A 7. Students draw four boxes, labelled as shown. They enter each of the phrases given, in its appropriate box. They must remember to ask themselves the questions when, where, why or how? a. with a sharp cry b. far too late c. in a loud voice d. before sunrise e. through carelessness f. under the bed g. to escape from prison h. in the rainwater tank i. for my aunt j. with a stiff brush time (when?) Place (where?) Manner (how?) Reason (why?) 8. Students rewrite the following sentences correctly. a. The man failed to see the approaching horse doing up his shoelace. b. The girl ran away from the fierce dog wearing high heels. c. I saw this huge skeleton wandering around the museum. d. We were told that it is rare to see wombats at school. e. The old plough was remodelled by the farmer found in the dump. f. The criminal was found dead after a trip overseas in his own bed. Remember to use commas appropriately. 9. We can improve our writing by joining sentences together, using phrases, for example: The boy ran into a lamp post. He wasn’t looking where he was going. 158 G r A M M A r f o r e V e rY o n e C A Not looking where he was going, the boy ran into the lamp post. a. The farmer started digging up his paddock. He had heard that there were dinosaur bones in the area. b. Two men smashed into the video store yesterday. They used a hammer to break the glass. c. Michael spent the last of his pocket money. He bought a blue vase. It was for his mother. d. This elephant charged. He came towards us. His tusks were really long. e. The workers got very sunburnt. They were stripped to the waist. 10. Students complete orally or in writing the following sentences, for example: I really like (walking in the rain). I try to avoid (being late for dinner). a. I really like . . . . . . . . . . b. I try to avoid . . . . . . . . . . 11. Students change around and rewrite one of each of the above, so that the noun phrase comes at the beginning of each sentence. Checklist: phrases Students should now be able to: • recognise and mark phrases in a passage • distinguish between the three kinds of phrases • use phrases correctly and without ambiguity in their own writing • label sentences containing phrases and indicate which words they qualify or modify 159 p h r A s e s 160 Clauses Definition: The word ‘clause’ is from the Latin clausa meaning ‘a closing’ – in the sense that the clause is complete in form and meaning. A simple sentence with one finite verb is referred to as the main (or principal) clause and the appended or attached clauses are referred to as subordinate clauses. Before studying clauses, students should: • understand and recognise the difference between finite and non-finite verbs • know the functions of nouns, adjectives and adverbs • understand the terms subject, object and complement • be able to define the term ‘phrase’ and understand its functions • recognise and understand the function of relative pronouns Once students have mastered the use of phrases they are well on the way to understanding clauses. Clauses are used in the same three ways: as nouns, being subjects, objects or complements; as adjectives, qualifying nouns; and as adverbs modifying verbs. It is important to identify for students the essential differences between phrases and clauses. A finite verb A clause always contains a finite verb. For example: The old lady, carrying a newborn lamb, entered the kitchen. non-finite verb (phrase) 26 The old lady, who was carrying a newborn lamb, entered the kitchen. finite verb (clause) A finite verb has a subject. The subject in the above clause is expressed by the pronoun ‘who’, referring to the old lady. A connecting word Unlike phrases, clauses almost always need a connecting word. It is occasionally omitted in casual speech, as understood. Adjectival clauses are connected to the nouns they qualify by relative pro- nouns (see page 164). For example: This is the hat that (or which) I bought at the market. Adverbial clauses are connected to the verbs they modify, by a subordinating conjunction. For example: I bought it because I am going to a wedding. Noun clauses are connected by relative pronouns or subordinating conjunctions. For example: My cousin told me what I should wear. relative pronoun: My cousin asked me when I would arrive. conjunction Whereas most of these connectors come naturally to native English speakers, they can be more tricky for foreigners learning English. It is important for students to understand the function of relative pronouns before they practise clauses. 161 c l A u s e s 162 G r A M M A r f o r e V e rY o n e Much jargon surrounds the terminology for all of these cate- gories. As mentioned earlier, it is wise to use easily recognisable but definitive terms, usually of the more traditional kind which are readily understood in any language or reference material. It is equally important to be consistent in their use. Main clauses The main (another common term is ‘principal’) clause consists of a simple sentence with one finite verb. It makes complete sense. For example: A bee stung the woman. finite verb Compound sentences There can be more than one main clause in a sentence. If the clauses have the same grammatical form and are joined by a conjunction such as and, or or but they form a compound sentence. For example: A bee stung the woman and she dropped her spade. finite verb finite verb Each clause makes sense on its own. The conjunction may be only understood, in which case a semicolon is used to join the main clauses. For example: A bee stung the woman; she dropped her spade. Sentence analysis Finite verbs: stung, dropped Main clause 1: a bee stung the woman Conjunction: and Main clause 2: she dropped her spade Compound sentence Subordinate clauses Subordinate clauses also contain a finite verb but they do not make sense on their own. They are dependent on the main clause for their meaning, but they add meaning to the main clause. There are three kinds of subordinate clauses: • adjectival (doing the work of an adjective) • adverbial (doing the work of an adverb) • noun (doing the work of a noun) They are joined to the main clause by linking words: • adjectival clauses are linked with relative pronouns • adverbial clauses are linked with subordinating conjunctions 163 c l A u s e s A bee stung the woman and she dropped her spade. 164 G r A M M A r f o r e V e rY o n e Sentence types 1. Simple sentence – contains one main clause 2. Compound sentence – contains two or more main clauses 3. Complex sentence – contains one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses 4. Compound complex – contains more than one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses Adjectival clauses and relative pronouns We use relative pronouns to refer to a noun or pronoun already mentioned in the main clause, or in another subordinate clause of the same sentence. They form the subject or object of an adjectival clause, often introducing it. Thus, they join the two clauses, being two pieces of information about the same person or thing. Relative pronouns are the same in singular and plural but they differ according to function. 1. For the subject of a clause, we use who for people, and which or that for things, for example: He is the boy who delivers our paper. This is the paper that he brings. 2. For the object of a clause, we use whom for people, and which or that for things, for example: He is the boy whom you met in the shop. (In conversation we sometimes omit this relative pronoun, as it is said to be understood). He was wearing the jacket (that) I gave him. 3. For possession we use whose for people, and which or that for things, for example: He is the boy whose Dad plays in the band. It is the band of which I have all those albums. In conversation we usually turn these sentences around to sound more natural. . can be more tricky for foreigners learning English. It is important for students to understand the function of relative pronouns before they practise clauses they differ according to function. 1. For the subject of a clause, we use who for people, and which or that for things, for example: He is the boy who delivers