeings.Theircontinuedrelease of lifeforceintothephysical world washeldtobedependentontheproperobservance of "theLaw"(theirlegacytotheliving,intheform of ablueprintfortheproperconduct of sociallife)andthecorrectperformance of ritual.Totemismprovidedeachindividualwithdirectanduniquelinksintotherealm of theDreamingandwereimportantintheformationandmain-tenance of identity.DespiteintensivecontactwithWhitesandadiminutioninthefrequency of ritualactivities,beliefsinthereality of thetraditionalreligionremainstrongamongMardu,andallyoungmencontinuetobeinitiatedintoitsse-crets.Beliefsinarange of benevolentandmalevolentspiritsremainstrong,andMarduretainstrongfears of traveltodis-tantareaswhosespiritsdonotknowthemandthereforearelikelytobedangerous.Asmallminority of MarduprofessChristianbeliefs,butnonetotheexclusion of thetraditionalreligion.ReligiousPractitioners.VirtuallyallMarduparticipateinaspects of thereligiouslife,andwhiledifferentritualcom-plexesinvolvedifferentrolesorgrades,therearenospecialistpractitioners.Ceremonies.Thetraditionallyrichceremoniallife,much of whichincludedallcommunitymembers,nowhastocom-petewithmanyotherdistractions.Itisnowmoreseasonal,andmost"bigmeetings"areheldintheveryhotsummerper-iod.Somekinds of ceremonyarenolongerperformed,butthosesurroundingmaleinitiationremainassignificantasever,andgenerallyinvolveseveralhundredAboriginesfromwidelyseparatedcommunities.Ceremonialactivitiesarestill1 72 MandakCeremonies.Ceremoniallifefocusesonmortuaryfeasts, of whichtherearevariousforms,including:theburial of ade-ceasedindividual;latermortuaryfeastsrelevanttoasingledeceasedindividual;andlarge-scaleclan-sponsoredmortuaryceremoniesinvolvingdancesanddistribution of pigs,taro,andsweetpotatoes.Malaganceremoniesoccurinthisarea,althoughunevenlysincethe1950s.Malaganreferstobothamaterialobject-carvedwoodorwoven;mask,figure,orfrieze-anditsattendantrituals,usuallyaspart of alarge-scalemortuaryceremony.Arts.Themajorartisticfocushereinvolvesmalaganpro-ductions.Men'sorwomen'ssongsandaccompanyingdancesareimportantfeatures of finalmortuaryceremonies.DeathandAfterlife.TheMandaksubscribetoavariety of beliefsconcerningdeathandafterlife,fromChristiandoc-tinestopre-Christianbeliefs.Inregardtothelatter,anindi-vidual'sspiritbecomeseitherarestless,roamingspiritiftheindividualdiedaviolentdeath(asfromsorcery,accident,murder)or ... createfoursubmoietiesorde-scentgroups.Out of theselineagestwenty-fivehouseholdshavebeenestablished.Theentirepopulationisevidentlyde-scendedfromasinglefamily,andsoitconstitutesonegreatbilateralkingroup.Beforethemoietieswereestablishedthepeoplewereledbyonechieforariki.Whenthecommunitysplitsodidtheoffice of ariki,withhisritualpowersandre-150MaeEngatantarethatamanshouldnotwedwithinhisownpatricianorwithinthesubclans of hismotherorhiscurrentwives.Par-ents,especiallyfathers,generallychoosethespouseswhentheirchildrenfirstmarry.Postmaritalresidenceideallyispa-trivirilocal.Becausemarriageunitestheclans of bothbrideandgroominvaluedlong-termexchangerelations,divorceisdifficulttoachieve,evenbyhusbands.Adulteryisdeplored,andthefewerringwivesarebrutallypunished.AU of thesenormsandconstraintshaveerodednoticeably of lateduetotheinfluence of seculareducationandChristianmissions,wageearningandmobility of youngadults,andthegrowingconsumption of alcohol.DomesticUnit.Becausemenregardfemalesexualcharac-teristics,especiallymenstruation,aspotentiallydangerous,womenmayneverentermen'shousesandmen,althoughtheyvisittheirwives'housestodiscussfamilymatters,donotsleepthere.Nevertheless,theelementaryfamily of husband,wife,andunwedchildrenconstitutesthebasicunit of domes-ticproductionandreproduction.Apolygynousmandirectsthepigtendingandcultivationdoneseparatelybyhiswivesintheirindividualhouseholds,andhecoordinatestheiractivi-tiestomeetthepublicdemands of hisclanoritscomponentsegments.inheritance.Menbequeathrightstosociallysignificantpropertysuchasland,trees,crops,houses,pigs,andcasso-wariesmoreorlessequallytotheirsonsasthesesonsmarry.Daughtersatmarriagereceivedomesticequipmentfromtheirmothers.Socialization.Womentraintheirdaughtersindomesticandgardeningskillsfrominfancyuntiladolescence,whentheymarryandjointheirhusbands'clanparishes.Ataboutage6or7,boysenterthemen'shouse of theirfatherandhiscloseagnates,all of whomshareintheboys'economic,politi-cal,andritualeducation.SociopoliticalOrganizationSince1975,Maehavebeencitizens of theNation-state of PapuaNewGuinea,amember of theBritishCommonwealth of NationswithaWestminstersystem of government.SocialOrgpnization.TraditionalMaesocietywasrela-tivelyegalitarianandeconomicallyhomogeneousandre-mainslargelysointhe1980sdespitetheeffects of interna-tionalcommerce.The 120 orsopatriciansarestillsignificantlandholdingunits,andtheyandtheircomponentsegmentsarecorporatelyinvolvedinawidevariety of events.Aclanen-gagesinwarfareandpeacemaking;initiatespayments of pigsand,today,moneyashomicidecompensationforslainene-miesandallies;organizeslarge-scaledistributions of pigsandvaluablesintheelaborateinterclanceremonialexchangecycle;andparticipatesinirregularlyheldritualstopropitiateclanancestors.Nohereditaryorformallyelectedclanchiefsdirecttheseactivities;theyarecoordinatedbyableandinflu-entialmenwho,throughtheirpastmanagerialsuccesses,haveacquired"bignames."Thearableland of aclanisdi-videdamongitssubclans,whichholdfuneralfeastsfortheirdead,exchangeporkandothervaluableswithmatrilateralkin of thedeceased,andalsocompensatethematrikin of mem-berswhohavebeeninsulted,injured,orill.Bachelorsusuallyorganizetheirpurificatoryritualsonasubclanbasis.Subclanlandisinturndividedamongcomponentpatrilineages,whosememberscontributevaluablestobride-priceortore-turngiftsastheirjuniorswedthose of lineagesinotherclans.Lineagemembersalsohelpeachotherinhousebuildingandinclearinggardenland.Todayclansolidarity,aswellasinter-clanhostility,importantlydetermineswhoindividualvoterssupportinnational,provincial,andlocalcouncilelections.All of theseAustralian-inspiredgovernmentalentitiespro-videtheextraclanpublicservices,suchasschools,clinics,courts,constabulary,postoffices,androads,onwhichMaenowdependheavily.SocialControlandConflict.Withintheclansocialcon-trolisstilllargelyexercisedthroughpublicopinion,includingridicule,implicitthreatsbyagnatestowithdrawtheeconomicsupportandlaboronwhichallfamiliesrely,andthepervasiveinfluence of prominentbig-menininformalmoots.Theulti-matesanction,evenwithinthehousehold,isphysicalvio-lence.Formerlyclanswithinaphratryorneighborhoodcouldresorttosimilarcourtsjointlysteeredbytheirbig-mentoreachreluctantcompromises;butsuchnegotiations,espe-ciallyoverlandorpigs,frequentlyeruptedinbloodshed.TheAustraliancolonialadministrationsupplementedcourtswithmoreformalandfairlyeffectiveCourtsforNativeAffairs,whichafterindependencewerereplacedbyVillageCourtswithelectedlocalmagistrates.Nevertheless,clansinconflict,whetheroverlandencroachmentorhomicides,stillturnquicklytowarfaretosettlemattersdespiteattemptsbyarmedmobilesquads of nationalpolicetodeterthem.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligionBeliefs.Thetraditionalsystem of Maemagical-religiousbeliefsandpractices,hlethose of otherCentralEnga,arestronglyclan-based,andmanyanimistassumptionsstillorientpopularideologyandsocialbehavior,despitetheapparentimpact of Christianmissionproselytizingsince1948.Maebelievethesunandthemoon,'thefatherandmother of usall,"haveprocreatedmanygenerations of im-mortalskypeoplewhoresembleEngainbeingorganizedinanagnaticsegmentarysociety of warlikecultivators.Eachce-lestialphratrysentarepresentativetoearthtocolonizethehithertoemptyland.Thenowmortalfounder of eachterres-trialphratrymarried,hadchildren,andallocatedlandsandpropertytohissonsastheyweddaughters of otherphratryfounders.Thuswereoriginatedthenamedfraternalclans,each of whichtodayrightfullyoccupiesthedefinedterritoryinheritedpatrilineallyfromthefounder.Eachclanstillpos-sessessome of thefertilitystonescarriedtoearthbythephratryfounder.Buriedintheclan'ssacredgrove,theyarethelocus of thespirits of alltheclanancestors,includingghosts of deceasedgrandfathers.Amanthereforehastherighttoexploitatract of landbecause,throughhisfather,heisalegitimatemember of thatclan,sharesinthetotality of clanpatrilinealspirit,andisintimatelylinkedwiththeloca-lizedclanancestors.Inadditiontothecontinuing,ofteninju-riousinterventionsintohumanaffairs of recentghostsand of ancestralspirits,Maealsoasserttheexistence of aggressiveanthropophagousdemonsand of hugepythons,both of whichdefendtheirmountainandforestdomainsfromhumanintrusions.Ceremonies.Althoughlethalsorceryisuncommon,manymenprivatelyusemagictoenhancetheirpersonal178Maoridren,andtheirmarriedsons,alongwiththelatter'sspousesandchildren.Manyhouseholdsalsohadresidentslaves.Inheritance.Adyingpersonwouldmakeafinaltestamentdisposing of hisorherproperty.Most of theestatewasdividedfairlyequallyamongthesurvivingchildren,exceptthatcertaintypes of hunting,fishing,andcraftequipmentwentonlytotheoffspring of thesamesex.Socialization.Childrenweregenerallyeducatedbytheirrelatives,especiallygrandparents,throughsongsandstories.Gamesoftenimitatedadultactivitiesandwerecompetitive.Aggressivenessandcompetitivenesswereencouraged.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Theinterrelationshipsamonghouseholds,hapu,andiwihasbeendescribedabove.Whileiwiwerefixedincompositionandnumber,newhapuwerecreatedthroughfission.Whenahapugrewtoolargetofunc-tioneffectivelysome of itsmemberswouldbreakoffandes-tablishanewhapuundertheleadership of one of thechief'ssonsoryoungerbrothers.ThetribeswhoseancestorsarrivedinNewZealandinthesamecanoewereconsideredtoconsti-tuteawaka,literally'canoe."Awakewaseffectivelyacon-federationwhosemembersfeltsomeobligationtohelponeanother.Thisspecialrelationshipdidnot,however,ruleoutwarfarebetweentwotribes of thesamewaka.TheMaoriwererankedintothreesocialclasses,determinedbythesource of one'sline.Members of thetwohighestclasseswerebothfreepeople,whilethosedescendedfromtheoldestmales of eachgenerationformedthearistocracy(rangatira).Thosefrommorejuniorlines,orwhoseancestorshadloststatus,wereconsideredcommoners(tutuaorware).Thequestion of pre-ciselywhereaparticularlinestoodinthesetwoclasseswasoftenasource of controversy.Differenceinrankwasdirectlycorrelatedwithdegree of sacredness(tapu)andmana of eachindividualandgroup.Finally,thereweretheslaves(taure-kareka),mainlywarcaptives,whostoodoutsidethedescentsystem.PoliticalOrganization.Eachhapuhadachief(fromtherangatira).Therangatira of themostseniorhapuwasthepar-amountchief(ariki) of thattribe.ThetribewasthereforethehighestpoliticallyintegratedunitinMaorisociety.Bothchieftainshipswerepassedonpatrilineallytothefirstsonineachgeneration.Insometribesaseniordaughterwasalsogivenspecialrecognition.Chiefswere of highrankandgener-allyquitewealthy.Theyexercisedgreatinfluencebutlackedcoercivepower.Thechiefsorganizedanddirectedeconomicprojects,ledmaraeceremonials,administeredtheirgroup'sproperty,andconductedrelationswithothergroups.Thechiefswereoftenfullytrainedpriestswithritualresponsibili-tiesandpowers,mostimportantlytherighttoimposetapu.Therangatiraandarildwere,intheirpersons,verytapuandhadmuchmana.Thehouseholdheadsorkaumatuaasagroupconstitutedthecommunitycouncil(runanga)whichadvisedandcouldinfluencethechief.SocialControLPenaltiesforcrimesranfromgossip,repri-mand,andsorcerytoseizure of property,beating,andexecution.Conflict.Conflictbetweendifferenthapuanddifferenttribeswascommonandoftenledtowarfare.Thedefeatedweremostoftenenslaved,killed,oreaten.Womenandchil-drenwerethemostlikelypersonstobespared.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligoBelief.TheMaoriheldanessentiallyspiritualview of theuniverse.Anythingassociatedwiththesupernat-uralwasinvestedwithtapu,amysteriousqualitywhichmadethosethingsorpersonsimbuedwithiteithersacredorun-cleanaccordingtocontext.Objectsandpersonscouldalsopossessmana,psychicpower.Bothqualities,whichwerein-heritedoracquiredthroughcontact,couldbeaugmentedordiminishedduringone'slifetime.Allfreemenweretaputoadegreedirectlyproportionaltotheirrank.Furthermore,anobjectorresourcecouldbemadetapuandthereforeoff-limits.Thepunishmentforviolatingatapurestrictionwasautomatic,usuallycomingassicknessordeath.TheMaorihadapantheon of supernaturalbeings(atua).ThesupremegodwasknownasTo.Thetwoprimevalparents,PapaandRangi,hadeightdivineoffspring:Haumia,thegod of unculti-vatedfood;Rongo,thegod of peaceandagriculture;Ruau-moko,thegod of earthquakes;Tawhirimatea,thegod of weather,Tane,thefather of humansandgod of forests;Tan-garoa,thegod of thesea;Tu-matauenga,thewargod;andWhiro,thegod of darknessandevil.Therewerealsoexclusivetribalgods,mainlyassociatedwithwar.Inaddition,therewerevariousfamilygodsandfamiliarspirits.ReligiousPrctitioners.Theseniordeitieshadapriest-hood(tohungaahurewa),members of whichreceivedspecialprofessionaltraining.Theywereresponsibleforallesotericritual,wereknowledgeableaboutgenealogiesandtribalhis-tory,andwerebelievedtobeabletocontroltheweather.Sha-mansratherthanpriestsservedthefamilygodswhomtheycommunicatedwiththroughspiritpossessionandsorcery.Ceremonies.Mostpublicriteswereperformedintheopen,atthemarae.Thegodswereofferedthefirstfruits of allundertakings,andslaveswereoccasionallysacrificedtopro-pitiatethem.Incantations(karacia)werechantedinflawlessrepetitiontoinfluencethegods.Arts.Most of thematerialobjects of theMaoriwerehighlydecorated.Theirstatuesandcarvings,especiallywithfiligreemotifs,areadmiredworldwideandarethefrequentsubject of artmuseumexhibitions.Medicine.Sicknesswasbelievedtobecausedbysorceryortheviolation of atapu.Theproximatecause of illnesswasthepresence of foreignspiritsinthesickbody.Themedicalto-hungaaccordinglyexorcisedthespiritsandpurifiedthepa,tient.Thetherapeuticvalue of someplantswasalsorecognized.DeathandAfterlife.Thedyinganddeadweretakentoashelteronthemarae.Thebodywaslaidoutonmatstore-ceivemourners,whocameinhapuortribalgroups.Afteraweekortwo of mourningthebodywaswrappedinmatsandburiedinacave,inatree,orintheground.Oftenafterayearortwotheaikiwouldhavethebodyexhumed,andthebonesscrapedcleanandpaintedwithredochre,tobetakenfromsettlementtosettlementforasecondmourning.Afterward,thebonesweregivenasecondburialinasacredplace.Thespirits of thedeadwerebelievedtomakeavoyagetotheirfinalabode,avagueandmysteriousunderworld.Malekula165Division of Labor.Traditionally-andstillamongtheLaus-housebuildingwasamaletask,however,inmissionvillagesitisacooperativetaskinvolvingbothsexes.So,too,yamgardensarenowtheexclusiveprovince of menonlyinLaus;inMewunandSeniangtoday,womenworkinyamgar-densunlesstheyaremenstruating.Menandwomenshareotheragriculturaltasks,and,whileonlymenhunt,bothmenandwomenfishandgathershellfish.Althoughbothsexescanbeinvolvedincooking,ceremonialcookingforfeasts,fu-nerals,etc.,isusuallysupervisedbymen.LandTenure.Landisinheritedpatrilineally.Marriedwomenretainusufructrightstotheirbrothers'coconutlandandmaygatherthenutswithoutaskingpermission.Inthepastfewdecades,somemenhavefoundthemselveswithfewheirsbutmuchland.TopreventencroachmentbyEurope-ans,somemeninthissituationhavegivenparcels of landtotheirsisters'sons.However,thisnewpracticehasledtoaplethora of courtcases,somenreportedlyaremovingawayfromthisinnovationinlandinheritance.Althoughwomendonotusuallyholdorinheritland,thereareinstanceswherewomenarethesoleheirs of apatrimony,andthesewomensometimesholdandcontrolfamilylanduntiltheirsonsmature.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Inallthreegroupsthecommu-nityisdividedintoanumber of localized,patrilineal,exoga-mousdescentgroupscalled'clans"bytheirfirstethnog-rapher,A.B.Deacon.Eachclanmembercantracedescentfromavillageorlocality.Placemembershipappearstobeastrongerfactorinunitythanclanmembershipperse.Chil-drenbelongtotheplace of theirfather,buttheycanbeadoptedintootherplacesonoccasion.Members of aclanorplaceshareaspecifictotemandasacredplacewheregroupritualswereperformedinprecontacttimes.Thedescentgroupisthelandholdingunit,andfoodandothervalueditemsarefrequentlysharedbymembers.KinshipTerminology.AllthreeethnicgroupsuseCrow-typekinshiptermsinapatrilinealdescentsystem.Thiscom-binationisunusual,foundinonlytwootherOceanicethnicgroups.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.PolygynyisstillfoundinLausandwascommoninMewunandSeniangbeforetheywerecompletelymission-ized.PolyandryalsooccurredintraditionaltimesamongtheMewun.Members of thethreegroupsoccasionallyinter-marry.Substantialbride-wealthisrequired;inallthreegroupsthiscanconsist of acombination of pigsandcash,thoughaLausbride-priceislikelytoincludemorepigsthanbride-pricesinMewunandSeniang.Withthecurrentsurplus of bachelors,oldermarriedmenseektocontrolyoungerbache-lorsthroughtheircontrol of marriagechoicesforyoungwomen.Inordertomarry,mostyoungmenmustobtaintheapproval of oldermenanduseeitherbride-wealthorsisterex-changetocontractengagements.Postmaritalresidenceispa-trilocal.Althoughwomenmovetotheirhusbands'landwhentheymarry,awidowedwomanisalmostalwaysrequiredtore-turntoherpatrilocality,leavingherchildrenbehindwithherdeceasedspouse'srelatives.Thismove,however,maynotal-waysinvolveachangeinvillagesforher.Sincemissionvil-lagesinMewunandSeniangarecomposed of severaldiffer-entpatrilines,shemaysimplyrelocatetoadifferentquadrant of thevillageandbegintofarmtheland of herpatrilinealrel-atives.DivorceisillegalandalmostabsentinSouthWestBay.ThefewpeoplewhohaveseparatedfromtheirspouseshaveleftthebayforeitherPortVilaorLuganville(Vanuatu'sonlytwocities)wheretheycanformliaisonswithnewspouses.DomesticUnit.Thebasicdomesticunitiscomposed of relativeswhosharefoodandeatfromacommonfire.Thismayormaynotcoincidewithadwellingunitorhousehold.Inheritance.Inheritanceispatrilineal.Daughtersaregivenpieces of theirfathers'territorytousebeforemarriageandaftertheybecomewidows.However,thisisusuallynotinheritedbytheirsons.Socialization.Childrenareraisedtointeractwithonean-otherpeaceably,soitisextremelyraretoseechildrenfightingoraparentstrikingachild.Thethreat of shameisoftenem-ployedtoensurecorrectbehavior.MostMewunandSeniangchildrengotoschooluntilthethirdgrade.Whilealargeper-centagefinishprimaryschool,onlyafewprogresstosecon-daryschool.Thedistrictschoolswereestablishedintheearly1900sbytheresidentPresbyterianmissionary.Beforeinde-pendence,afewchildrenfromMewunandalargergroupfromSeniangwenttoaFrenchboardingschoolinsoutheast-ernMalekula.Lauschildren,forthemostpart,arenotfor-mallyeducated,althoughafewattendthemissionschoolsinMewun.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Thebasicorganizingprincipleisthat of acommon"place."Ancestral"place"commonlycoincideswithpatrilineality,butthereisplenty of roomforascriptionwhensuitable.Rightsto'place"canbegainedbyadoptionandlong-termcontiguityandcommensaliy.MissionvillagesinMewunandSeniangusuallyincluderesidentsfromseveral"places."Members of a'place"areexogamousandcooperateonworkteams;theyalsopooltheirresourcesforbride-wealthandfunerarycontributions.Members of a"place"willalsosharerightstouniqueartisticcreations(dances,artifacts,songs,etc.),saidtobegiventomembersasgiftsfromthespirit world. Theseculturalartifactscanbeboughtandsoldbetween"places."Theemphasison"place"seeninSouthWestBayapparentlyissignificantthroughoutVanuatu;notonlyisitnotedbyanthropologistsinotherparts of thearchi-pelago,butthenewlyinvented(postindependence)pidginwordfor'citizen"ismanpies(orwomanples)."PoliticalOrganization.Thetraditionalpoliticalsystemoperatedthroughacombination of personalandpositionalpower.Amen'sgradedsocietydevelopedinallthreeSouthWestBayethnicgroups.Byearninghiswayuptheladder of ritualposition(eachpositioninvolvingpaymentsandbe-stowingritualprivilegesontheaspirant),amancouldreachthetopgrade,atwhichpointhebecameaspirituallypowerfulandfearedperson.High-rankingmenwerelikelytohavesev-eralwives,oftenobtainedfromdifferentethnicgroups,andgreatwealthinpigs.Lausmenstillhaveagradedsociety,ornimangi.AshadowgradedsocietyalsoexistsforLauswomenandwasdescribedforMewunandSeniangintraditional1 62 Malaitapropitiated.Lifecircumstances-uxorilocalresidence,paren-taldivorce,orwidowhood-canleadchildrentogrowupwithmaternalkin.Whentheydo,theyareaccordeddefactorights of residenceandlandrightsasthoughtheywereagnates:whatmattersiscommitmenttolands,ancestors,andIdnandintimateknowledge of aplaceanditsritualsandtaboos.Giventheideologicalemphasisonagnation(atleastinsomecontexts)andcountervailingideologies of symmetricbilater-ality,andgiventhevaryingstatisticalcomposition of groups,itisnowonderthatethnographershavedifferedincharacter-izingMalaitasocialstructure.AmongtheLauspeakers of thelagoons,denselyconcentratedinlargevillages,descentgroupsarequitesquarelyagnatic.Insomeparts of Malaita,segmentaryritualandpoliticalrelationshipsabovethelevel of localdescent-basedgroupswereaccordedimportance.Inthenorth,eightclusters of descentgroupswererecognized,withthepoliticallydominantandrituallysenior'stem"groups of eachclusterconnectedtooneanotherbyputativeagnaticlinks(butwithsomeothergroupswithineachclusterconnectedtothe'stem"groupbynonagnaticlinks).InKwaio,suchhigher-levellinkagesoperateonlythroughrituallinksbetweenshrinesandtheirpriests.KinshipTerminology.KinshipterminologyrangesfromasymmetricIroquois-typepatterninKwara'ae(systematicallydistinguishingcrossfromparallelkininthemiddlethreegen-erationsaccordingtorelativesex of thelastconnectinglinks)toabasicallyHawaiian-typepatterninKwaio(brokenonlybyaself-reciprocalmother'sbrother/sister'schildcategory).In-termediatearesystems(suchasTo'aba'ita)withapartialOmaha-likeskewinginwhichthemother'sbrother/sister'schildcategoryisincorporatedintothegrandparent/grandchildcategory(whichoccursinalltheMalaitaterminologies).MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Marriageisgenerallyseriallymonogamous,al-thoughpolygynyispossibleinsomeplaces.Bride-wealthisuniversal.Prohibitionsonmarriagegenerallyarebilaterallybased,withmarriagebetweenclosecousinsnormativelypro-hibited.Asnotedpreviously,postmaritalresidencewasini-tiallyvirilocal,althoughinsomeareaslaterflexibilityinresi-dentialattachmentwaspossible.Divorcewaspossiblebutdifficultbecause of bride-wealth.DomesticUnit.Domesticfamilygroups(prototypicallynuclearfamiliesbutoftenaugmentedbywidows,bachelors,spinsters,andfosterchildren)aretheprimaryunits of pro-ductionandconsumption.Inheritance.Inheritanceassignsrightstothosewhocre-atepropertyandtransmitstheserightstoandthroughchil-dren.Normatively,althoughsonsanddaughtersinheritrights,sonstransmitprimaryrightstotheirchildrenanddaughterstransmitsecondaryrights.Asteward,ideallyasen-ioragnate,actsasaspokespersonforcollectivelyheldlandandotherproperty.Socialization.Childrenarehighlyvaluedandcaringlynur-tured,withwomenhavingtheprimaryresponsibilitiesforearlychildcareandtraining.Sexualpolarizationearlysepa-ratesboys'andgirls'lifeexperiences(thoughtherearenofor-malinitiations),withboysbeingmuchmorefreetohuntandplayandgirlsbeginningearlyaregimen of hardlaborandchildcare.Boysspendprogressivelymoretimewithmen,stayinmen'shouses,andparticipateinritual.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Inbushareas,afierceegalitarianismbasedonachievementratherthanranktraditionallypre-vailed.However,insomecoastalareas(e.g.,LauandMara-masike)ideas of hereditaryrankhadsomecurrency.PoliticalOrgnization.ApervasiveideologyonMalaitadistinguishesthreeleadershiproles:that of 'priest,"whoactsasthereligiousofficiant of thedescentgroup(seebelow);that of 'warrior-leader'(ngwaneramo),abountyhunterandfightingleader,andthat of asecularleader(intheNorthernMalaitadialect,ngwaneinoto/inito'o).Char-acterizations of thelatterrangefromahereditarychief(arahainMaramasike)toasmallishbig-maninthemostpoliticallyfragmentedbushareas,suchasKwaioandnorth-western'Are'are.Otherareascombinedanideologythatthesenioragnate of adescentgroupactedasitssecularleaderwitharecognition of defactoleadershipachievedthroughentrepreneurialsuccess.InLauandsoutheastern'Are'are,hereditaryleaderscommandedprestigeand...

... in1 722 wastheDutch300SioSettlementsFortwotothreecenturiestheSiolivedonatinyoffshoreis-land(laterknownasthe"Dorfinsel"totheGermancolo-nists).Theislandvillagewasdividedintoresidentialwards,each of themdenselypackedwithhousesthatweretypicallyoccupiedbytwoorthreenuclearfamilies.Eachwardalsohadamen'sceremonialhouse.Theislandvillagewasdestroyedduring World War11andwasnotrebuilt.Instead,thepeopleestablishedfourvillagesontheoppositemainland,all of themnearthesites of prehistoricSiovillages.Thehousesarerectangularpiledwellingsroofedwithsago-leafthatch.Men'sclubhouses, of similardesign,werenotbuiltinthepostwarvillages,andthissignaledthedemise of thetraditionalmen'sorganizationtogetherwithmaleinitiation.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Shiftingcultiva-tion,mainly of yamsinfencedgrasslandplantationsdividedintohouseholdplots,absorbsthelargestshare of domesticlaborandisthebasis of subsistence.Subsidiarycropsincludebananas,taro,sweetpotatoes,ediblepitpit,sugarcane,andin-troducedcultigenssuchassquash,manioc,andcorn.Eco-nomictreesincludecoconut,sago,betelnut,andpandanus.Cattlehavebeenaddedtothetraditionaldomesticanimals:pigs,dogs,andchickens.Fishingbyavariety of techniquesandreefcollectingcontributesignificantlytothefoodsupply.Feral-pighuntingbymeans of fire,dogs,andbowsandar-rows,aritualassociatedwiththeannualburning of thegrass-landinpreparationforcultivation,istheonlyproductiveform of hunting.Overtheyears,coconutplantingsthatweregreatlyextendedbeginninginthelate1930shavebeenaprincipalsource of cashincome.Attemptsatcultivatingdryrice,peanuts,andcoffeefailed.Currenteffortsandplansfocusontimber,cocoa,cattle,andwetricecultivationoncut-overhillsides.IndustrialArts.Principalcraftsarepottery-cookingpotsmadebywomenbymeans of .thepaddle-and-anviltechnique-andoutriggercanoes.Manyobjectsindailyorfrequentuse-stoneaxes,mats,woodenbowls,barkcloth,bowsandarrows,anddrums-wereimported.Trade.Externaltradehelpedtoalleviateseasonalfoodshortagesandalsobroughtavariety of goods,some of whichwereretraced.Pots,fish,andcoconutsweretradedfortaroandsweetpotatoesfromtheinterior.IntheSioview,potterywasthebasis of theirtrading,notonlywiththeinteriorpeo-plesbutalsowithneighboringcoastalpeoplesandtheSiassiIslandseabornetraderswhovisitedthemtwiceannually.Division of Labor.Pighuntingandmost of theworkinyamcultivation,canoeandhousebuilding,andfestivecook-ingaredonebymen.Potmaking,weavingnetbags,dailycooking,andmuch of theworkinpigtendingaredonebywomen.Bothmenandwomenfish,thoughbydifferentmethods,andbothprepareandsellcopra.Cooperationbe-yondthehouseholdisatitswidestintheannualpighuntsandinbuildinghousesandcanoes.Traditionally,digging,stickteams of threetosixmendidtheheavywork of tillingthegroundforplanting;asidefromthatwork,thelabor of members of ahouseholdwassufficient.LandTenure.Ownership of estatesconsisting of scat-teredandnamedtracts of landisvestedinpatrilinealline-ages.Eachlineageisheadedbyaseniormalewhoisstyled"father of theland"(tonotama)andwhosesuperiorknowl-edge of genealogyandhistories of landholdingsisbroughttobearintheevent of disputes.Gardeningland,however,isnotscarceanddisputesarerare.Moreover,sincetillageteamswhosemembersarefrequentlyaffinesormaternalrelativesgardentogether,peopleregularlyenjoytemporaryuserightstolandthatbelongstolineagesotherthantheirown.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.EverySioisamemberbybirth of apatrilinealdescentgroup(lineage).Thereisnotermfor"lineage,"norarethevariouslineagesnamed.Rathertheyareknownbythenames of theirheads,whotendtobefirstbornsons.Thelineageisprincipallyacustodiallandholdinggroupandrarelyassemblesasanactiongroup.Malemembers of thelineage,however,tendtoliveinresidentialclustersandfre-quentlycombineingardeningassociationsandforhousebuildingandothertasks.KinshipTerminology.Cousintermsare of thegenera-tionalorHawaiiantype.Avunculartermsare of thebifurcate-mergingorIroquoistype.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Sioasawhole,includingtheoutlyingvillage of Nambariwa,tendedtobeanendogamousunit.Peoplewithcommongreat-grandparentsarenotsupposedtomarry.Line-agesareexogamousandpeoplewhosefathersorgrandfatherswereassociatedinthesamemen'shouse,whatevertheirge-nealogicalconnections,werelikewiseforbiddentomarry.Postmaritalresidencetendstobepatrilocal,butexceptionsarefrequent.Bride-wealthpayments of pigsandvaluablesareassembledfromavariety of kinsmenandinlocaltheoryareamark of respectforthebride.Thestatus of womenishighandmarriageresemblestheegalitarian,companionateform of theWest.Thelevirateandsororatearenotpracticed.Polygynywasapprovedbuttendedtobeconfinedtobig-men.Divorceundertraditionalconditionsissaidtohavebeenrare.DomesticUnit.Thehouseholdcomprised of anuclearfamilyisthebasicdomesticunit.Inheritance.Inheritanceispatrilineal,thoughintervivosgifts of pigs,valuables,andeconomictreesfrommentotheirsisters'sonsarecommon.Pot-makingskills,implements,anddecorativedesignspassfrommothertodaughter.Socialization.Traditionalmaleinitiationceremonies,inwhichtheyouths'maternaluncleshadaprominentroleinin-structingthemin"thelaws,"lapsedinthe1 920 s.Missionschoolssincethen,butmainlyagovernmentschoolsince1959,haveprovidedprimaryeducation.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Peopleregardtheirsocietyasabody of kinwhoshareacommonlanguage,culture,andterritoryandwhoaresharplysetofffromneighboringpeoples.Divid-ingthebodypoliticroughlyinhalfareresidentialmoieties,whosemembersmaintainafriendlyrivalry.Thepopulationisfurthersubdividedintolandowningpatrilineages;themen of 28 8SamoaKinshipKinGroupsandDescent.InSamoathereareoverlappingcognaticdescentgroups('iiga)withanemphasisonagna-tion.Eachdescentgrouphasalocalizedsectioninacommu-nitywhereitslandsandchiefly(matai)tidestraditionallybe-long;othermembersliveinothercommunitiesonthelands of other'Miga.Localizedsectionsholdandallocatelandtotheirmembers,regulatemarriage,andcontrolconflictamongmembers.Betweenthedescentgroupsthereexistmultifari-ousrelationshipsthataregenealogicallyexplained,formingramifieddescentstructures,bothatthecommunityandatthesupracommunitylevel.Notall of thesestructuresarede-scentgroupsinthestrictanthropologicalsense of theterm,however,sinceinsome of themonlymataiaremembers.Thesestructuresare'iigainametaphoricalsenseonly.Theyplayanimportantpartinsupracommuniryterritorialintegration.KinshipTerminology.KintermsfollowaHawaiian-typesystem.MarriageandtheFamilyMarriage.Members of thefather'sandmother'sdescentgroupsareforbiddenasmarriagepartners,andcommunityendogamyisalsodiscouraged.Brideandgroomshouldbe of similarrank.Today,achurchweddingisanimportantandcostlyaffair,butmanymarriagesarestillcustomaryones,manandwifelivingtogetherwiththeirparents'consentaftertheappropriateexchange of goods.Premaritalvirginityishighlyvaluedandagirl'smoralcodeprohibitssexualrela-tionswithamanunlesssheisrecognizedashiswife.Custom-arymarriagesamongyoungerpeoplefrequentlyendindi-vorce,however,andthepartnersmayhaveundergoneseveralsuchmarriagesbeforeeventuallycontractingachurchwed-ding.Residencetendstobevirilocal,butduringtheearlystages of marriedlifeacouplefrequentlyresideswiththewife'sfamily.Inpre-Christiantimes,polygynywaspracticed,althoughprobablyonlybymatai of highrank.DomesticUnit.Thelocalizedsection of adescentgroup,forminganextendedfamilyandlivinginagroup of housesclusteredaroundacommonhearth,isthecustomarydomes-ticunit.Inmodemtimes,thenuclearfamilyhasbecomemorefrequent.Inheritance.Members of thedescentgroupretainrightstouseandcontrol of customarylandoccupiedandcultivatedbytheir'1iga,regardless of wheretheylive.Thesameappliestomataititlesthatarenotsubjecttoanyautomaticinheri-tancerule.Afamilycouncilwilldecidetoconferavacanttideuponamember-usuallymale-whomtheyconsidertobethebestchoice.Especiallywithregardtohightitles,however,agnaticsuccessionispreferred.Socialization.Startingatabout1 2 years of age,childrenbecomesubjecttoaneducationEuropeanswouldlabelas'authoritarian."Theyareexpectedtoobeytheirparentsandeldersatonce,withouthesitationandwithoutaskingques-tions.Overtanddirectexpressions of hostilityandaggressionarediscouraged,butmusu,thestate of sullenunwillingnesstocomplywithorders,isaculturallytoleratedoutlet.Much of theactualeducationworktakesplaceinthepeergroupswhereolderbrothersandespeciallysistersaremaderesponsi-bleforthebehavior of theiryoungersiblings.Formaleduca-doninschoolsisconsideredessentialforthewell-being of theentirefamilytodayandparentsusuallyencouragesome of theirchildrentoremaininhighschool.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Rankgoeswithageandthepositionamataitideholdswithinthecomplicatedtidestructure.Anoldersisterrankshigherthanherbrother.Thedescendants of asisterstillenjoyaspecialrespectedstatuswithinthedescentgroup.Christianityhasemphasizedthestatus of thewife,however,andthesister'spositionisnotaspronouncedtodayasitoncewas.Withinmostdescentgroups,therearetwosets of matai:aristocrats(ali'i),whoembodythegroup'sdignity;andorators(tulafale),whotakeamoreofficialrolewhentheyspeakonbehalf of theali'iatcertainformalpublicevents.Eachmataisupervisesandlooksafterthefamilyunderhisim.mediatecontrolandisresponsibleforitvis-a-visthecommunity.PoliticalOrganization.Communities(nu'u)arepoliti-callyindependentbutareorganizedintodistrictsandsubdis-trictsforceremonialpurposes.Aboriginally,war,too,wasasupracommunityconcern.Ceremoniesonasupracommunityleveloftenfocusonthelife-crisisrites of certainveryhigh-rankingtitleholders,thetama-a-'diga,whicharenottobeconfusedwithmataiandshouldratherbecalledkings.For-malpoliticalcontrolwithinthecommunityisexercisedbythecouncil of matai(fono)withthe'aumaga(theuntitledmen'sorganization)servingasexecutivebody.Women'scommit-teesexisttodayinallcommunities,playinganimportantroleincommunityaffairsasanunofficialarm of localgovern-ment.Theyreplaceorcomplementtheaualuma,thegroupmadeup of thesistersanddaughters of thecommunity,whichplayedanimportantceremonialroleinformertimes.SocialControl.InformalsocialcontrolisexercisedthroughgossipandwasformerlyaidedbytheopenSamoanhouses,whichpreventedprivacy.Formalcontrolisexercisedthroughthefono,whichretainstherighttoexpelindividualsand,inrarecases,entire'&igafromthecommunityanditslands.Conflict.Inaboriginaltimesandthroughoutthenine-teenthcentury,conflictsovertitlesandlandsoftenresultedinwars.Suchcasesareadjudicatedtodaybyspeciallawcourts.Competitiveness-suchasevidencedin,forinstance,thezeal of untitledmentodistinguishthemselvesasgoodser-vantstotheirmatai,inoratory,indonationstothechurch,etc ... addsareas of conflicttosociallife.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief.Today,SamoansaredevoutChristians,followingdiverseProtestantdenominations,aswellastheRomanCatholicchurch.Pre-Christianbeliefsinancestor-spirits(aitu)arestillwidespread,buttheyarenotopenlycon-fessedvis-a-visEuropeans.Aituformerlywerefamilygods,andtheyhaveretainedtheircharacteraslocallyassociatedandkinship-bounddeifiedancestors.Therewasabeliefinasupremebeing,Tangaloa,butSamoaprobablyneverdevel-opedanationalcultlikethat of theSocietyIslandsorHawaii.Tangaloawasadeusotiosuswhowithdrewafterhavingcausedtheemergence of theislandsandsetinmotiontheprocess 29 2SantaCruz,tion.Therewerenopoliticaloffices.Eachmen'sassociationwasgoverned,autocratically,byitsmostinfluentialseniormen(big-men);districtpoliciesandinterdistrictrelationswerehandledbyinformalgroups of seniormen.Personalri-valriesamongseniormenwerecommon,andthisconstanttensionledtodivisivenessandfightingateachpoliticallevel.SocialControlandConflict.Interpersonalsocialcontrolisgreatlyenforcedbyfears of sorceryandmalewitchcraft.Be-forepeacewasestablished,theultimatesecularcoercivethreatwasfightingwithbowsandarrows;interpersonalvio-lenceandfeudswerecommonplace.Feudscouldbeendedbyofferingtheunavengedsideavictimtokill.Seriousdisputescouldescalateintowarsbetweendistricts,butlarge-scalevio-lencecouldbeavoidedbyresortingtocompetitiveexchangesthatwerecontinueduntilonesidewentbankrupt.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBEelief.ThemostsignificantbeliefsarethatNend6culturewasgivenbysupernaturalbeings;thesebeingscontinuetocontrolhumaneventsforgoodandbad;eachadultmale,andsomewomen,musthaveapersonalsupernat-uraltutelarytoprotectandpromotehisorhergeneralwel-fare.However,notalltutelariesareequal;somehavemorein-fluenceovereventsthanothers.Individualswhohaveattentivetutelarieswillsucceed;thosewhosucceedthemosthavethemostpowerfultutelaries.Misfortuneisbelievedtobecausedbysupernaturalinfluences.Initially,Christianbe-liefsweregraftedontothesetraditionalbeliefs,sothatGodwasthemostpowerful of tutelarydeities.ReligkouPractitioners.Theonlyreligiouspractitionersarefemalemediumswhoarecalledupontodeterminethecauses of misfortune.Otherwise,eachadultperformsorsponsorspropitiatoryritestohisorhertutelarydeity.Ceremonies.Thepreeminentceremonyisanextendedse-ties,lastingseveralyears, of invitationalfeastsanddancessponsoredbyasmallgroup of mentopropitiatetheirtutelarydeities.Aswellasbeingcostlyreligiousrituals,thesewere,andstillare,themostenjoyedsocialevents,andtheyaretheoccasionsatwhichmuch of Nend5aestheticandexpressivecultureisdisplayed.Theseceremoniesarestillcelebrated,butinabbreviatedforms.Arts.Themostdistinctiveartsincludereligioussculpture,lyricpoetry,costumeryanddramatizations,precisiondanc-ing,andpersonalornamentation.Thisornamentationisas-sociatedwithhierarchicalpositionamongseniorpersons;theotherartsaremostlyassociatedwithpropitiatingtutelarydei-ties.Manytraditionalartshavedeclinedordisappearedinre-centdecades.Medicine.Forminorandacutedisorderstherearespecial-izedpractitionersandnonreligiousremedies,buttreatments of severeandchronicillnessesmustbeaccomplishedthroughtutelarydeities.DeathandAfterlife.Forsociallyunimportantpersons,fu-neralsareperfunctory,butforpersonagestheycanbemajorobservances,includingextendedviewing of thecorpseandapostburialfeast.Formerly,burialwasintheearthenfloor of thedeceased'sdwelling,butitisnowdoneincemeteries.Tra-ditionalideasabouttheaferlifearenotelaborate:thesoulgoestothewesternextremity of Nend6whereitresideswithothersoulsandsupernaturals.SeealsoAnutaBibliographyDavenport,WilliamH.(19 62) .'Red-FeatherMoney."Scien-tificAmerican 20 6:9 4-1 04.Davenport,WilliamH.(1964).'SocialStructure of SantaCruzIsland."InExplorationsinCulturalAnthropology,editedbyWardH.Goodenough,5 7-9 3.NewYork:McGraw-Hill.Davenport,WilliamH.(1975)."LyricVerseintheSantaCruzIslands."Expedition18: 3 2- 47.Davenport,WilliamH.(1985)."AMiniatureFigurefromSantaCruzIsland."Bulletinno. 25 of theMus&eBarbier-Muller.Geneva.Koch,Gerd(1971).MaterielleKulturderSantaCruz-lseln.Berlin:MuseumfurV51kerkunde.WILLIAMH.DAVENPORTSelepetETHNONYMS:NoneOrientationIdentification.Thename"Selepet"isderivedfromthesentence"Seleppekyap,"meaning'Thehousecollapsed,"aneventrecountedinthestory of thepeople'sdispersalfromtheirprimordialresidentialsite.Location.ThepeopleliveintheValley of thePumuneRiver,atributary of theKwamaRiver,andalongthewind-wardslopes of alowcoastalrangetothenorth,locatedontheHuonPeninsula,MorobeProvince,PapuaNewGuinea,around6°Sand147°E,mainlyataltitudes of 900to1,800meters.TheyareboundedtotheeastandwestbythemorenumerousKombaandTimbepeoples.Togetherthesethreepeoplesareseparatedfromtheothermountainpeoples of theHuonPeninsulabyanaturalbarrierformedbythe3,00 0- 3,900-meterSaruwagedandCromwellranges.Demography.The1980censusstatesthat3,600personsspeaktheNorthernSelepetdialectand 2, 700speaktheSouthern.Themountainpopulationisrelativelydense:19.6personspersquarekilometerascomparedtoanationalaver-age of 4.6.linguisticAffiliation.Thelanguageisamember of theWesternHuonFamily,Finisterre-HuonStock,Trans-NewGuineaPhylum of Papuanlanguages.Ithastwomajordia-lects:theNorthern,spokenalongthecoastalslopesandthe ... theEasternHighlands."InGods,Ghosts,andMeninMelanesia,editedbyPeterLawrenceandMervynJ.Meggitt,5 0-7 7.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.SioETHNONYMS:Sigaba,SigawaOrientationIdentification."Sio"isthename of aPapuaNewGuineapeople, of theirgroup of fourvillages,and of theirlanguage(alsospokeninNambariwa,asmallcoastalvillagetotheeast).Thewordmeans"theyput,takeupposition,"andwasadoptedbythepeoplethemselves,inplace of theirtraditionalname"Sigaba,"lessthanacenturyago.Location.TheSioinhabittropicalsavannasituatedonthenorthcoast of theHuonPeninsulainMorobeProvince.Theyarelocatedat147 20 'Eand6°50'S.Althoughpredomi-nantlygrassland,theareaincludesextensivetracts of rainfor-est,andSioterritoryalsoincludesseveralmiles of fringingreef,alargelagoon,andasmalloffshoreislandwhere,priorto World War11,most of theSio-speakingpeopleresided.Pre-cipitationismarkedlyseasonal,withonlyafifthorless of theannualrainfalloccurringduringthesoutheasttradewindsea-sonfromMaytoOctober.Droughtyearsandpoorharvestsoccur,butwithvaryingseverity.Demography.Atthetime of initialEuropeancontactinthelatenineteenthcentury,theSionumberedabout700.Thepopulationhadincreasedto1,500bythemid-1960s,andinthegenerationsinceithasdoubledonceagain.linguisticAffiliation.SioisanAustronesianlanguagethatlacks"closerelatives"amongthedozens of Austronesianlanguagesspokenbythecoastalandislandpeoples of there-gion.Beginningbefore1 920 ,awrittenform of thelanguage,forliturgicalpurposes,wasproducedbyGermanmissionariesandSiocatechists.Currently,withthehelp of missionarylin-guists,thepeoplearerecordingtraditionalmythsandfolktales.HistoryandCulturalRelationsASioyouth,abductedbyGermanofficialsandintroducedtothegovernor of thecolony,playedakeyroleinestablishingpeacefulrelationsbetweentheSioandWhitesduringtheGermancolonialperiod(188 4-1 914).ALutheranmissionstationwasestablishedatSioin1910,andthesameyouth,nowgrownandanappointedvillageheadman,helpedleadthepeopletowardmassconversiontoChristianityin1919.Sincethenasuccession of leadershaveconductedSio'srela-tionswithoutsideagencies,drawingtothecommunityvariedbenefitswhileinsistingthatlandandresourcesremainunderlocalcontrol.In1959,agovernmentprimaryschoolopenedandaregionalservicecooperativeformarketingthecopraandcoffee of villageproducerswasinaugurated.Boththeschoolandtheco-opowedmuchtoSioinitiative.Inthemid-1960s,Siowasincorporatedinalocalgovernmentcouncil.Developments of the1980sincludedcattleranching,thefor-mation of aSiocompanyengagedinlogging of hardwoodsinconjunctionwithanAsianfirm,and,tocompensateforthedecline of thecopramarket-coprahavingbeentheprincipalcashcrop-theextensiveplanting of cocoa.3 02 SiwaiNewGuinea.Thearea,whichis7"Sand155'W,isinthehumidtropicallowlands,almostall of thepopulationlivingbelow 20 0metersabovesealeveLSomeSiwaisnowliveinurbanareasinotherparts of PapuaNewGuinea.Demography.Inprewaryears,theSiwaipopulationwasaround4,500;bythemid-I970sithadgrowntoabout9,000andbythelate1980swasprobablyabout13,000.LinguiticAffiliation.TheSiwai(orMotuna)languageisaNon-Austronesian(Papuan)languagesimilartootherin-landSouthBougainvilleanlanguagessuchasBuin,Nagovisi,andNasioi.TherearetrivialdifferencesinlanguagewithintheSiwaiarea.HistoryandCulturalRelationsLinguistic,archaeological,andmythologicalevidenceindi-catesthatSiwaismigratedtoBougainvillefromNewGuineaandhavelivedinandaroundtheirpresentlocationforatleast 2, 000yearsandprobablyverymuchlonger.TheyhavecloselinguisticrelationswithBuinpeopletothesouthand,toalesserextent,withNagovisipeopletothenorth.Inpre-contacttimescontactwithotherlinguisticgroupswasnotgreat,thoughtherewassomeintermarriage,trade(especiallywiththeAluandMonoislandsintheSolomonIslands),andoccasionalwarfare.Europeanstradedintermittentlyandindi-rectlywiththeSiwaicoastinthelasttwodecades of thenine-teenthcentury,butbeyondsteeltoolstherewasminimaltradeuntilwellintothetwentiethcentury.Aroundtheturn of thecentury,asmallnumber of menworkedondistantplantationsandbroughtbacknewplants;otherswereintro-ducedintheperiod of Germanadministration.Colonialad-ministrationeffectivelyreachedSiwaiafter1919whenanAustralianadministrationpostwassetupontheBuincoast.Intheearly1 920 s,boththeCatholicandMethodistmissionssetupstationsinSiwaiandintheyearsbefore World War11therewasasmallamount of tradeincopra,mostpeoplewereconvertedtoChristianity,monetizationfollowedtheimposi-tion of taxation,andmostadultmenwereemployedforsub-stantialperiodsasplantationlaborers,mainlyontheeastcoast of theisland.Culturalchangewasmorerapidinthepostwaryears:cashcropping,especially of cocoa,becameim-portant;educationbecamealmostuniversalandcontinuedtothetertiarylevel;traditionsweretransformed;amassivecop-permine(Panguna)wasconstructed50kilometersaway,in-troducingnewforms of employment;alienpoliticalinstitu-tionswereintroduced;andSiwaibecamepart of anindependentPapuaNewGuineain1975.SettlementsInprecontacttimesSiwaislivedinsmall,dispersedhamletsscatteredthroughouttheregion.Mostsuchhamletshadbe-tweenoneandtenhousesandwerelocatedonthegardenland of thematrilineage.Thehouseswerebuiltdirectlyontheground.Inthe1 920 stheAustralianadministrationimposedapolicyconsolidatingthescatteredhamletsintoaboutsixtylinevillagesinordertosimplifycontrolandimprovepublichealth.Eachmarriedmanwasrequiredtobuildahouseonpilesandthenewvillageswerelocatedonridges,nearsprings(fordrink-ingwater)andlargestreams(forbathingandsanitation).Manyfamiliesretainedtheirhamlet,orgarden,housesandspentperiods of timeinboth.Followingtheindependence of PapuaNewGuineaandconsiderablepressureonresourcestherehasbeensomemovementawayfromlinevillagestotheoriginalhamletsitesontraditionallyownedland.Inmostvil-lagestherewasatleastonemen'sclubhouse(kaposo),amuchlargerbuildingwheremenmettotalk,beatslitgongs,andor-ganizeandholdfeasts.Acenturyagosomemen'shouseswerewelldecorated.Traditionally,houseshavebeensimplymade of wood,wovenbamboowalls,andsago-leafroofs.Fromthe1970sonwardsomemorepermanenthouseshavebeencon-structed,afewwithelectricalgenerators,watersupplies,orevensolarpower.Villages,andthepopulationasawhole,haveremainedinmuchthesamelocationsinhistorictimes.Newdevelopments,includingmissionstations,schools,andadmin-istrativebuildings,havebeenbuiltoutsidevillagesandhavenotgrownintosettlements.EconomySubisenceandCommercialActivities.TheSiwaihavelongbeenhorticulturalists.Until World WarIIthehorticul-turalsystemwasdominatedineverywaybytamo(Colocasiaesculenta) of whichthereweremorethanfiftydifferentkinds.Otherrootcropssuchasyamsandsweetpotatoeswerealsogrown,alongsidesugarcane,bananas,andvariousgreenvege-tables.Treecrops,includingcoconuts,breadfruit,sago,andalmonds,wereimportant,pigswere of majorsignificance(forexchangeandfeasting),andfishandprawnsweretakenfromsmallstreams.Taroconstitutedabout80percent of thediet.Taroblight(Phytopthoracoiocasiae)wipedouttarointheearly1940sand,despiteconstantattemptstoregeneratetaro,sweetpotatoesnowdominatethehorticulturalsystemastaropreviouslydid.Inthepostwaryears,Siwaisattemptedtowith-drawfromplantationlaborandestablishtheirowncommer.cialagriculturalsystem.Rice,alwaysaprestigiousfood,waswidelygrown;peanuts,corn,andcoffeewerealsotriedbutalack of accesstomarketspreventedcommercialsuccess.Cocoawasintroducedattheend of the1950s.Construction of roadstotheBuincoastinthe1960sandacrossthemoun-tainstotheeastcoastinthe1970senabledcocoamarketingtobecomeincreasinglysuccessful.Afterexperimentswithotherforms of commercialagriculture,mainlycattlefarming,cocoaisnowthesolecommercialcropandisplantedandmarketedbyalmostallhouseholds.Cashincomeisprimarilygeneratedfromcocoasales,vegetablesalesinmarketswithinSiwai,somelocalwageandsalaryemployment,andtheremit-tancesandexpenditure of SiwaisworkingatPangunaandelsewhere.IndustrialArts.FewartifactsarecurrentlyproducedinSiwai.Potterymanufactureeffectivelyendednotlongafter World WarII.Finelywovenbaskets of differentkinds-knownas'Bukabaskets,"thoughalmostallaremadeinSiwai-areproducedonasignificantscalebyseveralvillagehouseholdsandsoldextensivelyinBougainvilleandbeyond.Trade.InthenineteenthcenturytherewasconsiderableprecontacttradeandintermarriagewiththenearbySolomonIslands.Onesignificanttradeditemwasshellmoney,broughtfromMalaitaintheCentralSolomonIslands.TradewithEuropeantradersbeganbeforetheend of thenineteenthcentury,anditincreasedinthe1 920 sand1930s,withmone-tizationandmissionization.EuropeantradelargelyreplacedtradewithotherMelanesians,thoughshellmoneycontinuedtobetradeduntilrecentyears.In1956,aSiwaiRuralProg- 28 6.JL4I6UU3Labsent.Men'sritualcultceremoniescentrallyinvolveflutespirits(female).Otherforms of supernaturalentitiesincludeghosts,forestspirits(male),andnaturesprites.Bogs,forex-ample,areinhabitedbyghostsandsprites.ContemporarymissionactivitiescenterprimarilyonthelocalSeventh-DayAdventistchurch.DailyandSaturdayservicesareheld.Bap-tismsandmarriagesareperformed.MissionizedSambiaarelargelynominalconverts.ReligiousPractitioners.Eachvillagehasatleastonesen-iorritualspecialistwhoofficiatesatinitiation.Shamansarethemainreligiousspecialists,however,theymaybemaleorfemale,thoughtraditionallymalesweremorefrequentandcritical.Theydivine,exorcise,andsorcerize.Theyarebe-lievedtoretrievesouls of thesickthroughmagicalflight.Therearestrongandweakshamans.Shamansorganizeeventsinritualandfuneralceremonies.Ceremonies.Theseasonalcalendarisbasedonacyclicalsense of time,withritualeventsandfeastgardenssynergis-ticwithdryseasonandearlymonsoonperiods(May-September).Arts.Thegreatestdecorativearchitectureistheritualculthouse,whichisnotmaintainedfollowinginitiation.Carvingislimitedtodailyutensilsandweapons.Bodypaintingiselaborateinritualandwarfare.Featherheaddressesareespe-ciallyadmired.TraditionalmusicalinstrumentsincluderitualflutesandbullroarersandtheJew'sharp.Dancingisextensivebutsimpleandispart of allinitiations.Medicine.Illnessisattributedtoghostsandsorcery.Pos-sessionisusuallybelievedtobebyghostsorforestspirits.Localhealingandspellsarecommon.Herbalmedicinesarewidelyused,especiallygingerandlocalsalt.Shamansarethemainhealers.DeathandAfterlife.Funeralsweretraditionallyshallowceremonialevents.Thecorpsewasplacedonaplatformuntilitsboneswereexposed.Theboneswereretainedbydosekinfortheirsorcerypower.Thesoulisbelievedtosurvivedeathandisseenindreams.Thewidowobservesayearortwo of mourning.Todaythecorpseisburied.Anametabooisstillobservedforthedeadforseveralyears.SeealsoForeBibliographyGodelier,Maurice(1986).TheMaking of GreatMen.Cam-bridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Herdt,Gilbert(1981).Guardians of theFlutes.NewYork.McGraw-Hill.Herdt,Gilbert(1987).TheSambia:RitualandGenderinNewGuinea.NewYork:Holt,Rinehart&Winston.Herdt,Gilbert(1989)."SpiritFamiliarsintheReligiousIm-agination of Sambia."InTheReligiousImaginationinNewGuinea,editedbyG.HerdtandM.Stephen,9 9- 121 .NewBrunswick,N.J.:RutgersUniversityPress.Lloyd,RichardG.(1973).'TheAnganLanguageFamily."InTheLinguisticSituationintheGulfDistrictandAdjacentAr-eas,PapuaNewGuinea,editedbyK.Franklin,3 1-1 11.Pa-cificLinguistics,SeriesC.no. 26 .Canberra:AustralianNa-tionalUniversity.GILBERTHERDTSamoaETHNONYMS:TagataSamoaOrientationIdentification.Thereisnogenerallyagreeduponexplana-tion of themeaning of thename'Samoa."AccordingtooneSamoanversion,thenameiscompounded of 'Si,"meaning'tribe,people of, "and"Moa,"whichmeans"chicken,"refer-ringtothe"family" of theTuiManu'a,thehighest-rankingtitleholder of eastern(American)Samoa.Anotherproposalsuggeststhatlinguisticevidencepointstothemeaning of Sa-moaas"people of theoceanordeepsea."Locaio.TheSamoanArchipelago(about3,000squarekilometersinlandarea)liesinwesternPolynesiainthecen-tralPacific,from13°to15'Sto173"W.TheManu'agroup(Ta'u,Ofu,andOlosega),Tutuila,and'Aunu'ucomprisetheTerritory of AmericanSamoa;'Upolu,Manono,Apolima,andSavai'imakeuptheIndependentState of WesternSa-moa.Theislandsare of volcanicorigin.Beyondthecoastalplains,themountainrangesrisesteeplytoamaximum of 1,859metersonSavai'i.Theclimateistropicalwithabun-dantrainfall.Humidityaverages80percent.Theaveragemonthlytemperaturerangesfrom 22 'to30"C.Demography.In1980,theSamoanpopulationwasabout188,000(AmericanSamoa: 32, 000;WesternSamoa:156,000).Inthemiddle of thenineteenthcentury,theaboriginalpopulation of WesternSamoawasestimatedat35,000;theaboriginalpopulation of Tutuilawasestimatedat3,900in1865.TheSamoanIslandsarethehome of thelarg-estconcentration of full-bloodedPolynesiansinthe world. Today,manySamoansliveandworkabroad,mainlyinNewZealand,Australia,Hawaii,andCalifornia.linguisticAffiliation.TheSamoanlanguagebelongstothePolynesianGroup of Austronesianlanguages.Therearenodialects;exceptforminorlocalvariantsthesamelanguageisspokenonalltheSamoanIslands.HistoryandCulturalRelationsSettlement of theFiji-Tonga-SamoaareabypeoplebelongingtotheprehistoricMelanesianLapitaculturetookplacebe-tweenabout1500and1000B.c.Genealogical,mythological,andlinguisticevidencesuggeststhatrelationswithbothTongaandFijiweremaintainedthroughouttheprehistoricperiod,withintermarriageoccurringamongtheupperclassesespecially of theSamoanandTonganpopulation.ThefirstEuropeantosighttheSamoanIslands...

... of relativelyeasyac-cesstonewanddesiredWesterngoods,aswellasareactiontothebreakdown of thetraditionalsociopoliticalandsocio-economicsystems,contributedtothedevelopment of the"MasingaRule"movement(oftentranslatedas"MarchingRule,"butthereisevidencethatmasingameans"brother-hood"inone of Guadalcanal'sdialects).Thisoriginallywasamillenariancultpremisedontheideathatthroughappropri-atebeliefandthecorrectritualpracticethegoodsandlargessexperiencedduringthewaryearscouldsomedaybemadetoreturn.Itbecame,infact,avehiclebywhichtoseek,andby1978tosecure,theindependence of theSolomonIslandsfromBritishcolonialrule.SettlementsKaokaspeakersoccupyfiveautonomousvillages,four of whicharelocatedonthecoast;thefifthisafewmilesinland.Eachvillageismadeup of anumber of hamletsconsisting of acluster of fourtotenhouseholds,eachwithitsowndwellingandassociatedgardens,andintraditionaltimestherewouldalsobethreeshrines,eachdedicatedtospiritbeings.Thereisonlyonebuildingstyle,regardless of thepurpose of thestruc-ture:ahigh-peaked,windowless,thatched-roofaffair,withwallsmade of splitsaplingslashedtogetherwithstrongvinesandanchoredtosoliduprightbeams.Smallstonesandlargershinglefromthebeacharespreadtomaketheflooring.Door-waysareelevatedfromgroundlevel,tokeepvillagepigsfromgainingentry.Eachshrineisdecoratedwiththeskulls of an-cestorsandacarvedpalisade of representations of spiritsissetbeforetheentrance.Because of thelocalclimateandthenature of buildingmaterials,astructureisunlikelytolastmorethanfiveyearsbeforehavingtoberebuilt.EconomyubsstenceandConmerdalActivities.Thepeople of Guadalcanalareslash-and-burnhorticulturalistswhoseprin-cipalcropsareyams,taro,sweetpotatoes,andbananas.Al-thougheveryhead of householdwillraiseaherd of pigs,forcoastalpeoplesthebulk of theday-to-dayproteinintakeissuppliedbyseafood:fishfromtheopensea,aswellascrusta-ceansandshellfishgatheredfromthereefs.Bonitoisagreatdelicacy,butitisunavailableduringtheseason of themon-soonswhenthewindsaretoodangerouslyhighfortheca-noes.Theconsumption of porkisreservedforimportantoc-casionssuchasweddingsorfunerals.Fishingisdonefromplankcanoesorfromtheshore.Whiletherearewildpigsontheisland,huntingisnotoftenindulgedinandcontributesverylittletothehouseholddiet.IndustrialArts.Houseconstructionisthemosttime-consuming of necessarytasks,anditisusuallydonebyaparty of kinsmen;itisnotthework of specialists.Canoebuilding,however,isaspecializedskill,andonlyafewmeninthevil-lageareheldtobefullycapable of it.Thecanoebuilderwilllendhisskillsfreelytofellowclansmen,butheexpectscom-pensationforhisworkintheform of strings of shellmoneyfromanyonenotsorelated.Mostothertoolsusedinday-to-daylivingthataremadelocallyarerelativelysimple:fishinglines,diggingsticks,andthelike.Otheritemsoncemanufac-turedlocally,suchasknives,axes,articles of clothing,andhouseholdutensils,havebeenreplacedbystore-boughtitems of Westernmanufacture.Division of Labor.Menclearandpreparegardensandbuildfences,houses,andcanoes;theyalsofishbothfromtheshoreandatsea.Womengathershellfishandcrustaceansfromthereefsanddomost of theday-to-daytending of thegardens(weeding,harvesting).Plantingisacooperativeef-fortbetweenmenandwomen.Whatlittlehuntingthatoc-cursisdoneentirelybythosefewmenconsideredparticularlyadeptatit.Domesticchoresaretheprovince of women,thoughmanytasks,includingtendingsmallchildren,isoftenpassedalongtoolderdaughters.Interislandtradingexpedi-tionsweretraditionallycarriedoutbygroups of men of thevillage,butwiththeenforcement of colonialinterdictionsagainstraiding,suchtradenolongerrequiresthelargedefen-sivefleets of thepast.Trade.Whileeachhouseholdislargelycapable of securinganadequatesubsistence,therewastradebetweencoastalvil-lagesandpeople of theinterior,aswellasoverseastradewithotherislandsinthevicinity-inparticularwithLangalangaLagoon,onthewestcoast of Malaita,andwithpeople of SanCristobalIslandtothesoutheast.Langalangawasthesource of theshellmoneyusedasacurrencyintradeandforceremo-nialpurposessuchasthepayment of brideprice.Intradeforthesestrings of shelldisks,people of Guadalcanalprovidedsurpluspigsandvegetables.SanCristobalwasaprincipalsource of porpoiseteeth,alsousedascurrencyandinceremo-nialexchange,andGuadalcanalprovidedtobaccoinreturn.Tradewiththeinteriorparts of GuadalcanalIslandinvolved 82 GnauSocialControl.Asystem of taboos,many of themdietary,providestheframeworkforappropriatebehavior.Infractionsmaybepunishedbytheimposition of fines,asinthecase of adultery.Somefear of retributivesorceryalsocontributestosocialcontrol,albeitinanegativesense:awoman'sbrotheristhoughttohavetheritualandmagicalpowernecessarytoin-fluencethehealth-indeed,thelife -of herchildren,andhemightwithholdthatpowershouldthehusband'slineagefailtofulfillitsobligationstothechildorrefusetocooperatewiththewife'skin.Conflict.SeriousconflictsoftenarosebetweenvillagespriortoWesterncontact,andfightingwasconsideredtobeahighlyprestigiousactivity.Exceptfortheprestigeconferredbysuccessinwar,thereseemstohavebeenlittleotherrealbasisforintervillagehostilities:gardenlandandaccesstogamewereplentifulandtherewaslittleelsebyway of interval.lagerelationsthatmighthavegivenrisetofriction.Gnaudidnotrecruitalliesthroughouttheregionforwarfare;rather,fightingwasconductedonastrictlyvillage-against-villagebasis.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief.SpecificlocationswithinGnauterritoryareeachassociatedwithadescent-groupfounder,whoisthoughttohaveleftbehindtheritualknowledgeandpracti-callorenecessarytoproperliving.Theactivities of thesefoundingpersonagesandtheknowledgetheyleftbehindarerecountedinmythsandsongs,whichalsorefertoawidevar-ety of spirits.Thesespiritsareofteninvokedingardenritualandtheirinfluenceisthoughttobenecessarytothesuccess of acrop.ReligiousPractitioners.Allmenlearnrituallorethrough-outtheprocess of theirsocialization.Themother'sbrotheristheritualspecialistcalledinformost of aboy'sinitiations,andeveryadultmalehasgardenmagictoperform.Theabilitytocauseadeaththroughmagicappearstohavebeenspecifi-callylimited;throughthismeansamanisbelievedabletokillhissister'sson.Ceremonies.Villagewideceremoniesaccompanyimpor-tantlife-cycleeventsaswellasmajorundertakingssuchastheerection of anewmen'shouse.Suchoccasionswillinvolvefeasting,song,anddance. Of particularimportanceintradi-tionalGnaulifewastheTambin,themajormaleinitiationriteheldbytheboy'smother'sbrotherandsupportedthroughpayments of wealthandtheprovision of afeastbythefather'slineage.Aparallelriteisheldforgirlsuponattainingpuberty.IntheTambin,anumber of boyswhohavereachedpubertygointoseclusiontogether,duringwhichtimetheyarebledandalsoreceivebloodtakenfromtheirmothers'brothers.Thisbleeding,causedbycuttingthemouthandthepenis,iscentraltoGnaumaleritualandisconsideredtobeabsolutelyessentialforaman'sdevelopment.Itappearstohavenodi-rectparallelintheritualforfemales.Arts.Gnaumaterialcultureappearstobeutilitarianforthemostpart,butornamentalitems of shellandfeathersaremade.Gnausongsareelaborateexpressions of localmythol-ogy.Singingtotheaccompaniment of slitdrumsandritualdanceformimportantelements of anyGnauceremony.Medicine.Illnessisthoughttobelargelytheresult of vio-lations of taboos.Curesarebelievedtobeeffectedthroughtheobservance of dietarytaboos,theuse of herbs,andbloodletting.DeathandAfterlife.Traditionally,whenanindividualdiedtheGnaulaidthecorpseoutonaplatformwhereitwassmokedried;todayintermentispracticed.Thespirits of thedeadarethoughttowatchovertheirdescendantsandmayappeartospeaktotheirsurvivorsindreams.Theirassistanceissoughtthroughspellsandritual.SeealsoWapeBiblographyLewis,Gilbert(1975).Knowledge of illnessinaSepilkSociety:AStudy of theGnau,NewGuinea.London:AthlonePress.Lewis,Gilbert(1980).Day of ShiningRed:AnEssayonUn-derstandingRitual.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.NANCYGRA1rONGogodalaETHNONYMS:Girara,Gogodara,KabidOrientationIdentification.TheGogodalaliveintheWesternProvince of PapuaNewGuinea.Earliernamesforthemwerebasedonmisunderstandings of atermfor'language"or'speech"(girara)orthename of asmallcreek,"Kabiri."ThebasisforthenameGogodalaisnotknown.Location.AfewGogodalavillagesarefoundonthenorthbank of theFlyRiver,butmostarelocatedalongtheAramiaRiver,amajortributary of theBamu.Theregion,atapproxi-mately8°to8°15'Sand1 42 30'to143°15'E,islargelyone of flat,swampyfloodplainwithnumerousmeanderingwater-courses;alternatingmixedwoodlandandgrasslandarepunc-tuatedwithlowhillocksandridgeswheresettlementsareplaced.Duringthewetseason(December-May)about75percent of theannualrainfall of 21 6centimetersoccursandmost of theareaturnsintoavastsea,withcanoesastheonlymeans of mobilityamongthehillocksthatformislandsinit.Birdlifeandwildgame(includingwallabies,cassowaries,andwildpigs,withsomedeerfoundnowadays)areabundant,asaremosquitoes.Demography.Populationestimateshavechangedsome-whatsincesignificantEuropeancontactbeganaftertheturn of thetwentiethcentury,withalow of 5,000proposedin1916andabout7,000Gogodalaspeakerscurrentlyrecognized.linguisticAffiliation.GogodalaisaNon-Austronesianlanguage,theonlyothermember of itsfamilybeingAri-Waruna,whichisunderstoodbutnotspokenbyGogodala.Linkageswithpeoples of theFlyRiverareindicatedbythejoining of GogodalawithSukiasaseparatestockintheGoodenoughIsland87localendogamy,andabout85percent of marriagesarebe-tweenpartnersbelongingtothesamevillage.Marriageissig-naledbythebrideandgroomsharingtheirfirstmealintheboy'sparentalhouse.Thebridelivestherewhileherhus-band'skinworkherhardtotestherendurance;meanwhilethegroomperformsarduousbride-serviceforhisaffines.Ex-changes of game,fish,andcookedfoodlegitimatethemar-riagesoonafterwards,butbride-pricepayments (of apig,afewshellvaluables,andasum of money)arenowadaysde-layedformonthsorevenyears.Theyareeventuallygiventothebride'sunumafordistribution-ifthemarriagesurvivedthestressfulearlyyears.Aboutoneinthreemarriagesendsindivorce:theusualcomplaintsare of neglect,laziness,orinfi-delity.Ifweanedthechildrenremainwiththeirfather,fortheybelongtohisgroup.Remarriageissimple,thoughanewhusbandmustrepaythefirsthusbandhisbride-price.Widowremarriageisamoredelicateaffair,andthenewhusbandmustmakegenerousgiftstothedeadhusband'skintoallayanysuspicion of complicityinhisdeath.Monogamyisthenorm,butafewinstances of polygynyoccurinmostcommu-nitiesdespiteeightyyears of missionarydisapproval of thepractice.DomesticUnit.Thehousehold-thebasiceconomicandcommensalunit-isusuallycomposed of amarriedcoupleandtheirchildren,includinganytheyarefostering.Adoles-cents,widows,andwidowersmayoccupysmallhouses of theirown,thoughtheyusuallyjoinotherhouseholdstoworkandeat.Inheritance.Allproperty(includingmagicandclanpara.phernalia)isinheritedpatrilineally.Certainstatusessuchasexchangepartnershipsandtraditionalenemiesarealsoinher-itedpatrilineally,asareafather'sexchangedebtsandcredits.Aneldestsonnormallyinheritshisfather'slandandtreesanditems of wealthnotdisbursedasdeathpayments.Thispatrimonyshouldbedividedamonghissiblingsaccordingtoneed.Ritualproperty(magicalknowledgeinparticular)ismorejealouslyguardedandlesslikelytobesharedequallyamongbrothers.Ifamaniswithoutcloseagnaticheirshemaychoosetotransmithismagic(aswellashislandorotherproperty)tohissister'ssons,thoughthisisapttocausecon-tentioninthefollowinggeneration.Womencanownland,trees,pigs,andsomeritualproperty,thoughtheircontrolordisposal of themisusuallysubjecttotheapproval of theirclosestmaleagnates.AsinmostMelanesiansocieties,thedispersal of personalwealthatdeathpreventstheaccumula-tion of inheritedwealthwhichcouldbeconvertedintorankorclass.Socialization.Infantsarebreast-fedondemandandweanedfairlyabruptlyatabouttwoyears.Childrenarefre-quentlyhandledbyparents,grandparents,andoldersiblings.Themother'sbrotherisalsoimportantinachild'supbring-ing,andmakesregulargifts of foodwiththeexpectation of beingrepaid(incashearningsorbride-wealth)whenthechildreachesmaturity.Thechildren of ahamletformplaygroups of peers.Fromanearlyagetheyaccompanytheirpar-entstothegardenswheretheyareencouragedtomaketoygardens.Althoughparentsareindulgenttheyreadilystriketheirdisobedientchildren,withanopenhandorwhatevertheyhappentobeholding.Childrenaretaughtearlytocon-troltheirappetites,thoughtheyarepermitted,andevenen.couraged,tochewbetelnutsassoonasthisdesirearises.Tra-ditionallytherewasnoformalinitiation of boysorgirls,thoughnowadaysschoolitselfservestoweakenachild'sbondingtoitsparents.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Thetypicalvillagecommunitycom-prisesseverallocalpatriciansoccupyingoneormoreadjacenthamletsandconsisting of anumber of genealogicallyrankedpatrilineages.Clansarelinkedbymarriageandexchangepartnerships;theremaybefurthercrosscuttingtiesbasedontraditionalenemyrelationships.Thevillageisalsodividedintoceremonial,nonexogamousmoieties,whichformthebasis of areciprocalfeastingcycle,thoughnowadayssuchfes-tivalstendtobepromotedpurelyasmemorialsfordeadleaders.PoliticalOrganiation.Large-scalefeastingisintrinsicallycompetitiveandinthepostcontacteraithasassumedpoliti-calfunctionshithertoassociatedwithlocalwarfareandre-vengecannibalism.Aramifyingsystem of pigandvegetablefooddebtslooselyintegratestheneighboringcommunitiesthatattendoneanother'sfeastsandexchanges.LeadershiponGoodenoughtakesseveralforms.Warriorleaderswereprominenttraditionallyandsometimesbecametyrannicaldespots.Attheclanandhamletlevel,leadersareideallythemostseniormen of theirgroups,buttherearemanyoppor-tunitiesforyoungersonstoachieveprominenceiftheyareproductivegardeners,capableorganizers,andgoodorators.Competitivefoodexchanges,whetherheldbetweenwholevillagesorbetweencontendingclanswithinavillage,areanimportantpoliticalinstitution,onethathasbeenelaboratedgreatlysincepacificationandtheavailability of steeltools.Despitetheegalitarianethos of Goodenoughsociety,therearehints of hierarchyinmanycommunities;e.g.,theposses-sion of ritualmeans of prosperity(andconversely,thecoer-civethreat of famine)makestheleaders of certainclansunu-suallypowerful.Inheavilymissionizedcommunities,how-ever,suchritualvillage"guardians'donotexist,andvillageleaderstheretendalsotobechurchleaders.SocialControl.Traditionallytheredress of wrongswasamatter of self-helpbykingroups.Islandersarestillreluctanttoappealtoexternalauthorities,anditisthelocalgovern-mentcouncillor'stasktoattemptthesettlement of disputesatthevillagelevel.Traditionalsanctionsremaininuse;mostnotablearepublicharangue,ridicule,ostracism,andrevengesorcery.Amongthemostimportantandeffectivesanctionsisfood-giving-to-shame,whichinthepostcontacterahasservedasadramaticmode of conflictresolution.Itdisplaysmanyfeatures of traditionalwarfare;hencetheidiom,'fight-ingwithfood."Conflict.Inthenineteenthcenturysmall-scalewarfareandcannibalismwereendemiconGoodenough.Becausetheultimateindignitytoanenemywastoeathimorher,anesca-latingrevengecyclecouldensuefromasingleact of cannibal-ism.Notalltheclans of acommunitywereenemies of alltheclans of aneighboringcommunity,andrelations of allianceandhostilitycouldcrosscutdistrictboundaries.Theverysizeandcompactness of modemcommunitiesexacerbateminorconflicts,makingGoodenoughpeopleseemfractiousandhy-persensitivetoslight.Foodandwomenremainthesources of Gainj71Read,KennethE.(1954).&apos ;Cultures of theCentralHigh-lands,NewGuinea."SouthwesternJournal of Anthropology10: 1-4 3.Read,KennethE.(1965).TheHighValley.NewYork-CharlesScribner'sSons.Rev.ed.1980.NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress.Read,KennethE.(1986).ReturntotheHighValley:ComingFullCircle.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.TERENCEE.HAYSGamjETHNONYMS:AiomePygmies,Gants,GanzOrientationIdenificatin.Gainjisthenameforapproximately1,500peoplewhodistinguishthemselvesfromtheirculturallysim-ilarneighborsonthebasis of languageandterritorialaffiliation.Location.TheGainjliveintheTakwiValley of theWest-emSchraderRangeinPapuaNewGuinea'sMadangProv-ince.Onthenorthernmostfringe of thecentralhighlands,thevalleycoversapproximately55squarekilometers,cen-teredat144°40'Eand5'14'S.Theareareceivesalmost500centimeters of rainannually,withtheheaviestrainfalloccur.ringfromDecembertoApril.Themeandailytemperature, 22 -2 4 °C,varieslittleacrossseasons.Demography.The1,500Gainjliveinapproximatelytwentywidelydispersedlocalgroups,whichvaryinsizefromabout30to 20 0individuals.Localgroupsareephemeral,withahalf-life of abouttwogenerations;acontinuousprocess of fissionandfusionmaintainsthetotalnumber of groupsatafairlyconstantlevel.Inrecentyears,thepopulationgrowthratehasnotbeensignificantlydifferentfromzero,exceptforabriefperiod of growthfollowingthefirstmajorinfluenzaep-idemicin1969.Populationsizeappearstobemaintainedbylowfertilityanddensity-dependentmortality.Lifeexpectancyatbirthis 29 .0yearsforfemalesand 32. 4yearsformales;in-fantmortalityisabout165per1,000livebirths,withaslightlyhigherrateforfemalesthanformales.inguistcAffiliation.GainjisclassifiedwithKalamandKobonintheKalamFamily of ... donebythewomen,althoughcertaingardentasks(cuttingfencepostsandbuild-ingfences)wereallottedtomen,andcertainplants(sugar-caneandtaro)wereonlygrownbymen.Menhunted,womencollected;menbuilthouses,womenthatched;manmadetoolsandweapons,womenmadeavariety of bags,skirts,andbands of bastandotherfibers;andmenactedasguardsagainstenemyattackwhilewomenworkedinexposedgardens.LandTenure.TheGururumbacompriseeightpatricIansanditisthroughthesethatapersongainsaccesstoland.Eachpatricianisnamedandidentifiedwithaterritorydearlyboundedbymajorridgelinesandwatercourses,andencom-passingallthemajorecologicalzones,fromtherichalluvialsoilsneartheriverthroughthehillygrasslandandintotherainforest.Thefullextent of aclanterritoryisdividedintonamedplots,each of whichhasacharacteristicpotentialforcertainkinds of cropsandresources.Theseplotstendtobeassociatedwithparticularlineageswithinclans,butone of thefunctions of clanleadershipistofacilitateequitabledis-tribution of productiveandlessproductiveplots.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Themostimportantsodalitiesandnetworkswerebasedonkinship,descent,andtheirex-tensionthroughmarriage.ThepatricIanwassuchasodality,markedbyanameandaterritory.Italsohadtwootherim-portantattributesandfunctions:itwasexogamous,andthuscontrolledmarriage;anditwastheorganizingunitfortheidzinano(pigfestival),theclimacticceremonialeventinanim-portantcycle of prestationsregulatingthepoliticaleconomy.Thegenealogies of theseunitsonlyextendedbackoneortwogenerationsbeyondadultlivingmembers,however,andendedwithtwoorthreeimputed'brothers"ratherthanasin-glenamedancestor.Thistype of unitissignifiedbytheboundmorphemejuhu,whichwassaidtoindicate'peoplewhositdowntogether,"thusemphasizingacommonality of placeandpurposemorethangenealogy.Eachpatricianismadeup of threetofivepatrilineagesandtheseareidentifiedwithparticularfoundingmales.Lineagesweresaidtobetoclansasstavesaretoafenceorintermodalsegmentsaretoastalk of bamboo.Again,theimageemphasizesunity of seg-mentsratherthangenealogicalsubordination.Otherimpor-tantdescentrelationshipsarethosebetweenmother'sbrotherandsister'ssonandbetweenmenwhosemothersaresistersorarefromthesameclan,thusgivingamatrilinealbiastoanotherwisepatrilinealsystem.KinshipTerminology.Thekintermsystemischaracter-izedbyOmaha-typecousinterminology,anextension of pa-rentalandsiblingtermstoclanmates,andanelaboration of termsmarkingrelativeageforsiblingsandparentalsiblings of bothsexes.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Marriagesaremostimportantlyarrangementsbetweenclansratherthanindividuals,andresidenceispatri-virilocal.Fromthepoint of view of amaleclanmemberitisimportanttosendone'ssistersanddaughtersaswivestoasmanyotherclansaspossibletoestablishanetwork of reci-procitiesbasedontheobligations of kinshipthatdevelopthroughthejointresponsibilitiesforchildrenproducedbytheseunions.Suchnetworkswereone of themainbases of politicalallianceamongsovereignties.Divorce,then,mostofteninvolvednegotiationbetweenthetwoclansinvolvedratherthanbetweentheindividuals.DomesticUnit.Because of residentialsegregation of thesexes,thedomesticunitwasnotaresidentialunit.Awoman,herunmarrieddaughters,andhersonswhoweretooyoungtobetakenintothemen'shousealllivedtogether.Thefather/husbandvisitedoccasionallyintheirhousebutneversleptthere.Hejoinedthemonanalmostdailybasistoplanandcarryoutvarioustasks,buthespentmost of hisothertimewiththemen'sgroup.Inheritance.Sincemaleshaveultimatecontroloverlandanditsproducts,upondeathclaimstogardenlandwouldre.verttotheclan.Personalmovablepropertymightbeclaimedbythechildren of thedeceased.Socialization.Childrenhaveavariety of caretakersandso-cializingagentsincludingoldersiblings,anyadult of thesamelineage,andpeers.Thelatterareespeciallyimportantaspre-pubescentmalesoftenformtheirowndwellingandeatinggroups.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialandPoliticalOrganization.Thesovereigntytowhichthename"Gururumba"appliesisaphratry:agroup of patriciansoccupyingcontiguousterritoryandhavingasense of commonorigin.Inadditiontheyseethemselvesasapeacegroupandasalliesagainstenemyclansoutsidethephratry.Disputesinternaltothephratryshouldbesettledbymeansotherthankilling,andmembersshouldaidoneanotherifat-tackedbyoutsiders.Thephratrywasalsoanimportantritualunitinthepast.Withintheterritory of eachUpperAsaroValleyphratrytherewasaceremonialstructure(0abirisi)whererenewalritualswereperformedattimeswhentherewasaconsensusamongtheconstituentclansthatdisastroustimeshadbefallenthem.Representatives of all of theclansparticipated.Allphratries of theUpperAsaroValleydevel-opedpatterns of amityandenmitythatshiftedovertimeandcouldresultindevastatingwarfare.Alliancesamongphratrieswerestabilizedandmaintainedthroughacomplex of mar-riagesandlarge-scalefoodandwealthexchanges.Thesewereorganizedby'menwhosenamesareknown'orbig-menwhooccupiedpositions of consensualleadershipinparticularclansprimarilybecausetheywereknowntobeadeptatalliance-buildingthroughmanipulatingmarriagesandmate-rialresourcessuchaspigsandshells.SocialControlandConflict.Asidefrompersonalquar-rels,disputesmightariseoverland,especiallyplotswithhighpotentialforcropssuchastaroandothersimportantinex-changeactivities.Disputescouldbeextendedtoinvolvewholelineages,villages,sibs,orphratries;fighting(nande)Gogodala83Trans-NewGuineaPhylum.Currently,mostGogodalaalsospeakTokPisin,andmanyarefluentinEnglish.HistoryandCulturalRelationsAccordingtooraltraditions,theancestors of theGogodalaarrivedinalargecanoefromthedirection of theFlyRiver,settlingattheAramiaRiveraftermanyyears of wanderingandbeinghappytofindaregionrichinsago,fish,andgame.Physically,socially,andculturallytheysharemanyfeatureswiththepeoples of theTrans-FlyregionandsouthwestNewGuinea.Almostallthatisknown of traditionalGogodalalifeisbasedonreports of governmentofficerswhovisitedthemforbriefperiodsin191 0-1 916andthework of theanthropol-ogistPaulWirz,whoconductedfieldworkamongthemin1930.Missionaries of theUnevangelisedFieldsMission(nowtheAsiaPacificChristianMission)establishedastationinGogodalaterritoryin1934andtwoyearslaterlocalconvertsandnativeevangelists,inconcertwiththemissionaries,wereresponsibleformassdestruction of alltraditionalartandcer-emonialparaphernalia.During World War11thepeoplewereleftontheirown,butintensifiedmissionaryeffortsinthe1950sand1960sresultedindrasticsocialchange,includingthetotalabandonment of traditionallonghousesthemselves.Aculturalrevivalin19 72 culminatedintheerectionanddedication of anewlonghouseastheGogodalaCulturalCentre,establishedasamuseum,aneducationalcenter,andanassertion of culturalidentityatBalimo,thesite of thefirstmissionstation.SettlementsUntilthe1950s,aGogodalavillageconsisted of asinglecom-munallonghouse,elevatedabout 2 metersabovethegroundandsurroundedbygardensmadeontheslopingsides of thechosenhillock,usuallywellinlandfromtheriverbanks.Thesemultistoryfortresseswereupto 20 0meterslong,eachhavingacentralchamberthatextendedthelength of thebuildingandservedasageneralsocialarea.Menenteredthehousefromeitherendandsleptonanelevatedplatformabovethechamber.Womenenteredthehousefromunder-neath,wherepigswerekeptandobjectsstored,andoccupiedcubiclesalongthesides,cookingonalowerfloorandsleepinginanupperstory.Sincethe1960sallGogodalavillageshaveconsisted of rectangularfamilydwellingsmade of splitpalmwithsago-thatchroofsor,increasingly,galvanizedironsheeting.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Apartfromsagoextractionfromtreesinsome of theswampyareas,gardensprovidestaplefoodssuchasyams,taro,cassava,breadfruit,bananas,coconuts,andsugarcane.Recentlyintroducedsweetpotatoes,pumpkins,corn,andcucumbersarealsoplanted.Pipermethysticum,forthemanufacture of kava,wastraditionallycultivatedinspecialmanuredgardenbeds,anditcontinuestobegrownanduseddespiteoppositionfromthemissionaries.Fishing,withnets,traps,andpoison,isanimportantsubsistenceactivity,asishunting,whichyieldsgamerequiredforavariety of socialexchanges.Carvingshaverecentlybecomeamajorsource of cashincome.IndustrialArts.Everydayimplementssuchasbowsandarrows,diggingsticks,canoepaddles,fishingnets,andwickerfishtrapsweremadefromlocallyavailablematerials,aswerethewispygrassapronstraditionallywornbywomenandcoarsefibernetsandbags.Despiteabundantsuitableclayinthearea,nopotterywasmanufacturedorused.Inaregionde-void of naturalstone,theGogodalawere,andremain,re-markablyskilledwood-carvers,intricatelyornamentinghousepostsanddugoutcanoes,some of thelatterbeingupto 12 meterslong.Trade.Priortogovernmentcontrol of theregion,tradingopportunitieswererestricted,ascannibalenemygroupsre-sidedtoboththenorthandsouth of theGogodala;withpaci-fication,however,theGododalatradedEuropeangoodswiththeKiwai of theFlyRiverforstoneadzbladesoriginatingintheTorresStrait.BetweenGogodalavillages,therewasfre-quenttrade of tobacco,bird of paradiseplumes,ornaments,anddaggers,withthevillagesnearesttheseaprovidingshell of variouskinds.Division of Labor.Traditionally,allmenmadetheirownimplementsforeverydayuseandwerealsoresponsibleforconstruction,fellingsagopalms,gardening,andhunting.Women'stasksincludedmakingsago,fishing,cooking,weav-ing,andmakingtwine;also,wildpigletscapturedbymenonhuntingtripsweretendedbywomen.Whileallmenlearnedtoshapewoodatanearlyage,someboyswererecognizedashavingspecialtalentsandwereapprenticedtomastercrafts-menandartistswho,althoughtheireverydayliveswerethesameasthose of others,occupiedadistinctiveplaceinsociety.LandTenure.Alllagoons,patches of forest,andsagoswampsareownedbyclansandsubdividedaccordingtosubclan.Amanmaymakegardensandhuntonthelandassociatedwithhisownclan,andawomanfishesintheareabelongingtoherhusband'sclan,althoughshemaybepermit-tedalsotouseherfather'sclan'sportion of lagoonsandwaterways.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Descentisreckonedpatriline-allyandGogodalasocietyiscomposed of eightexogamous,totemicclans,each of whichhasitsownceremonialcanoemarkedwithitstotemicinsignia.Apersontraditionallywasallowedtoeattheprimarytotems of hisorhermother'sclanandthose of unrelatedindividuals,butnotthat of hisorherownclan.Clansaredividedintosubclansbutalsounitedintomoieties,each of whichincludesfourclans.KinshipTerminology.Win'saccount of Gogodalakin-shipisincomplete,butitappearsthattherewasaverystrongtendencytowardsgenerationalterms,withallwomenintheparentalgenerationcalledbythesametermandfather'sbrotherequatedwithmother'sbrother(butnotfather);sexesweredistinguished,butotherwiseone'sownchildrenwerecalledbythesametermsasone'sbrother'sorsister'schildren;inone'sowngeneration,elderandyoungersiblingsweredis-tinguishedanditislikelythatthesetermswereextendedtocousinsinaHawaiian-typesystem.86GoodenoughIslandenoughwasdividedintomorethanthirtygeographical'dis-tricts,"eachcontainingoneormorevillages.Certaindistrictswerelooselyaffiliatedthroughcommondialectandadegree of intermarriage.Throughoutthe1 920 s,governmentofficersencouragedmountaincommunitiestoresettleatmoreacces-siblelocationsnearthecoast.Manycommunitiesamalga-mated.Thepresent-daysuccessors of thedistrictsaretwenty-threecensusgroupsor"wards" of thelocalgovernmentcouncil.Thepopulation of thesevillagecommunitiesaver-ages500.Thehouses of ahamletclusteraroundoneormorecircularsittingplatformsconstructed of stoneslabs,impor-tantsymbols of descent-groupcontinuity.Hamletsaresur-roundedbyfruittrees:coconut,areca(betelnut),mango,breadfruit,andnativechestnut.Housesarerectangularstruc-turesbuiltonpilesandwithgabledroofs;theyusuallycontaintwoorthreesmallrooms,includingakitchen.Therearetwomainhousestyles:awarm,boxlikestructurewithpandanus-leafwalls,whichisfavoredbythehillcommunities;andacoolercoastalstylewithwalls of sago-leafmidrib.Bothtypeshaveblack-palmfloorsandroofs of sago-leafthatch.Economy.SubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Gardeningisthemaineconomicactivity.Yamsaretheprincipalcropandtheirswiddencultivationdominatesthecalendar.Taroisaclosesecondinimportance,andbananas(plantains)third.Magicisusedtoensurethegrowth of thesecropsandcoco-nuts.Othercrops(many of recentintroduction)includesweetpotatoes,manioc,sugarcane,sago,arrowroot,pump-kins,pawpaws,maize,andbeans.Reeffishingandhuntingforpigsandwallabiesweremoreimportanttraditionallythantheyaretodaysincereefsandbushhavebeendepleted.Man-grovecrabs,freshwatereels,wildpigs,birds,cuscus,andothersmallgamearestillcaught,butthemainsource of proteinre-mainsdomesticatedpigsandfowls(insomevillagesdogsarealsoeaten).Copraistheonlysignificantcashcrop,buttrans-portandmarketingfacilitiesarepoor.Since1900migrantworkershaveearnedmoneyabroadandremittedasharetokin.Wagelaborbecameamandatoryrite of passageforyoungmen,andtosomeextentitremainsso,thoughmanyyoungislanders(includingwomen)nowworkintownsasclerksandminorpublicservants.IndustrialArts.Traditionaltechnologyincludedpol-ished-stoneaxheads,obsidianandbambooknives,black-palmspearsandclubs,single-outriggercanoes,woodenfish-hooksanddiggingsticks,twinenetsforhuntingandfishing,andfightingslings.Wovencraftsincludedpandanus-leafsleepingmatsandcoconut-leafbaskets.Exceptforcanoes,huntingnets,andpottery,craftspecializationwasminimal.Trade.Largelyself-sufficientinresourcesandperipheraltothemainMassimtraderoutes,theisland'stradelinkswerenotextensive.Canoetechnologywascomparativelypoor,andonlyafewcommunitiesmadeseagoingvessels.Mostvil-lagesreliedonvisitingtradersfromwesternFergusson,theAmphlettIslands,KaileunaintheTrobriands,orWedauandCapeVogelonthemainland.Amongthecommoditiesex-changedwereaxblades,claypots,pigs,yamsandtaro,sago,betelnuts,armshellsandnecklaces,noseshells,beks,limegourds,baskets,anddecoratedcombs.Thewaresfromthepot-makingvillagesinthenorthdidnotcirculateaswidelyasdidthose of theAmphletts.Therewasalsoaninstitution of interdistrictceremonialvisiting,undertakenonfootorbynewlycompletedcanoes,tosolicitgifts of pigs,yams,andshellvaluablesfromhereditarytradepartners.Thegiftsre-ceivedhadtobepassedontoathirdparty,andideallyeachexpeditionwasreciprocated.Thisceremonialexchangehasobviousaffinitieswiththat of thekula.Division of Labor.Husbandandwifecooperateingarden-ingafterthecommunalclearing of newplots.Clearingisdonebymen,thoughwomenhelptoplantandharvestcropsandperformmost of theregularweeding.Mostdomestictasksaredonebywomen,includingcooking,washing,fetch-ingwater,childcare,andpigrearing;womenalsogathershellfish.Menbuildhouses,fishandhunt,butcherpigs,andcookinlargepotsonceremonialoccasions.Bothsexescutandcarryfirewood.LandTenure.Theclearingandplanting of virginforestestablishesagroup'srightstothatlandinperpetuity.Gardenandresidentiallandisinheritedpatrilineallyandisintheoryinalienable.Thereisahierarchy of corporatelandrightswithintheclan,thoughthesiblingsetisoperationallythemostimportantland-owningunit,andsonsinheritlandandfruittreesdirectlyfromtheirfathers.Althoughadaughterin-heritslandandtreestoo,sheismorelikelytouseherhus-band's.Herchildrenmayuseherlandonlyiftheirfatherpaysapigtoherbrothers.Insomecommunitiesplots of landmaybetransferredfollowingadeath,asaform of paymenttonon-agnaticburiers.Suchlandmaybereclaimedinthefutureafterthetrueownershaveperformedareciprocalburialserv-ice.Thesedevicesallowedanequitabledistribution of gardenlandbetweengroups,thoughinrecentgenerationstheplant-ing of coconutsasacashcrop ... of relativelyeasyac-cesstonewanddesiredWesterngoods,aswellasareactiontothebreakdown of thetraditionalsociopoliticalandsocio-economicsystems,contributedtothedevelopment of the"MasingaRule"movement(oftentranslatedas"MarchingRule,"butthereisevidencethatmasingameans"brother-hood"inone of Guadalcanal'sdialects).Thisoriginallywasamillenariancultpremisedontheideathatthroughappropri-atebeliefandthecorrectritualpracticethegoodsandlargessexperiencedduringthewaryearscouldsomedaybemadetoreturn.Itbecame,infact,avehiclebywhichtoseek,andby1978tosecure,theindependence of theSolomonIslandsfromBritishcolonialrule.SettlementsKaokaspeakersoccupyfiveautonomousvillages,four of whicharelocatedonthecoast;thefifthisafewmilesinland.Eachvillageismadeup of anumber of hamletsconsisting of acluster of fourtotenhouseholds,eachwithitsowndwellingandassociatedgardens,andintraditionaltimestherewouldalsobethreeshrines,eachdedicatedtospiritbeings.Thereisonlyonebuildingstyle,regardless of thepurpose of thestruc-ture:ahigh-peaked,windowless,thatched-roofaffair,withwallsmade of splitsaplingslashedtogetherwithstrongvinesandanchoredtosoliduprightbeams.Smallstonesandlargershinglefromthebeacharespreadtomaketheflooring.Door-waysareelevatedfromgroundlevel,tokeepvillagepigsfromgainingentry.Eachshrineisdecoratedwiththeskulls of an-cestorsandacarvedpalisade of representations of spiritsissetbeforetheentrance.Because of thelocalclimateandthenature of buildingmaterials,astructureisunlikelytolastmorethanfiveyearsbeforehavingtoberebuilt.EconomyubsstenceandConmerdalActivities.Thepeople of Guadalcanalareslash-and-burnhorticulturalistswhoseprin-cipalcropsareyams,taro,sweetpotatoes,andbananas.Al-thougheveryhead of householdwillraiseaherd of pigs,forcoastalpeoplesthebulk of theday-to-dayproteinintakeissuppliedbyseafood:fishfromtheopensea,aswellascrusta-ceansandshellfishgatheredfromthereefs.Bonitoisagreatdelicacy,butitisunavailableduringtheseason of themon-soonswhenthewindsaretoodangerouslyhighfortheca-noes.Theconsumption of porkisreservedforimportantoc-casionssuchasweddingsorfunerals.Fishingisdonefromplankcanoesorfromtheshore.Whiletherearewildpigsontheisland,huntingisnotoftenindulgedinandcontributesverylittletothehouseholddiet.IndustrialArts.Houseconstructionisthemosttime-consuming of necessarytasks,anditisusuallydonebyaparty of kinsmen;itisnotthework of specialists.Canoebuilding,however,isaspecializedskill,andonlyafewmeninthevil-lageareheldtobefullycapable of it.Thecanoebuilderwilllendhisskillsfreelytofellowclansmen,butheexpectscom-pensationforhisworkintheform of strings of shellmoneyfromanyonenotsorelated.Mostothertoolsusedinday-to-daylivingthataremadelocallyarerelativelysimple:fishinglines,diggingsticks,andthelike.Otheritemsoncemanufac-turedlocally,suchasknives,axes,articles of clothing,andhouseholdutensils,havebeenreplacedbystore-boughtitems of Westernmanufacture.Division of Labor.Menclearandpreparegardensandbuildfences,houses,andcanoes;theyalsofishbothfromtheshoreandatsea.Womengathershellfishandcrustaceansfromthereefsanddomost of theday-to-daytending of thegardens(weeding,harvesting).Plantingisacooperativeef-fortbetweenmenandwomen.Whatlittlehuntingthatoc-cursisdoneentirelybythosefewmenconsideredparticularlyadeptatit.Domesticchoresaretheprovince of women,thoughmanytasks,includingtendingsmallchildren,isoftenpassedalongtoolderdaughters.Interislandtradingexpedi-tionsweretraditionallycarriedoutbygroups of men of thevillage,butwiththeenforcement of colonialinterdictionsagainstraiding,suchtradenolongerrequiresthelargedefen-sivefleets of thepast.Trade.Whileeachhouseholdislargelycapable of securinganadequatesubsistence,therewastradebetweencoastalvil-lagesandpeople of theinterior,aswellasoverseastradewithotherislandsinthevicinity-inparticularwithLangalangaLagoon,onthewestcoast of Malaita,andwithpeople of SanCristobalIslandtothesoutheast.Langalangawasthesource of theshellmoneyusedasacurrencyintradeandforceremo-nialpurposessuchasthepayment of brideprice.Intradeforthesestrings of shelldisks,people of Guadalcanalprovidedsurpluspigsandvegetables.SanCristobalwasaprincipalsource of porpoiseteeth,alsousedascurrencyandinceremo-nialexchange,andGuadalcanalprovidedtobaccoinreturn.Tradewiththeinteriorparts of GuadalcanalIslandinvolved 82 GnauSocialControl.Asystem of taboos,many of themdietary,providestheframeworkforappropriatebehavior.Infractionsmaybepunishedbytheimposition of fines,asinthecase of adultery.Somefear of retributivesorceryalsocontributestosocialcontrol,albeitinanegativesense:awoman'sbrotheristhoughttohavetheritualandmagicalpowernecessarytoin-fluencethehealth-indeed,thelife -of herchildren,andhemightwithholdthatpowershouldthehusband'slineagefailtofulfillitsobligationstothechildorrefusetocooperatewiththewife'skin.Conflict.SeriousconflictsoftenarosebetweenvillagespriortoWesterncontact,andfightingwasconsideredtobeahighlyprestigiousactivity.Exceptfortheprestigeconferredbysuccessinwar,thereseemstohavebeenlittleotherrealbasisforintervillagehostilities:gardenlandandaccesstogamewereplentifulandtherewaslittleelsebyway of interval.lagerelationsthatmighthavegivenrisetofriction.Gnaudidnotrecruitalliesthroughouttheregionforwarfare;rather,fightingwasconductedonastrictlyvillage-against-villagebasis.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief.SpecificlocationswithinGnauterritoryareeachassociatedwithadescent-groupfounder,whoisthoughttohaveleftbehindtheritualknowledgeandpracti-callorenecessarytoproperliving.Theactivities of thesefoundingpersonagesandtheknowledgetheyleftbehindarerecountedinmythsandsongs,whichalsorefertoawidevar-ety of spirits.Thesespiritsareofteninvokedingardenritualandtheirinfluenceisthoughttobenecessarytothesuccess of acrop.ReligiousPractitioners.Allmenlearnrituallorethrough-outtheprocess of theirsocialization.Themother'sbrotheristheritualspecialistcalledinformost of aboy'sinitiations,andeveryadultmalehasgardenmagictoperform.Theabilitytocauseadeaththroughmagicappearstohavebeenspecifi-callylimited;throughthismeansamanisbelievedabletokillhissister'sson.Ceremonies.Villagewideceremoniesaccompanyimpor-tantlife-cycleeventsaswellasmajorundertakingssuchastheerection of anewmen'shouse.Suchoccasionswillinvolvefeasting,song,anddance. Of particularimportanceintradi-tionalGnaulifewastheTambin,themajormaleinitiationriteheldbytheboy'smother'sbrotherandsupportedthroughpayments of wealthandtheprovision of afeastbythefather'slineage.Aparallelriteisheldforgirlsuponattainingpuberty.IntheTambin,anumber of boyswhohavereachedpubertygointoseclusiontogether,duringwhichtimetheyarebledandalsoreceivebloodtakenfromtheirmothers'brothers.Thisbleeding,causedbycuttingthemouthandthepenis,iscentraltoGnaumaleritualandisconsideredtobeabsolutelyessentialforaman'sdevelopment.Itappearstohavenodi-rectparallelintheritualforfemales.Arts.Gnaumaterialcultureappearstobeutilitarianforthemostpart,butornamentalitems of shellandfeathersaremade.Gnausongsareelaborateexpressions of localmythol-ogy.Singingtotheaccompaniment of slitdrumsandritualdanceformimportantelements of anyGnauceremony.Medicine.Illnessisthoughttobelargelytheresult of vio-lations of taboos.Curesarebelievedtobeeffectedthroughtheobservance of dietarytaboos,theuse of herbs,andbloodletting.DeathandAfterlife.Traditionally,whenanindividualdiedtheGnaulaidthecorpseoutonaplatformwhereitwassmokedried;todayintermentispracticed.Thespirits of thedeadarethoughttowatchovertheirdescendantsandmayappeartospeaktotheirsurvivorsindreams.Theirassistanceissoughtthroughspellsandritual.SeealsoWapeBiblographyLewis,Gilbert(1975).Knowledge of illnessinaSepilkSociety:AStudy of theGnau,NewGuinea.London:AthlonePress.Lewis,Gilbert(1980).Day of ShiningRed:AnEssayonUn-derstandingRitual.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.NANCYGRA1rONGogodalaETHNONYMS:Girara,Gogodara,KabidOrientationIdentification.TheGogodalaliveintheWesternProvince of PapuaNewGuinea.Earliernamesforthemwerebasedonmisunderstandings of atermfor'language"or'speech"(girara)orthename of asmallcreek,"Kabiri."ThebasisforthenameGogodalaisnotknown.Location.AfewGogodalavillagesarefoundonthenorthbank of theFlyRiver,butmostarelocatedalongtheAramiaRiver,amajortributary of theBamu.Theregion,atapproxi-mately8°to8°15'Sand1 42 30'to143°15'E,islargelyone of flat,swampyfloodplainwithnumerousmeanderingwater-courses;alternatingmixedwoodlandandgrasslandarepunc-tuatedwithlowhillocksandridgeswheresettlementsareplaced.Duringthewetseason(December-May)about75percent of theannualrainfall of 21 6centimetersoccursandmost of theareaturnsintoavastsea,withcanoesastheonlymeans of mobilityamongthehillocksthatformislandsinit.Birdlifeandwildgame(includingwallabies,cassowaries,andwildpigs,withsomedeerfoundnowadays)areabundant,asaremosquitoes.Demography.Populationestimateshavechangedsome-whatsincesignificantEuropeancontactbeganaftertheturn of thetwentiethcentury,withalow of 5,000proposedin1916andabout7,000Gogodalaspeakerscurrentlyrecognized.linguisticAffiliation.GogodalaisaNon-Austronesianlanguage,theonlyothermember of itsfamilybeingAri-Waruna,whichisunderstoodbutnotspokenbyGogodala.Linkageswithpeoples of theFlyRiverareindicatedbythejoining of GogodalawithSukiasaseparatestockintheGoodenoughIsland87localendogamy,andabout85percent of marriagesarebe-tweenpartnersbelongingtothesamevillage.Marriageissig-naledbythebrideandgroomsharingtheirfirstmealintheboy'sparentalhouse.Thebridelivestherewhileherhus-band'skinworkherhardtotestherendurance;meanwhilethegroomperformsarduousbride-serviceforhisaffines.Ex-changes of game,fish,andcookedfoodlegitimatethemar-riagesoonafterwards,butbride-pricepayments (of apig,afewshellvaluables,andasum of money)arenowadaysde-layedformonthsorevenyears.Theyareeventuallygiventothebride'sunumafordistribution-ifthemarriagesurvivedthestressfulearlyyears.Aboutoneinthreemarriagesendsindivorce:theusualcomplaintsare of neglect,laziness,orinfi-delity.Ifweanedthechildrenremainwiththeirfather,fortheybelongtohisgroup.Remarriageissimple,thoughanewhusbandmustrepaythefirsthusbandhisbride-price.Widowremarriageisamoredelicateaffair,andthenewhusbandmustmakegenerousgiftstothedeadhusband'skintoallayanysuspicion of complicityinhisdeath.Monogamyisthenorm,butafewinstances of polygynyoccurinmostcommu-nitiesdespiteeightyyears of missionarydisapproval of thepractice.DomesticUnit.Thehousehold-thebasiceconomicandcommensalunit-isusuallycomposed of amarriedcoupleandtheirchildren,includinganytheyarefostering.Adoles-cents,widows,andwidowersmayoccupysmallhouses of theirown,thoughtheyusuallyjoinotherhouseholdstoworkandeat.Inheritance.Allproperty(includingmagicandclanpara.phernalia)isinheritedpatrilineally.Certainstatusessuchasexchangepartnershipsandtraditionalenemiesarealsoinher-itedpatrilineally,asareafather'sexchangedebtsandcredits.Aneldestsonnormallyinheritshisfather'slandandtreesanditems of wealthnotdisbursedasdeathpayments.Thispatrimonyshouldbedividedamonghissiblingsaccordingtoneed.Ritualproperty(magicalknowledgeinparticular)ismorejealouslyguardedandlesslikelytobesharedequallyamongbrothers.Ifamaniswithoutcloseagnaticheirshemaychoosetotransmithismagic(aswellashislandorotherproperty)tohissister'ssons,thoughthisisapttocausecon-tentioninthefollowinggeneration.Womencanownland,trees,pigs,andsomeritualproperty,thoughtheircontrolordisposal of themisusuallysubjecttotheapproval of theirclosestmaleagnates.AsinmostMelanesiansocieties,thedispersal of personalwealthatdeathpreventstheaccumula-tion of inheritedwealthwhichcouldbeconvertedintorankorclass.Socialization.Infantsarebreast-fedondemandandweanedfairlyabruptlyatabouttwoyears.Childrenarefre-quentlyhandledbyparents,grandparents,andoldersiblings.Themother'sbrotherisalsoimportantinachild'supbring-ing,andmakesregulargifts of foodwiththeexpectation of beingrepaid(incashearningsorbride-wealth)whenthechildreachesmaturity.Thechildren of ahamletformplaygroups of peers.Fromanearlyagetheyaccompanytheirpar-entstothegardenswheretheyareencouragedtomaketoygardens.Althoughparentsareindulgenttheyreadilystriketheirdisobedientchildren,withanopenhandorwhatevertheyhappentobeholding.Childrenaretaughtearlytocon-troltheirappetites,thoughtheyarepermitted,andevenen.couraged,tochewbetelnutsassoonasthisdesirearises.Tra-ditionallytherewasnoformalinitiation of boysorgirls,thoughnowadaysschoolitselfservestoweakenachild'sbondingtoitsparents.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Thetypicalvillagecommunitycom-prisesseverallocalpatriciansoccupyingoneormoreadjacenthamletsandconsisting of anumber of genealogicallyrankedpatrilineages.Clansarelinkedbymarriageandexchangepartnerships;theremaybefurthercrosscuttingtiesbasedontraditionalenemyrelationships.Thevillageisalsodividedintoceremonial,nonexogamousmoieties,whichformthebasis of areciprocalfeastingcycle,thoughnowadayssuchfes-tivalstendtobepromotedpurelyasmemorialsfordeadleaders.PoliticalOrganiation.Large-scalefeastingisintrinsicallycompetitiveandinthepostcontacteraithasassumedpoliti-calfunctionshithertoassociatedwithlocalwarfareandre-vengecannibalism.Aramifyingsystem of pigandvegetablefooddebtslooselyintegratestheneighboringcommunitiesthatattendoneanother'sfeastsandexchanges.LeadershiponGoodenoughtakesseveralforms.Warriorleaderswereprominenttraditionallyandsometimesbecametyrannicaldespots.Attheclanandhamletlevel,leadersareideallythemostseniormen of theirgroups,buttherearemanyoppor-tunitiesforyoungersonstoachieveprominenceiftheyareproductivegardeners,capableorganizers,andgoodorators.Competitivefoodexchanges,whetherheldbetweenwholevillagesorbetweencontendingclanswithinavillage,areanimportantpoliticalinstitution,onethathasbeenelaboratedgreatlysincepacificationandtheavailability of steeltools.Despitetheegalitarianethos of Goodenoughsociety,therearehints of hierarchyinmanycommunities;e.g.,theposses-sion of ritualmeans of prosperity(andconversely,thecoer-civethreat of famine)makestheleaders of certainclansunu-suallypowerful.Inheavilymissionizedcommunities,how-ever,suchritualvillage"guardians'donotexist,andvillageleaderstheretendalsotobechurchleaders.SocialControl.Traditionallytheredress of wrongswasamatter of self-helpbykingroups.Islandersarestillreluctanttoappealtoexternalauthorities,anditisthelocalgovern-mentcouncillor'stasktoattemptthesettlement of disputesatthevillagelevel.Traditionalsanctionsremaininuse;mostnotablearepublicharangue,ridicule,ostracism,andrevengesorcery.Amongthemostimportantandeffectivesanctionsisfood-giving-to-shame,whichinthepostcontacterahasservedasadramaticmode of conflictresolution.Itdisplaysmanyfeatures of traditionalwarfare;hencetheidiom,'fight-ingwithfood."Conflict.Inthenineteenthcenturysmall-scalewarfareandcannibalismwereendemiconGoodenough.Becausetheultimateindignitytoanenemywastoeathimorher,anesca-latingrevengecyclecouldensuefromasingleact of cannibal-ism.Notalltheclans of acommunitywereenemies of alltheclans of aneighboringcommunity,andrelations of allianceandhostilitycouldcrosscutdistrictboundaries.Theverysizeandcompactness of modemcommunitiesexacerbateminorconflicts,makingGoodenoughpeopleseemfractiousandhy-persensitivetoslight.Foodandwomenremainthesources of Gainj71Read,KennethE.(1954).&apos ;Cultures of theCentralHigh-lands,NewGuinea."SouthwesternJournal of Anthropology10: 1-4 3.Read,KennethE.(1965).TheHighValley.NewYork-CharlesScribner'sSons.Rev.ed.1980.NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress.Read,KennethE.(1986).ReturntotheHighValley:ComingFullCircle.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.TERENCEE.HAYSGamjETHNONYMS:AiomePygmies,Gants,GanzOrientationIdenificatin.Gainjisthenameforapproximately1,500peoplewhodistinguishthemselvesfromtheirculturallysim-ilarneighborsonthebasis of languageandterritorialaffiliation.Location.TheGainjliveintheTakwiValley of theWest-emSchraderRangeinPapuaNewGuinea'sMadangProv-ince.Onthenorthernmostfringe of thecentralhighlands,thevalleycoversapproximately55squarekilometers,cen-teredat144°40'Eand5'14'S.Theareareceivesalmost500centimeters of rainannually,withtheheaviestrainfalloccur.ringfromDecembertoApril.Themeandailytemperature, 22 -2 4 °C,varieslittleacrossseasons.Demography.The1,500Gainjliveinapproximatelytwentywidelydispersedlocalgroups,whichvaryinsizefromabout30to 20 0individuals.Localgroupsareephemeral,withahalf-life of abouttwogenerations;acontinuousprocess of fissionandfusionmaintainsthetotalnumber of groupsatafairlyconstantlevel.Inrecentyears,thepopulationgrowthratehasnotbeensignificantlydifferentfromzero,exceptforabriefperiod of growthfollowingthefirstmajorinfluenzaep-idemicin1969.Populationsizeappearstobemaintainedbylowfertilityanddensity-dependentmortality.Lifeexpectancyatbirthis 29 .0yearsforfemalesand 32. 4yearsformales;in-fantmortalityisabout165per1,000livebirths,withaslightlyhigherrateforfemalesthanformales.inguistcAffiliation.GainjisclassifiedwithKalamandKobonintheKalamFamilyof...