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M = the money supply P = price level Y= aggregate output (income) P x Y = aggregate nominal income (nominal GDP) V= velocity of money (average number of times per year that a dollar is spent) Velocity fairly constant in short run Aggregate output at full-employment level Changes in money supply affect only the price level Movement in the price level results solely from change in the quantity of money
Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 21 - 1 Chapter 21 The Demand for Money Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 21 - 2 Velocity of Money and Equation of Exchange M = the money supply P = price level Y= aggregate output (income) P x Y = aggregate nominal income (nominal GDP) V= velocity of money (average number of times per year that a dollar is spent) M PxY V = Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 21 - 3 Quantity Theory of Money • Velocity fairly constant in short run • Aggregate output at full-employment level • Changes in money supply affect only the price level • Movement in the price level results solely from change in the quantity of money Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 21 - 4 Quantity Theory of Money Demand Divide both sides by V M= (1/V) x PY When the money market is in equilibrium M = M d Let k = 1/V M d = k x PY • Because k is constant, the level of transactions generated by a fixed level of PY determines the quantity of M d • The demand for money is not affected by interest rates Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 21 - 5 Is Velocity a Constant? Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 21 - 6 Keynes’s Liquidity Preference Theory • Transactions Motive – Positively related to income • Precautionary Motive – Positively related to income • Speculative Motive – Negatively related to interest rate • Distinguishes between real and nominal quantities of money Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 21 - 7 The Three Motives I ),( 1 M P Rewriting ),( d Yif Y if P M d = = + − ),( Yif Y M PY V == Multiple both sides by Y and replace Md with M Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 21 - 8 The Three Motives II • Pro-cyclical movements in interest rates should induce pro-cyclical movements in velocity • Velocity will change as expectations about future nominal levels of interest rates change Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 21 - 9 Transactions Demand • Baumol – Tobin approach theorized money balances held for transactions purposes are sensitive to interest rates • There is an opportunity cost and benefit to holding money • The transaction component of the demand for money is negatively related to the level of interest rates Further Developments in the Keynesian Approach Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 21 - 10 Cash Balances in the Baumol-Tobin Model [...]... Variables in the Money Demand Function • Permanent income (average long-run income) is stable, the demand for money will not fluctuate much with business cycle movements • Wealth can be held in bonds, equity and goods; incentives for holding these are represented by the expected return on each of these assets relative to the expected return on money • The expected return on money is influenced by: – The services... the primary determinant of money demand Md/P = f( Yp) • Velocity of money is predictable since relationship between Y and Yp is predictable V = Y/ f( Yp) Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc 21 - 16 Empirical Evidence on the Demand for Money • Interest rates and money demand – Consistent evidence of the interest sensitivity of the demand for money – Little evidence of liquidity trap • Stability of money. ..Precautionary Demand • Similar to transactions demand • As interest rates rise, the opportunity cost of holding precautionary balances rises • The precautionary demand for money is negatively related to interest rates Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc 21 - 11 Speculative Demand • Keynes’s speculative demand motive implied very little diversification – People held wealth as either money or bonds... deposits – The interest payment on money balances Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc 21 - 14 Differences Between Keynes’s and Friedman’s Model I • Friedman – Includes alternative assets to money – Viewed money and goods as substitutes – The expected return on money is not constant; however, rb – rm does stay constant as interest rates rise – Interest rates have little effect on the demand for money Copyright... partial explanations developed further – Risk averse people will diversify – Did not explain why money is held as a store of wealth Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc 21 - 12 Friedman’s Modern Quantity Theory of Money Md/P = f( Yp , rb - rm , re - rm , πe - rm ) where: Md/P = demand for real money balances Yp = permanent income (measure of wealth) rm = expected return on money rb = expected return on... interest sensitivity of the demand for money – Little evidence of liquidity trap • Stability of money demand – Prior to 1970, evidence strongly supported stability of the money demand function – Since 1973, instability of the money demand function has caused velocity to be harder to predict • Implications for how monetary policy should be conducted Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc 21 - 17