Other Phrases Indicating Cause and Effect Sentences that show cause to the left of the verb and effect to the right of the verb contain verbs such as the following: cause, lead to, result in, produce, and contribute to. Smoking causes cancer. Driving a car in salt water or on a salty street can result in rust. Sentences that show the result to the left of the verb and the cause to the right contain verb phrases such as the following: be due to, result from, be caused by, and stem from. Cancer results from smoking. This problem stems from their lack of preparation. Other words that show cause and effect include therefore, consequently, as a result, and thus. Marjorie didn’t receive a response to her application; consequently, she ap- plied for another job. Causatives Causative verbs are used to indicate that one person causes a second person to do something. A person can cause somebody to do something for him or her by pay- ing, asking, or forcing the other person. The common causative verbs are have, get, and make, and each is explained in detail in the following sections. Have and Get Have and get both imply that the person who performs the task does so voluntar- ily. (The word make, discussed in the next section, is a stronger expression of force.) The clause that follows have or get may be active or passive. 50 Part III: Detailed Review of Items Tested For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org Chuck had Maria complete the forms. This active sentence means that Maria completed the forms because Chuck caused her to do so (either by asking or telling her to do so). Chuck got Maria to complete the forms. Chuck got the forms completed by Maria. Chuck had the forms completed by Maria. These sentences mean the same thing, but the first sentence is active while the second and third sentences are passive. The judge will have the bailiff locate the parties. The judge will have the parties located by the bailiff. In both cases, the judge arranged for the bailiff to locate the parties. But again, the first sentence in this example is active while the second sentence is passive. Make Make can only be followed by a clause in the active voice. The verb make is stronger than the verbs have or get; it means force. The thief made the man hand him the wallet. The police officer will make the prisoners empty their pockets. Words that Sound Alike There’s no sense in studying lists of words that sound like other words as you pre- pare for the TOEFL test. In fact, confusion of vowel and consonant sounds varies depending on your native language. People from some language backgrounds may confuse the sounds p and b, while people from other backgrounds won’t have that problem. Likewise, others may experience difficulties with the sounds of i and e, such as in the words feel and fill. Although you should not try to memorize lists of words that sound alike, you should pay attention to the sounds that are similar as you learn and experience English. 51 Listening For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org Sample Man: Did Holly complete the forms required for the university? Woman: She wasn’t feeling well, but she said she would fill them out tonight. Q. Narrator: What does the woman say about Holly? A. She has already completed the forms. B. She doesn’t feel like completing the forms. C. She intends to complete the forms. D. She feels like she should refuse to complete the forms. The answer is C, “She intends to complete the forms.” Don’t confuse the words feel and fill. You may also run into homophones, which are words that sound identical to other words but are spelled differently and have different meanings. For example, a few homophones are: beat and beet; great and grate; whole and hole. Remember: Don’t spend your study time creating lists of homophones. Your chances of seeing one particular word on a TOEFL test are slim. However, make sure that you pay attention to words that look and sound alike when you read and listen to English. If you aren’t certain of a word’s exact meaning in a particular sentence, look it up in the dictionary. Or, if you’re listening to a conversation and aren’t sure which word a speaker is using, ask that person to explain. Idioms and Idiomatic Expressions Sometimes, when words are used together, the combination of words has a mean- ing different from the meaning of each individual word. We use the terms idiom or idiomatic expression to identify those word combinations. Just like studying lists of words that sound alike, it makes little sense to study lists of idiomatic expressions as you prepare for the TOEFL test. You learn the mean- ing of idioms by exposing yourself to English as often as possible. Some id- iomatic expressions are used by people of certain ages or in certain geographical areas but not by other people. You’ll likely come across some such expressions in all sections of the TOEFL test, so be sure to pay attention to them during your studies of English. 52 Part III: Detailed Review of Items Tested For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org Sample Man: Should somebody deliver the papers to the Dean’s office? Woman: Don’t look at me. Q. Narrator: What does the woman mean? A. She doesn’t intend to take the papers to the Dean’s office. B. She saw the papers. C. She went to the office. D. She will take the papers to the Dean. The answer is A, “She doesn’t intend to take the papers to the Dean’s office.” The expression Don’t look at me doesn’t mean that anyone is looking at the speaker with their eyes. Don’t look at me is an idiomatic expression that means, “I’m not going to do it.” Problem Items Certain words and phrases are frequently confused by students because of gram- mar or usage that is unique, or because they are so similar to other English words. No Sooner Although the phrase the sooner often appears in double comparative sentences (explained earlier in this chapter), no sooner has a different usage. If the expres- sion no sooner appears at the beginning of a sentence, an auxiliary appears imme- diately after it, and the word than introduces the second clause. The auxiliary is a form of the verb do, have, or be used along with a main verb, like the have in have made. The phrase no sooner means the same as “just as soon as.” No sooner had the rain started than it stopped. This sentence means the same as, “Just as soon as the rain started, it stopped.” Remember, Stop, and Forget Certain words are followed by the infinitive or a verb + ing. The words remember, stop, and forget can be followed by either, with a difference in meaning. Georgia remembered to call her doctor. This sentence means that Georgia remembered it was necessary to call her doctor, and she called him. 53 Listening For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org Georgia remembered calling her doctor. This sentence means that Georgia remembered that she had called her doctor in the past. Georgia forgot to call her doctor. This sentence means she was supposed to call her doctor but didn’t because she forgot. Georgia forgot calling her doctor. This sentence means that she called her doctor and subsequently forgot that she had done so. Henry stopped to work. A sentence like this implies that we know Henry was doing something else, and he stopped doing that other thing in order to start working. Henry stopped working. This means that Henry had been working, but he stopped. Let and Help The words let and help are similar to causative verbs (described earlier in this chapter), but they create a different meaning than the verbs have, get, or make. Let means allow. Help means assist. The professor let the students leave early. This means that the professor allowed the students to leave early. We should let her make her own decision. This means that we should allow her to make her own decision. Ann Marie helped her daughter write the essay. This means that Ann Marie assisted her daughter in writing the essay. Used To and Be Used To The phrases used to and be used to have different meanings. The basic difference between used to and be used to is that used to involves a past custom or habit and be used to involves a current custom or habit. The following examples show the difference in meaning. 54 Part III: Detailed Review of Items Tested For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org Belinda used to swim every day. This sentence means that in the past, Belinda swam every day. Belinda is used to swimming every day. This means that Belinda is currently accustomed to swimming every day. Be used to can also be used for a past idea by changing the verb be to past tense. Belinda was used to swimming every day. However, the phrase be used to can also have a second meaning, as the following example illustrates. A fork is used to pierce food and carry it to the mouth. This sentence means that the purpose of a fork is to pierce food and carry it to the mouth. Would Rather Would rather is a commonly used idiom that means prefer. Bill would rather fly directly to Indianapolis instead of stopping in Atlanta. This means that Bill prefers flying directly to Indianapolis instead of stopping in Atlanta. Henry would rather have gone to New York than to St. Louis. This means that Henry went to St. Louis, but he wanted to go to New York. James would rather not eat at that restaurant. This sentence means that James prefers not to eat at that restaurant. The phrase would rather that sets up a conjunctive idea when followed by either the simple form of a verb or the past tense. A conjunctive is a sentence in which one person wishes or requires another to do something, and the sentence structure “. . . that . . .verb in simple form” is used. This concept is covered more fully in the Structure section. Would rather that is followed by the simple form when it has a subjunctive meaning. She would rather that you call her tomorrow. This means that she wants you to call tomorrow instead of some other time. We would rather that he take this class. This sentence means that we want him to take this class. 55 Listening For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org Would rather that is followed by the past tense when the meaning of the sentence is contrary to fact, such as with unreal conditions and the verb wish. Rafael would rather that his paper were complete. This means that Rafael wishes his paper were complete, but it’s not complete. When the verb that follows would rather that is in the past tense instead of in sim- ple form, you know that the sentence is discussing a situation that did not occur, or a “past contrary to fact” concept. Michelle would rather that Sheila had come to work yesterday. This means that Michelle is unhappy because Sheila didn’t come to work yesterday. Phrasal Verbs Phrasal verbs, also known as verbal idioms, are idiomatic expressions that begin with a verb and contain one or more prepositions. As with idioms, memorizing lists of these particular expressions as you study is not important. Generally, pay- ing attention to them as you become more familiar with the English language is much more important. Samples Man: Why is the president so angry? Woman: The chairmen of the two companies broke off discussions regard- ing the proposed merger. Q. Narrator: What does the woman mean? A. The companies are negotiating the merger. B. One chairman broke his word. C. The chairmen discontinued discussing a merger. D. One company revoked its merger agreement. The answer is C. The phrasal verb break off means to “discontinue.” 56 Part III: Detailed Review of Items Tested For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org Woman: Are Stephen and Brenda still planning to change majors? Man: Brenda has decided to, but Stephen is still looking into his options. Q. Narrator: What does the man mean? A. Brenda hasn’t decided whether to change majors. B. Stephen is investigating the alternatives. C. Brenda isn’t going to change her major. D. Stephen is looking for a list of options. The answer is B. The phrasal verb looking into does not mean that Stephen is physically looking at something. The phrase indicates that Stephen is considering his choices. Following are a few other common phrasal verbs, definitions, and sample sentences: ■ Bring up means “initiate.” The attorneys for the developer are likely to bring up some new defenses. ■ Call on means “ask,” and it can also mean “visit.” The constitutional law professor enjoyed calling on students in class. The banker is required to call on several customers every week. ■ Care for means “like,” and it can also mean “take care of.” The boy does not care for beets. She earned extra money last year caring for several young children. ■ Check out means “to remove or borrow temporarily,” and it can also mean “investigate.” Please check out the file from central records. The detective is still trying to check out all possible leads. ■ Come down with means “become ill with.” If you don’t take a flu shot, you’re likely to come down with the flu. ■ Count on means “depend on” or “rely on.” You should not count on receiving the scholarship. ■ Do away with means “eliminate.” Because of the increasing cost of gasoline, some companies have done away with reimbursement of travel expenses. 57 Listening For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org ■ Figure out means “interpret or understand.” We are trying to figure out the annual budget. ■ Find out means “discover.” The scientists are trying to find out why the Mars explorer was lost. ■ Pass out (or hand out) means “distribute,” and it can also mean to faint or lose consciousness. The attorney passed out documents. The attorney passed out and fell to the floor. ■ Pick out means “select” or “choose.” Please pick out a book to read. ■ Point out means “indicate.” The victim pointed out the culprit. ■ Put off means “postpone.” Don’t put off till tomorrow what you can do today. ■ Take over means “substitute.” The co-pilot had to take over when the pilot suffered chest pains. ■ Talk over means “discuss.” The men talked over their dinner plans. ■ Try out means “test.” A company must try out a new product before introducing it. ■ Turn in means “submit.” Please turn in your application. Idioms of Suggestion Frequently, Listening section questions on the TOEFL test involve suggestions and invitations. The questions may ask you something such as, “What does the woman suggest that the man do?” To successfully answer these types of ques- tions, you should become familiar with idiomatic expressions that are used when someone suggests something to another person. 58 Part III: Detailed Review of Items Tested For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org Sample Man: I don’t have enough time to finish the research for my paper. Woman: Why not try outlining what you have now? Q. Narrator: What does the woman suggest that the man do? A. Finish his research B. Start planning the writing before finishing the research C. Give up on the project D. Don’t use research The answer is B. Common idiomatic expressions that are used to show a suggestion include: ■ Why not . . . ? ■ You’d be better off . . . ■ Why don’t you . . .? ■ If I were you, I would . . . ■ Have you considered . . .? ■ You should . . . ■ You might want to . . . ■ Shouldn’t you . . .? ■ (Maybe) you could . . . ■ What about . . .? ■ Try . . . ■ How about . . .? ■ You’d better . . . ■ What if you . . .? Commands and Indirect Commands You also need to be familiar with commands and indirect commands for the Listening section of the TOEFL test. A command is a sentence that begins with a verb in simple form. In command sentences, the subject you is understood but not stated. Close the door. Please, turn off the light. Negative commands generally use the word don’t (or the phrase do not) before the verb. Don’t close the door. Please, don’t turn off the light. 59 Listening For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org . locate the parties. The judge will have the parties located by the bailiff. In both cases, the judge arranged for the bailiff to locate the parties. But. study time creating lists of homophones. Your chances of seeing one particular word on a TOEFL test are slim. However, make sure that you pay attention to