Transcripts 647 blood flowing into your stomach slows down. Your muscles tighten up, ready for action. This is why, after consuming a big cup of coffee, you feel excited. You can feel your heartbeat increasing. You’re ready to do something, go somewhere, run, play, fight, conquer the world or else start STUDYING to get ready for the next test! Skill C 01 Science W: We use microscopes to help us study cells. Because cells are so small, we can’t see them without magnification --- um, the ability to make them look bigger. The first microscopes were called light microscopes. They were pretty simple devices. They were also simple to use. Scientists first cut the cells, or specimens, into thin sections. Then they stained the specimens with different colored materials, called dyes. The dyes helped them see the specimens more clearly. Unfortunately, dyes often killed the cells, too. That limited what scientists could find out about the specimen. In recent years, we have developed more powerful microscopes. These help us view living specimens. One of these new microscopes is called the phase-contrast microscope. It’s made in such a way that part of the light passing through it moves more slowly than the rest of the light. We say this part of the light is “out of phase” with the rest of the light. This enables scientists to see differences in living specimens as light and shade. Another type of new microscope is the electron microscope. This uses electrons to form images, instead of light. Electrons travel in waves, similar to light, but their wavelengths are over 100,000 times shorter than those of light. Therefore, they can give much clearer magnification. Electron microscopes even allow scientists to take pictures of the cells they are studying! 02 Campus Life W: Hey Frank. If you could be any person in the world, who would you be? M: That’s easy. Bill Gates! W: Why? M: I’ll give you 30 billion reasons. Ha, ha. W: Ah, so it’s the money. M: Not totally. But the money is nice. I was reading that if you made all of Gates’ money one-dollar bills, and then laid them end-to- end, the line would stretch for almost six million kilometers. W: Wow! But what would you do with all that money? M: Gates gives a lot to the poor. He’s donated almost seven-and- a-half billion since the year 2000. I’d give away even more. W: Really? M: Sure! It costs about $240 a year to feed a starving child. So, Bill could save almost 121 million children. W: Hmm .why else do you like Gates? M: I admire his confidence. Did you know he earned a scholarship to Harvard, but left after two years to start Microsoft? That took courage! 03History M: So, you’ve heard of the Gettysburg Address. But do you know the story behind it? The worst battle of the American Civil War was fought in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The Northern Army fought back the Southern Army. The battle lasted three days. Afterward, the field was left covered with bodies of dead soldiers. In November 1863, President Abraham Lincoln came to Gettysburg. He was to speak at the opening of the cemetery there. Music played and soldiers saluted. Edward Everett, governor of Massachusetts, talked first for almost two hours. Then Lincoln stood up. He looked out over the valley. Then, he began to speak. He said they couldn’t do anything to make this place special. He said that the soldiers who had fought so hard had already done that. He said that everyone would soon forget what was spoken that day, but he said that what the soldiers did would never be forgotten. He said everyone should keep doing what these soldiers began. They should keep fighting for freedom for all the people. Then, they could make sure the soldiers didn’t die needlessly. The president’s speech only lasted two minutes! Everyone cheered and then left. Lincoln turned to Edward Everett. He said he thought he should have planned his speech better. Edward Everett didn’t agree. He said, “It was perfect. You said more in two minutes than I did in two hours.” Afterward, the newspapers said it was a great speech. And, as you know, Americans still remember it today. 04 Phys. Ed. W: Some people are surprised to know that walking is very good exercise. It seems very easy, but it does us a lot of good. It cleans the blood, tones up muscles, and strengthens bones. It even helps people lose weight. One study showed that fast walking keeps your heart healthy. Men who walked fast were 50 percent less likely to have heart disease. You don’t need much equipment to do it, and almost anyone, anywhere, at any time, can do it. It’s not difficult to plan walks into your day. You can walk to work, to catch a train, or to a park. You can walk to shops or enjoy walks in the country. It’s a great way to spend time with family and friends. People have some of their best conversations while walking. It’s best to do some stretches before and after you walk. Take short quick steps, stand straight, and take deep breaths. For basic health, it’s good to walk most days of the week. Walk for 20 to 30 minutes or more at a “talking pace.” To lose weight, walk for 30 to 45 minutes or more. Walk as many days as you can. Walk fast enough so that you finish slightly out of breath. To make your heart stronger, walk quickly for 20 minutes or more. If you can, walk where there are some small hills. Walk two or three times a week. Go as fast as you can, but enjoy yourself. Exercise should never be painful. 05 Campus Life W: Josh, what are you doing tonight? M: I have a biology class. What are you doing? W: Well, my friend’s sorority is having a party, but I don’t want to walk by myself in the dark. M: Why don’t you use Campus Escort? W: What’s that? M: Campus Escort is a free service that gives students rides. Other students drive you to the place you’re going. 648 Transcripts W: Really? It’s free? M: Yep. Just call 874-SAFE and tell them what time you would like to be picked up. W: But .will they escort me back home? M: Sure. There’s a car that will take you from your dorm room to the party, then back to your dorm. It runs 5 p.m. to 1 a.m. And there’s a small van that picks students up each hour at the student center and the mall. It runs from 6 p.m. to midnight. W: What if I want to stay later? M: Call campus police for a free escort: 874-2121. 06 General Studies M: All right. Saturday’s the big day. Are you ready? Yes, Susan? W: Tests make me nervous. What can I do? M: Good question. It’s natural to be a little nervous before a test. The important thing is: don’t panic. You’ve studied hard for this test. You can pass it. Be confident! Relax! Now, you’re more likely to be relaxed if you are well prepared. Here are some tips. First, before you leave home, check to make sure you have everything you need. You should have your admission ticket. This was mailed to you last week. You should have two number-two pencils and a good eraser. You should have identification --- your student ID card, a driver’s license, or a passport. If you’re taking the math portion of the test, you should have a calculator. Second, know what you can’t bring to the test. You cannot bring a watch with a loud alarm. You cannot bring any food or drink. You cannot bring extra paper to write on. You cannot bring any books, notes, or dictionaries. You cannot bring compasses, rulers, protractors, or other aids --- except for the calculator. You cannot bring colored pens, pencils, or highlighters. You cannot bring cell phones or pagers. You cannot bring any portable tape recorders, walkmans, or headphones. Questions? W: Um .what if I uh, have to go to the bathroom during the test? M: You can’t. So go before! Don’t worry, there will be breaks after each section of the test. You’ll be able to go then. Chapter 2 S kill R eview A-C 01 Campus Life M: All right. Here’s your student ID card. You’ll need to show this at every meal, or each time you buy something at a campus dining hall. W: Really? Hmm. That’s different than my old school. M: Yes, I imagine it is. We have a unique system here. Do you know about our meal plans? W: Meal plans? Uh, no. M: There are several different plans. You can choose to buy 9, 12, 15, or 18 meals each week. It depends on your schedule and eating habits. W: I see. Um, what if I buy the 15-meal plan and only eat 13 meals that week? Will I get 17 the next week? M: No, meals do not carry over into the next week. That’s why it’s important that you choose your meal plan carefully. W: What if I want to treat my friend? Can I use two meals at one time? M: Sorry, no. Only one meal each meal period. If you want to treat a friend, you can use your declining balance points. W: My what? M: Declining balance points. They work like an ATM card. At the dining halls, you use the points like cash. You can buy food, snacks, or meals. Then the points are withdrawn from your declining balance account. All of our meal plans offer these points. W: Um, OK. What happens when I run out of declining balance points? M: You can buy more points at any time. Just go to the One Card office on the North Campus. We will bill your home through the Student Accounts office. 02 Geography W: We usually think of deserts as hot, dry, sandy places. And many deserts are. But actually, deserts come in several forms. Let’s learn about some of them. In defining a desert, we have to consider two factors. The first is the annual amount of rainfall. Deserts get less than 250 millimeters of rain or snow each year. The second factor is how much of that rain or snow evaporates --- that is, goes back into the atmosphere or is used up by plants. We call this loss of water “evaporation.” Simply stated, a desert is a place where evaporation is greater than rainfall or snowfall. Because so much water evaporates, most deserts are hot. But not all. The North and South poles, for instance, are cold deserts. They get less than 250 millimeters of snow each year, and the ground is permanently frozen. We also classify deserts by their location and main weather pattern. One example is trade wind deserts. Trade wind deserts are located between 30 degrees and 35 degrees north and south of the equator. The winds that blow over these areas are very strong. They blow away clouds, so more sun reaches the ground. Most of the major deserts in the world lie in the areas crossed by the trade winds. The Sahara Desert, in North Africa, is a trade wind desert. Temperatures there can reach 57 degrees Celsius. Another type of desert is the rain shadow desert. Rain shadow deserts lie next to tall mountains. As clouds rise over the mountains, they spill all of their rain or snow before they get to the other side. So, these deserts are formed in the “shadow” of the mountains. The Judean Desert in Israel is a rain shadow desert. So is a large part of the western United States called the Great Basin. Still another kind of desert is the coastal desert. Coastal deserts are on the western edges, or coasts, of continents. One coastal desert, the Atacama Desert of South America, is Earth’s driest desert. In the Atacama, there can be measurable rainfall only once every 50 years. 03Business Writing M: Today, I’d like to give you some basic rules for writing a resumé. Let’s begin with spelling. Don’t use words you don’t know. Use a dictionary. Seems like a lot of trouble to get up, find a dictionary, and look up the word. But if you’re on the computer, you can look up words online. Do a spell check, but then read every word carefully. The spell check can’t catch every mistake. If you use “form” instead of “from,” it won’t catch it. So, use a spell check, but read everything yourself, too. And read carefully. If you read quickly, it’s easy to miss words that are misspelled. Have a friend read your resumé, too. Transcripts 649 Another thing, choose your words carefully. Some words sound alike but don’t mean the same thing, like these: personal means private, personnel means staff members. And use active tense like “directed staff” rather than passive tense like “was staff director.” The active tense gives a stronger feeling. Now, about grammar. In each part of your resumé, keep the same tense. The duties you do now should be in the present tense. Things you did in the past should be in the past tense. For example, let’s say you started your job several years ago in September. You might write on your resumé “September 2003 to present, manage office and staff,” or “teach at Canyon High School.” That means, “I manage” or “I teach” now. But if you’re listing a job you don’t have anymore “taught at Canyon High School” instead of “teach at Canyon High School.” Don’t give your sex, age, race, or marital status. How much money you made before is also personal information. Make your resumé look nice. Make it as simple as you can, too. Leave plenty of space, but try to make it just one page. Use a font like Times Roman that’s easy to read. Put your name, address, and telephone number on it and any letters. Use a good printer and print on only one side of white paper. Your resumé speaks for you. A professional-looking resumé tells an employer that you do things well. An employer may decide to see you or not because of it. 0 4 Economics W: Our world is so rich! All the people together make more than $31 trillion a year. In some countries, many people make more than $40,000 a year. But in other countries, many people make less than $700 a year. Of these, 1.2 billion earn less than $1.00 a day. Because of this, 33,000 children die every day in these poorer countries. Each minute, more than one woman dies in childbirth. Being poor keeps more than 100 million children out of school. Most of them are girls. Helping the poorer countries is a very big task --- especially because more people are born every year. In fifty years, there will be about 3 billion more people. The World Bank is a bridge between the rich and poor people. It’s making rich-country money into poor-country growth. It is one of the world’s biggest banks for poor countries. It’s helping them build schools and health centers, and get water and electricity. It’s helping protect the people’s surroundings. The low-income countries can’t usually borrow money in world markets. If they do, they have to pay very high interest rates. The World Bank gives them some money, low-interest loans, and interest-free credit. It helps them take care of the money, too. When the countries get loans, they have 35---40 years to pay them back. They can have ten extra years if they need it. In the year 2002, the bank agreed to give about $15 billion to low-income countries. For some of the poorest countries, AIDS is a very big problem. Some of this World Bank money is to help them fight this disease. If they don’t receive help, many more people will get the illness. The World Bank is not like other banks. It’s really a part of the United Nations. One hundred and eighty-four countries belong to it. These countries all put money into it and help maintain it. About 10,000 people work in World Bank offices. They are from nearly every country in the world. Its headquarters is in Washington, DC. But there are World Bank offices in 109 countries. Skill D 01 Campus Life W: Hi Tony! Where are you headed? M: Hey, Mary. I’m going to the campus gym to lift weights. Want to come? Um, there’s an aerobics class at 5 o’clock. W: Uh, no thanks. I’ve got to study for my chemistry mid-term. Maybe next time. How often do you go? M: I try to go three times a week. When I study, I sit too much. I don’t feel good unless my body gets some exercise, not just my mind. W: Do you usually just lift weights? M: No. I lift to get stronger. Then, I run on the treadmill to help my heart and lungs. Then, I jump rope or do aerobics to improve my balance and coordination. W: Wow! I wish I had that much discipline. M: Start slowly and do a little more each day. W: Thanks for the advice. Well, have fun. Maybe I’ll go next week. M: Bye! Good luck on your mid-term. 02 Physical Science W: Rocks wear down and break apart due to a process called weathering. There are two main types of weathering: mechanical and chemical. Mechanical weathering involves the disintegration, or destruction, of rocks by mechanical processes. These include the freezing and thawing of water in the crevices --- uh, holes and cracks --- of rocks. Also, the roots of plants can cause rocks to break apart. The tiny, hair-like roots grow into small cracks in rocks. Then, as the roots get bigger, the roots crack the rocks. Animals are also responsible for mechanical weathering. They burrow, or dig, into the rocks and the dirt around the rocks. Mechanical weathering is especially common in high altitudes, where it’s so cold that freezing and thawing happen every day. It’s also common in deserts, where there is little water and few plants. Chemical weathering involves the decomposition of rock by chemical changes or solution. This includes the processes of oxidation, carbonation, and hydration. For example, many iron minerals found in rocks are rapidly oxidized, meaning they can quickly turn to rust. It sounds funny, but rocks can rust or oxidize. Then, there is carbonation. Limestone is a rock that does this. Limestone is a type of rock that is dissolved by water, which contains carbonic acid. We’ll go into more detail about that reaction later. Anyway, chemical weathering takes place in warm, wet conditions. In general, chemical weathering is more common than mechanical weathering, although they usually act together. 03 Campus Life M: I just don’t get it! W: Get what? M: Professor Johnson’s biology lecture. I took notes, but I don’t understand them. W: You should go to a review session. M: A review session? W: Yeah. A review session is a discussion that’s led by a student who has already taken the class. They review the professor’s lecture and the homework assignments for each week. Then, they answer questions. M: It sounds like an extra class. 650 Transcripts W: You don’t have to go, but if you’re having trouble, a review session will help you a lot. I went to one last year when I had Professor Johnson’s class. M: Yeah? How did you do? W: I got an A-minus. M: Hmm. When is the review session? W: Let’s see . You have your choice. You can go Monday from 5 to 6 p.m., or Tuesday from 3 to 4. M: I’ve got economics on Tuesday. I guess I could go Monday. W: It’s up to you. M: I’ll think about it. 04 Business M: Advertisements. They’re everywhere. You can’t hide from them. There’s no escape. Turn on the TV. There they are. Turn on the radio. There they are. Waiting for an elevator? There they are. Using your computer? There they are. Looking out your car window? Ahhhhhh! Ads, ads, ads! Aren’t you getting tired of them? W: Yes! Especially on my computer and on TV. I wish there weren’t so many of them. M: Well, would you believe you’ve actually seen more ads than you think? You’ve also been watching secret ads. Instead of regular ads, today we are seeing lots more of something called product placement. Product placement is like an ad that’s not an ad. It’s an advertisement in disguise. For example, how many of you have seen the movie Cast Away, with Tom Hanks? Mmmm, most of you. Which company does Toms Hanks work for at the start of the movie? W: Fed Ex. M: Bingo! That’s a product placement. Fed Ex --- short for Federal Express --- got more publicity from that movie than it could have with hundreds of traditional ads. In another movie, The Firm, the main character drank a beer from Jamaica called Red Stripe. In the movie’s first week, sales of Red Stripe increased 50 percent. Product placement used to be limited to movies. Now, we see it on TV shows, video games, even in books. It’s an effective technique. But companies have to be careful. They want their products to be visible within a scene, but not the focus of attention. When done correctly, product placement can add a sense of realism to a movie or television show that something like a bottle simply marked “beer” cannot. 05 Music M: Today we’re going to learn about a kind of song called a ballad. A ballad is a song that tells a story. Usually, the story in a ballad is one that began with oral tradition. Parents passed it down to their children from generation to generation. Ballads are often sung in rhyme, like a poem. Unlike a poem, though, ballads do not use a lot of explanation. The words are usually simple, clear, and easy to read. There is not much emotion. And the motives of characters --- that is, why they do something --- is not usually told. One famous ballad from the 1800s is called “Shenandoah.” Um, S-H-E-N-A-N-D-O-A-H. It tells the story of a white man who was in love with an American Indian woman. She lived near the Missouri River, one of the two largest rivers in the United States. Listen to part of the song: The white man loved an Indian maiden Away, you rolling river With notions his canoe was laden Away, I’m bound away Cross the wide Missouri O Shenandoah, I love your daughter Away, you rolling river For her I’ve crossed the rolling water Away, I’m bound away Cross the wide Missouri Notice the dialog in the second verse. The white man tells his lover’s father: “Oh Shenandoah, I love your daughter .for her I’ve crossed the rolling river.” Such dialog is typical of ballads. So, we have three characteristics of ballads so far. One, they tell a story. Two, they come from oral tradition. Three, they repeat simple words and use dialog. 06 Earth Science M: Trade winds are a pattern of wind found in regions near the Earth’s equator. Do you remember what the equator is? W: The imaginary circle around the middle of the Earth that divides the planet into the northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere. M: Very good! Now, in the old days, sailors used to sail their boats back and forth across the equator on their way to trade things with other nations. They depended on the wind to get them there quickly. Hence the name, trade winds. The trade winds begin in regions called the Horse Latitudes. These are regions between 30 degrees and 35 degrees north and south of the equator. The winds in the Horse Latitudes are light, and the weather there is hot and dry. Because of the light winds, trading ships would become stalled in the Horse Latitudes. Sailors were worried about running out of water, so they threw their horses into the sea. This way, they could drink the water meant for the horses. It also made their boats lighter, so they could go faster. The trade winds blow from the Horse Latitudes toward the equator. In the Northern Hemisphere, they blow from the northeast and are called the Northeast Trade Winds. In the Southern Hemisphere, they blow from the southeast and are called the Southeast Trade Winds. The trade winds between about 30 degrees latitude and the equator are steady and blow about 22 to 24 kilometers per hour. They can quickly propel ships across the ocean. Skill E 01 Campus Life M: Excuse me. I’d like to buy a bicycle permit please. W: That will be four dollars. M: Here you are. And the permit will let me park my bike anywhere on campus? W: Yes. M: How long is the permit valid for? W: It’s valid for the next four years. OK, now I need your bicycle serial number. M: My serial number? Just a minute. Ah, here it is. A7-10023. W: All right. Next, I need some identification with your address on it. M: My address? Um, oh yeah. I have my driver’s license. W: Sure, your driver’s license will be fine .all right. Last but not least, you need to fill out this bicycle registration card. Then Transcripts 651 we’ll give you your permit. M: Here you are. W: Thank you. Now, you need to make sure this permit is in plain sight on your bicycle. Attach it to the main frame, on the center post below the seat. If we can’t see it, you will have to pay a fine. M: No problem. Thanks. 02 Art W1: Today, we’re going to see how much you know about china. M1: It’s got the Great Wall. W2: And rice. M2: And chopsticks! W1: No, not that China. Yes, China is a country. But there’s another china-the kind you eat off of. This china is a fancy type of porcelain. Porcelain is a material used to make plates, cups, and bowls. When people get married in America, one of the oldest customs is for the bride and groom to choose which type of china they want for their new home. There are four main processes in creating china. These are clay making, mold making, glazing, and decorating. In the clay-making process, five ingredients are mixed together with water and shaped into tubes. These tubes are called pugs: P-U-G-S. In the mold-making process, plaster is poured into metal molds to make production molds. These production molds are then used to shape the pugs into plates, cups, and bowls. Next, comes the glazing process. Glaze is like liquid glass. When it’s heated, glaze forms a protective shell around each piece of china. Glaze is incredibly strong. A store in Canada once showed how strong china is by using four teacups to support a race car! Can you picture that---a heavy car with only one small cup under each wheel? After glazing, the china is ready for decorating. Here, artists use 85 patterns and 400 different shapes to make the china look beautiful. Then, it’s ready to be sold. 03 Campus Life M: I’d like to check out this book, please. W: May I please see your student ID card? M: I’m sorry, ma’am, it’s been stolen. It was in my wallet, which was stolen. W: I’m not allowed to check out any books for you without it. M: Oh, that’s great! What should I do now? W: You can download the form for a new student ID card from the computer. Fill it out and take it over to the Student Center. Actually, they can also give you the form there. M: Thanks. I don’t think I’ll bother. Doesn’t it cost $10.00? W: It does. You might just want to do it, though. You won’t be allowed to sit for exams without it. M: All right, I guess I’ll have to. I suppose they’ll want a passport photo too. W: Yes, and a copy of your identification --- driver’s license or passport. M: All right, I’ll go over there. Thanks ma’am. W: You’ll be glad to have it. Good luck! 04 Health M: Let’s begin our study of Vitamin D. It’s something we must have. Among other things, it helps our bodies use the important min- eral, calcium. Calcium makes our bones strong. It also helps our nerves and muscles work the way they should. Let’s open our textbooks to page 63. I’d like you to take a look at these pictures. As you can see, these children don’t look well at all. The bones in their heads haven’t come together as they should. That’s why their heads are too big. Their legs curve out. The bones are too soft to stand on. These children didn’t get enough Vitamin D. Happily, we don’t see this too often any more. Vitamin D is not in most of the foods we eat. We get it mostly from the sun. Ultraviolet rays from the sun transform something in our skin. It becomes what’s called previtamin D3. Inside our bodies, it changes again. It becomes what’s called active vitamin D. With active vitamin D, our bones can make enough calcium to stay hard. Active vitamin D helps us have enough calcium for our nerves too. This helps us feel calm and sleep well. Today, many people need to have stronger bones. Many older people’s bones, especially, break far too easily. One main reason why is that people don’t get nearly enough sunlight. We close windows to stay warm in the winter. In summer, we close windows for air conditioning. But we really need time in the sunshine almost every day. 05 Computer Science W: I did a search on Google yesterday. It was amazing. I typed in “horses” and hit the search button. In less than a second, it showed me more than 32 million websites related to horses. Do you ever wonder how computers can think so fast? Well, I did another Google search, and I found out. Computer chips are based on something called Boolean logic. This is a type of thinking developed in the mid-1800s by George Boole --- B-O-O-L-E. Boolean logic maps information into bits and bytes. It begins with seven electronic pathways, called gates. The simplest gate is called a NOT gate. The NOT gate takes one bit of input, which we’ll label A, and produces an output, which we’ll label Q, that is exactly opposite. So, if input, A, is one, the output, Q, will be zero. If A is zero, Q will be one. Simple. Next is the AND gate. The idea behind an AND gate is this: if there are two bits of input, say, A and B, and if A and B are both the same, then the output, called Q, should be the same. After the NOT gate and the AND gate comes the OR gate. Its basic idea is, “If A or B is one, or if both A and B are one, then Q is also one.” The next two gates are called NAND and NOR. These two gates are simply combinations of an AND or an OR gate with a NOT gate. Now, next comes 06 Biology M: Let’s begin. Last week, we learned how most fish use their swim bladder to move around in the water. Remember, when the fish breathes oxygen, some of that oxygen goes into its bladder. This causes the fish to rise in the water. When it squeezes some of the gas out of its bladder, it sinks toward the bottom. So, it can move vertically --- go up and down --- kind of like a hot-air balloon. A shark is more like an airplane. Sharks don’t have a swim bladder, so they use their forward movement to control their vertical position. The tail is like the shark’s propeller. The shark swings it back and forth to move forward. In an airplane, this forward movement pushes air around the wings. For a shark, this forward movement pushes water around the fins. In both cases, the forward movement creates lift --- the airplane and shark both rise. Sharks have two pairs of fins on each side of their bodies. These fins are in about the same position as the main wings and tail wings on an airplane. The shark can position these fins at different angles. This changes the path of the water around them and 652 Transcripts enables the shark to move quickly upward or downward. The shark also has two vertical fins on its back. These are like the stabilizer fin on an airplane. They allow the shark to keep its balance as it moves through the water and help it turn quickly left and right. Skill F 01 Computer Science M: Robots are very popular these days. We see movies and television shows in which robots move, speak, and have personalities that are almost human. Like R2D2 and C3PO in Star Wars, and Data from the Star Trek TV series. In real life, there are robot dogs, robots that walk on two legs like a person, robots that clean your house, and robots that work in factories to help build cars. What, exactly, is a robot? That’s a surprisingly difficult question. Different people have different ideas. One famous scientist said, “I can’t define a robot, but I know one when I see one.” The easiest definition is that a robot is something most people say is a robot. However, people who build robots have a more precise definition. They say a robot must have a reprogrammable brain --- in other words, a computer --- that moves a body. The vast majority of robots have several features in common. First of all, almost all robots have a movable body. Some move only by wheels, and some have many movable parts that are joined together. These parts are usually metal or plastic. Secondly, robots have some sort of actuator --- that’s AC-CHEW-ATE-OR --- and this actuator spins their wheels or moves their parts. An actuator could be an electric motor, or a hydraulic system, or compressed gas, which we call a pneumatic system. Some robots use all these actuator types: motors, hydraulics, and pneumatic systems. And third, robots need a power source for their actuators. They could have a battery, or they could plug into a wall. 02 Health M: If you have white skin, you’re in danger of getting sunburn. The cells in your skin are not protected from the sun’s ultraviolet radiation --- or UV rays. If you don’t protect your skin when you go outside, your skin can become red and sore. We call this sunburn. I bet we’ve all experienced this at some point in our lives. What happens is this: UV rays damage the cells in your skin. The body responds by sending more blood to these cells to repair the damage. This is why your skin is red when you get sunburned --- because of this extra blood. The blood begins moving toward the damaged areas four hours after you’ve first been in the sun and will keep moving there as much as 24 hours afterwards. You won’t know you’re sunburned until it’s too late. Sunburn is dangerous because it increases the chance that you will get skin cancer. People who have been sunburned a lot get skin cancer much more often than those who don’t get sunburned very much. So, it’s very important to protect your skin when you’re in the sun. The best way to do this is to use sunscreen. Sunscreen is a lotion you put on your body about 30 minutes before you go outside. Sunscreen helps in two ways. It can block UV rays. Like a shield, it stops them before they reach your skin. Sunscreen can also absorb UV rays. This means the lotion “eats” the UV rays. The rays stay in the lotion instead of your skin. 03 Campus Life M: What’s your plan for the day, Natalie? W: Well, I have to work on my paper this morning. After that, I’m free. Why? M: I was thinking about going to see an art show. It’s about First Nations tribal totems. Do you want to go? Isn’t that what your paper is about? W: Yea, you remembered, Alex! Maybe I should go see the show before I work on my paper. M: It’s in the Gallery Shopping Mall. W: I know where that is. It’s at 10th and Market Street. M: I’ll drive. But could you just quickly go over the directions with me first? W: Sure, Alex, it’s easy. Take University Drive to Market Street. We take Market Street eastbound to 15th Street. Then, follow the circle around City Hall to continue on Market Street. We keep going on Market Street until 10th Street. Then, the main door to the mall is right on the northwest corner of 10th and Market Street. 04 Social Studies W: Today I’d like to talk about animal helpers. There are many ways that animals can help or teach us. By that, I mean how people long ago learned from animals. And even today, we can still learn from them. Think of a snake, for example. A snake grows new skin and sheds its old skin many times. It can remind us that we too need to change. The snake’s old skin can be discarded because it has a new one. For us, it’s the same. We let go of old things and ideas for new ones. At age seven, we think certain things. Do we think the same things at age thirty-seven? If so, we have evolved little in our lifetime. Since long, long ago, people have learned from animals they admired. Some First Nations people would go to live with and study bears. One of them might stay with a bear for a whole year. People and bears eat many of the same foods. They would learn all of the vegetation that bears know about. So First Nations people would watch bears forage for food. If a bear ate berries or roots of some plant, they knew it was OK for people to eat. Or if a bear avoided a certain plant, First Nations people would stay away from it too. Knowing about these plants helped people, especially if they migrated to a new area. 05 Campus Life M: Good afternoon, Ms. Smith. W: Good afternoon. M: Now, then .you would like to apply for a position as a campus tour guide? W: Yes, sir. M: OK. Have you ever been a tour guide? W: No, I haven’t. But I love people, and I’ve been a student here for two years, so I know all about the campus. M: I see. Do you know what your duties would be as a tour guide? W: Sure. I’d walk people around the campus, tell them the names of buildings, talk about student life, then answer questions. M: That’s correct. Tours are held once each day. They last for 90 minutes. W: What time do they begin? M: At 10 a.m. Monday through Saturday. On Sunday, tours start at 1 p.m. Monday through Friday only, the guide will give a 30-minute talk after the tour for students who want to study here but have not yet applied. Transcripts 653 W: How much money do the tours cost? M: They’re free. 06 Phys. Ed. M: When we think of the martial arts, most of us picture spectacular fights, like the flying kicks, spinning punches, and fantastic flips we see in Jackie Chan movies. Actually, people who practice martial arts use their physical skills to make their minds and spirits stronger. This is especially true with a type of martial art called karate. Yes? W: How do you spell that? M: K-A-R-A-T-E. People who practice karate are called karatekas: K-A-R-A-T-E-K-A-S. For karatekas, karate is much more than a style of self-defense. It is the best way to strengthen their minds and spirits. Karatekas say that the fighting principles they learn in karate help them in all areas of life. The first principle karatekas must learn is to concentrate on their own movements and not think about other things. This teaches them to concentrate better on their studies or jobs. Second, they must be alert and be ready to react to a punch or kick from their opponent. This helps them be alert and react to difficult problems in life. Third, they need to focus their strongest points on their opponents’ weakest points. This helps them work and focus harder on important things. Fourth, karatekas learn to make their bodies physically strong; they are ready to defend themselves and throw punches without thinking. This, in turn, makes their minds and spirits stronger. Their bodies know right away how to deal with new problems and challenges in everyday life. Chapter 2 S kill R eview A-F 01 Campus Life W: Hello, Mr. Thompson. Are you my student advisor? M: Yes, Amanda. How can I help you? W: I’m thinking about majoring in history. I’d need History 101 --- History of Western Civilization. Can you tell me what the course covers? M: Sure, I’d be happy to. It’s one of my favorite subjects. W: Lucky for me! M: OK, let’s see here. It starts with the beginning of Western civilization in the Near East, and it covers everything up through the 16 th Century Reformations. It’s mostly lectures. W: Uh-oh, that can be a little boring. M: Yes, but I do know that Professor Jantzen makes her class interesting. She shows some very intriguing DVDs, and she really gets students to ask questions. W: Yeah, my friend Kelly studied with her last year. She said they had great class discussions. M: Yes, I think you’ll find that’s true. W: So, how closely does she follow the textbook? M: Well, she covers all the same basic material, but you’ll find the lectures won’t be exactly the same. And you’ll have some writing assignments. W: Yes, of course. M: From the class, you’ll get a good basic idea how our society became the way it is. You’ll learn about what our society thinks makes good citizens. You’ll find out how different governments were formed. And you’ll learn how technology has changed us. W: And how about historians? M: Oh, yes. You’ll learn how historians decide what happened. You’ll be asked what you think about it too. W: Great! That’s what I’m most interested in. 02 Psychology W: Our mother tongue is the language we learn first from our families. We are native speakers of that language. People who know two languages are bilingual. Those people who know three or more are trilingual and multilingual. Many people have more than one native language. They learn them without going to school. And then there are many people who learn a second language through study. Like me! I only heard English at home. In order to learn Spanish, I had to study, hard! Now, our mother tongue, or first language, is very important. Some academics believe that it teaches us how to think. So, knowing your mother tongue is very important to getting an education. Knowing it well makes learning another language easier. People who are bilingual will learn a third language even more quickly. Educators have different ideas about how we learn languages. There are two basic ideas. Some say babies’ brains are specially ready for learning languages. They think that as we grow up, that changes. That’s why it gets harder to learn languages. Others disagree with this idea. They say we learn languages the same way we learn other things. We don’t know for sure just how it happens. There are places where two language groups may not talk to each other much. Something interesting, called coordinate bilingualism, happens to people here. They think about things in a special way. We know this happens in Quebec, Canada to French-English bilinguals. Let me give you an example of what I mean. They might think of one kind of dog when they say “dog” in English. In French, the word for dog is “chien.” When saying that word, they think of a different kind of dog. Yes, Tony, did you have a question? M: Are there a lot of French-English bilinguals in Quebec? W: Yes, there are quite a few. M: Do these people ever feel like they have two different personalities? W: Well, yes, in fact they do. You can see how this would happen. Here are two different groups who don’t always get along. You need to understand both groups and have them understand you. So, you talk differently to each group. You end up learning two different ways of thinking. 03 General Studies M: OK, pay close attention, please. I’m going to tell you what courses you need to take to graduate. Take careful notes. Each undergraduate can make his or her own curriculum. This means you can choose which classes you want to take. BUT .we want to make sure you get a good general education, so your curriculum must include the following: First, you will need six hours of composition. Those can be basic writing classes in the English department. You will also need six credit hours in 300 and 400-level courses 654 Transcripts that require some kind of written project. These courses will usually require you to write at least two lengthy papers. They will have a “W” next to them in your student catalogs. So those were the English requirements. Next, I’ll go over the general humanities requirements. First, there is a foreign language requirement. So you’ll need six hours of a foreign language or six hours of computer courses. Learning a computer language can count as a foreign language. Both the foreign language and computer courses require a grade of “C” or higher for credit toward graduation. Also in the humanities, you’ll need twelve hours of literature or fine arts. And on top of those twelve hours, you’ll need twelve hours in history or social science courses. I haven’t said anything yet about math or science. You’re all required to have some of those credits too. All graduates are required to take six hours in the natural sciences, like chemistry or biology, plus three hours in math. And that math requirement could be business math or other courses like that. If you add up all those credits, you’ll see that you still have quite a few credit hours needed for graduation. Those extra credit hours can be electives. So you can choose just about anything from Phys. Ed. to music to fill in the remaining credits. Now, questions? W: I took three years of Spanish in high school. Do I have to take two semesters of Spanish here? M: No. You can take a test, and the foreign language advisors will assign you to a class based on your score. If you’re placed into the Spanish 103 class or the Spanish 201 class, you will only have to take one semester. 04 Political Science W: The simplest way to define ideology is as a collection of ideas. Every society has an ideology. It forms the basis of the society’s “public opinion,” or common sense. This ideology is usually invisible to most people within the society. It is just “normal” thinking. Everybody thinks this way. When somebody says or does something different from this normal thought, it is seen as strange, or maybe even dangerous or radical. There are different kinds of ideologies. There’s political, social, ethical, and so on. Let’s look at political ideologies for a few moments. A political ideology is concerned with two things. One --- how a society should work, and two --- the rules needed to make it work that way. Some political ideologies believe in a flat social order. In a flat society, almost everyone is equal. Men are equal to women. All cultures are equally valuable. All lifestyles are acceptable. A flat social order is thought to promote diversity. It encourages people to be individuals and not conform to any one standard. People in a flat society might support alternative lifestyles, for example, gay marriage. Other political ideologies believe in a structured social order. In a structured society, there are many different levels. For example, God is a higher level than people, men are higher than women, and some cultures are higher than others. A structured social order is thought to promote uniform thinking and behavior. It encourages individuals to respect the established social order. People in a structured society might support the nuclear family unit and military programs. Let’s look at rules that make a society work. Some societies reward individuals over the group. These societies encourage individuals to achieve self-sufficiency, so they don’t depend on the rest of society. This tends to create a society with a high level of economic independence among its members. Does this sound like society here? I think it fits us pretty well. Other societies reward the group over the individual. These societies encourage individuals to increase the strength of their social ties, so that they must depend on the rest of society. This tends to create a society with a high level of economic interdepend- ence among its members. C hapter 3 Focus A 01 01 Math W: Geometry is the study of points. Now, a point is a small dot, like a period at the end of a sentence. If we have two points, we know that there can be other points between them. There can also be a line. The line is continuous. It has no space between each point. Part of a line, with points at each end, is called a line segment. Two line segments can be the same length. We call these line segments congruent. That just means the line segments are equal in length. 02 Biology M: Last week, we learned how most fish use their swim bladder to move around in the water. Remember, when the fish breathes oxygen, some of that oxygen goes into its bladder. This causes the fish to rise in the water. When it squeezes some of the gas out of its bladder, it sinks toward the bottom. So, it can move vertically --- go up and down --- kind of like a hot-air balloon. A shark is more like an airplane. Sharks don’t have a swim bladder, so they use their forward movement to control their vertical position. The tail is like the shark’s propeller. The shark swings it back and forth to move forward. In an airplane, this forward movement pushes air around the wings. For a shark, this forward movement pushes water around the fins. In both cases, the forward movement creates lift---the airplane and shark both rise. Sharks have two pairs of fins on each side of their bodies. These fins are in about the same position as the main wings and tail wings on an airplane. The shark can position these fins at different angles. This changes the path of the water around them and enables the shark to move quickly upward or downward. The shark also has two vertical fins on its back. These are like the stabilizer fin on an airplane. They allow the shark to keep its balance as it moves through the water and help it turn quickly left and right. 03 Psychology W: Our mother tongue is the language we learn first from our families. We are native speakers of that language. People who know two languages are bilingual. Those people who know three or more are trilingual and multilingual. Many people have more than one native language. They learn them without going to school. And then there are many people who learn a second language through study. Like me! I only heard English at home. In order to learn Spanish, I had to study hard! Transcripts 655 Focus A 02 01 Literature M: If a play makes you laugh, it’s a comedy. Comedies have humorous characters and happy endings. A good example of a comedy is Shakespeare’s classic Much Ado about Nothing. Another popular style is called tragedy. Tragedies usually tell how a hero ruins his life, falling from good fortune to bad fortune because of a “tragic flaw” in character. One example is the play Ghosts, by Henrik Ibsen. Um, modern years have produced a third style, called tragicomedy. In tragicomedies, the play seems as though it will end in tragedy but instead has a humorous or unclear ending. An example is Saint Joan, by George Bernard Shaw. 02 Physical Science W: Rocks wear down and break apart due to a process called weathering. There are two main types of weathering: mechanical and chemical. Mechanical weathering involves the disintegration, or destruction, of rocks by mechanical processes. These include the freezing and thawing of water in the crevices --- uh, holes and cracks --- of rocks. Also, the roots of plants can cause rocks to break apart. The tiny, hair-like roots grow into small cracks in rocks. Then, as the roots get bigger, the roots crack the rocks. Animals are also responsible for mechanical weathering. They burrow, or dig, into the rocks and the dirt around the rocks. Mechanical weathering is especially common in high altitudes, where it’s so cold that freezing and thawing happen every day. It’s also common in deserts, where there is little water and few plants. Chemical weathering involves the decomposition of rock by chemical changes or solution. This includes the processes of oxidation, carbonation, and hydration. For example, many iron minerals found in rocks are rapidly oxidized, meaning they can quickly turn to rust. It sounds funny, but rocks can rust or oxidize. Then, there is carbonation. Limestone is a rock that does this. Limestone is a type of rock that is dissolved by water, which contains carbonic acid. We’ll go into more detail about that reaction later. Anyway, chemical weathering takes place in warm, wet conditions. In general, chemical weathering is more common than mechanical weathering, although they usually act together. 03 Geography W: We usually think of deserts as hot, dry, sandy places. And many deserts are. But actually, deserts come in several forms. Let’s learn about some of them. In defining a desert, we have to consider two factors. The first is the annual amount of rainfall. Deserts get less than 250 millimeters of rain or snow each year. The second factor is how much of that rain or snow evaporates --- that is, goes back into the atmosphere or is used up by plants. We call this loss of water “evaporation.” Simply stated, a desert is a place where evaporation is greater than rainfall or snowfall. Because so much water evaporates, most deserts are hot. But not all. The North and South poles, for instance, are cold deserts. They get less than 250 millimeters of snow each year, and the ground is permanently frozen. We also classify deserts by their location and main weather pattern. One example is trade wind deserts. Trade wind deserts are located between 30 degrees and 35 degrees north and south of the equator. The winds that blow over these areas are very strong. They blow away clouds, so more sun reaches the ground. Most of the major deserts in the world lie in the areas crossed by the trade winds. The Sahara Desert, in North Africa, is a trade wind desert. Temperatures there can reach 57 degrees Celsius. Another type of desert is the rain shadow desert. Rain shadow deserts lie next to tall mountains. As clouds rise over the mountains, they spill all of their rain or snow before they get to the other side. So, these deserts are formed in the “shadow” of the mountains. The Judean Desert in Israel is a rain shadow desert. So is a large part of the western United States called the Great Basin. Still another kind of desert is coastal deserts. These are on the western edges, or coasts, of continents. One coastal desert, the Atacama Desert of South America, is Earth’s driest desert. In the Atacama, there can be measurable rainfall only once every 50 years. Focus B 01 01 History W: Spain is a country in Southwest Europe, south of France and west of Italy. In the 16th Century, it was the most powerful nation in the world. After America was discovered in 1492, Spain sent many people there. They brought back lots of gold and silver. Trade with the new American colonies made Spain rich. It established colonies in other parts of the world, such as Cuba and the Philippines. But in 1588, Spain lost a famous war against England. After that, its power began to decline. In 1898, Spain lost Cuba and the Philippines in the Spanish-American War. 02 Computer Science W: More people are buying home computers and using them for home networks. They need faster ways to get information over the Internet. Right now, there are mainly two avenues for information to be sent. These are, cable modems and Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line or ADSL. These faster ways of sending information are called broadband connections. Cable modems and ADSL are both types of broadband connections. They are much faster than a 56K modem. There is another new kind of DSL connection. It is known as very high bit rate DSL or VDSL. Some companies already have this for certain places. VDSL isn’t everywhere yet, but it may be very soon. Many people like it and are beginning to use it. VDSL accommodates a very, very large amount of bandwidth. It gives up to about 52 megabytes per second. In other words, it provides 52 Mbps. In comparison, ADSL or cable modems can only give 8 to 10 megabytes per second. It’s easy to see that VDSL is a lot faster. VDSL will soon be more common, making home networks cost much less. 03 Political Science W: The simplest way to define ideology is as a collection of ideas. Every society has an ideology. It forms the basis of the society’s “public opinion,” or common sense. This ideology is usually invisible to most people within the society. It is just “normal” 656 Transcripts thinking. Everybody thinks this way. When somebody says or does something different from this normal thought, it is seen as strange or maybe even dangerous or radical. There are different kinds of ideologies. There’s political, social, ethical, and so on. Let’s look at political ideologies for a few moments. A political ideology is concerned with two things. One --- how a society should work; and two --- the rules needed to make it work that way. Focus B 02 01 History W: Leonardo da Vinci was not only a great artist. He was also a scientist and inventor. Leonardo was born in 1452 in Vinci, Italy. He began studying painting at age 14 and became famous just a few years later. His best-known paintings are Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. But Leonardo was also an excellent scientist. He kept detailed notebooks of observations about the natural world. And he cut open dead people to learn how the human body works. Finally, he was an inventor. But his two most famous inventions --- the parachute and the war tank --- weren’t built until after he died. 02 Health M: If you have white skin, you’re in danger of getting sunburn. The cells in your skin are not protected from the sun’s ultraviolet radiation, or UV rays. If you don’t protect your skin when you go outside, your skin can become red and sore. We call this sunburn. What happens is this: UV rays damage the cells in your skin. The body responds by sending more blood to these cells to repair the damage. This is why your skin is red when you get sunburned --- because of this extra blood. The blood begins moving toward the damaged areas four hours after you’ve first been in the sun and will keep moving there as much as 24 hours afterwards. You won’t know you’re sunburned until it’s too late. Sunburn is dangerous because it increases the chance that you will get skin cancer. People who have been sunburned a lot get skin cancer much more often than those who don’t get sunburned very much. So, it’s very important to protect your skin when you’re in the sun. 03 Economics W: The World Bank is a bridge between the rich and poor people. It’s making rich-country money into poor-country growth. It is one of the world’s biggest banks for poor countries. It’s helping them build schools and health centers, and get water and electricity. It’s helping protect the people’s surroundings. The low-income countries can’t usually borrow money in world markets. If they do, they have to pay very high interest rates. The World Bank gives them some money, low-interest loans, and interest---free credit. It helps them take care of the money, too. When the countries get loans, they have 35--40 years to pay them back. They can have ten extra years if they need it. In the year 2002, the bank agreed to give about $15 billion to low-income countries. For some of the poorest countries, AIDS is a very big problem. Some of this World Bank money is to help them fight this disease. If they don’t receive help, many more people will get the illness. . from the Horse Latitudes toward the equator. In the Northern Hemisphere, they blow from the northeast and are called the Northeast Trade Winds. In the Southern. Advertisements. They’re everywhere. You can’t hide from them. There’s no escape. Turn on the TV. There they are. Turn on the radio. There they are. Waiting for an