The forest ranger, an expert in forest fire control, talked to the campers about safety in the woods. – An expert in forest fire control, the forest ranger talked to the campers about safety in the woods. (appositive phrase) Note that the part of the sentence placed first acquires a special stress. The appositive phrase in this case seems to have acquired a casual meaning, rather like: Being an expert in forest fire control, the forest ranger … 3) A subordinate clause. When writing in complex sentences, variety can be achieved by putting the subordinate clause before the main clause. One should remember, however, that in this case the idea expressed by the subordinate clause takes on a greater emphasis, and one should therefore use this inversion with discrimination: e.g. The gardener had to plant roses when they ran out of carnations. - When they ran out of carnations, the gardener had to plant roses. Exercise 1. Rewrite the following sentences, beginning them with the part of the sentence mentioned in parentheses. 1. Mr. Boyd was angry and began to defend his reputation with strong argument. (single-word modifier) 2. The pioneer was strong and healthy and lived to be 112 years old. (single-word modifiers) 3. Many philosophy students read Plato, the author of Socratic dialogues. (appositive phrase) 4. Shepherds are brilliant climbers, hard-working and tireless. (single-word modifiers) 5. Cousteau, a tireless researcher, began experimenting with skin- diving in 1936. (appositive phrase) 6. The mosaics at the University of Mexico, made by outstanding artists, are one of the most beautiful things to see in Mexico City. (participial phrase) 7. Their going was fairly easy at first. (a prepositional phrase) 8. The soft and crumbling snow made each step a potential disaster. (single-word modifiers) 9. A student may want to "map" ideas in his or her notebook to visualize a concept or theory. (infinitive phrase) 10. Eggbert ate the eggs even though he disliked them. (a subordinate clause) 11. Ending the solemn atmosphere the children laughed in spite of the warning. (prepositional phrase) 12. Leaves are falling, coming down in streams of gold and brown. (participial phrase) 11 Exercise 2. Complete the following sentences, beginning them with the part of the sentence mentioned in parentheses. 1. …, the storm roared across the countryside although it wasn’t forecast. (a subordinate clause) 2. …, Mr. Caine obviously had a grave illness. (participial phrase) 3. …, Jane listened to music. (infinitive phrase) 4. …, advertisers both flatter and insult women in their campaigns. (a single-word modifier) 5. …, Jim sped down the highway at 80 miles per hour. (infinitive phrase) 6. …, she called her friend. (participial phrase) 7. …, the reader is insulted by the trite and shallow editorial. (prepositional phrase) 8. …, Larry brought out the industrial can of RAID ant spray. (participial phrase) 9. …, Jim hit the ball. (prepositional phrase) 10. …, Dr. Jones was on-call 24 hours a day. (appositive phrase) 11. …, the skydiver, in free-fall realized she forgot her parachute. (single-word modifiers) 12. … my cousin Danny plays a croquet. (prepositional phrase) 13. …, one should walk in the woods rather than read a book. (infinitive phrase) 14. …, I was just getting out of the shower. (a subordinate clause) 15. …, the troll waited for the English professor. (prepositional phrase) 16. …, the boy pleaded innocence with his mom. (gerundial phrase) 17. …, the swimmer struggled to the shore as waves crashed into him. (participial phrase) 18. …, we were tired and hungry when we arrived. (a subordinate clause) Section 3. Writing Practice. Reproduction Writing Reproduction is a traditional method of teaching foreign languages, particularly their written form. Learning a language depends largely upon our ability to imitate; it is through imitation, through repeated copying of ready-made patterns of grammatical and lexical usage that we achieve success in mastering a language. However, language is in its very essence creative; thus at this stage, reproductions should form a balanced synthesis between imitation and creation. They are not confined to re-telling, though the student is required to render the story in a version which remains on the whole faithful to the original. In addition, the student may be 12 asked to give his opinion of the story, to comment upon some episode, etc. Exercise. Read the passage and do the assignments given below. Miss Robinson had been taking driving lessons and trying to pass her driving test for several years, but she had failed every time because she always became too excited and did silly things when she was driving a car. Now she was taking her test again, but she made so many mistakes that she was sure that she had no chance of passing, so she was surprised when the examiner nodded at the end of her test and said, “All right, Miss Robinson, I’m going to pass you.” The next morning she went out in her car alone for the first time. Her face was red, her hands were sweating and she was hardly able to believe that it was no longer necessary for her to have a good driver with her in the car whenever she went out in it. She came to the first traffic lights and was very glad when she managed to stop the car quite smoothly and at the right place in the street. While she was waiting for the lights to change from red to green, an old lady came to the window of her car, and when Miss Robinson opened the window and looked out, the old lady asked whether she was going into the town. “Yes,” Miss Robinson answered, “I am. I am going to the Public Library.” “Will you please take me as far as the market-place?” The old lady asked. “I have an appointment at the hospital, and there isn’t a bus for another hour.” Miss Robinson had still not really understood that at last she had passed her test, and now she surprised the old lady very much by answering, “I’m very sorry, but I can’t drive.” (From Intermediate Comprehension Pieces by L. A. Hill) 13 Assignment 1. Answer the following questions. 1. Why did Miss Robinson think that she would fail her test again? 2. What had Miss Robinson had to do before she passed her test, which she did not have to do after she passed it? 3. Why did the old lady speak to Miss Robinson? 4. Why was the old lady very surprised when Miss Robinson said she could not drive? 5. Why did Miss Robinson say that she couldn’t drive? Assignment 2. (a) Reproduce the story, including a detailed answer to questions 4 and 5. (b) Compose a story for the old lady to tell her friends in the evening after the incident. Begin it in the following way: “I had a very strange experience this afternoon. I was going to town and wanted a lift because … .” Let the old lady also explain why she went up to Miss Robinson’s car, how the girl at the wheel looked, and what she thought of her behaviour. 14 Lesson 2 Section 1. Spelling: Consonant Doubling A. 1. Words are spelled with –ll-, -ff-, -ss-, -zz-: a) In the final position in monosyllables after short vowels represented by a single letter: -ll-: cell, fill, pull. -ff-: stiff, stuff, Jeff. -ss-: kiss, mess, fuss. -zz-, mainly in onomatopoeic words: buzz, fizz, jazz. b) Also in some words after long vowels: -ll- (a or o): ball, tall, roll. -ff- (a or o): chaff, staff, off. -ss- (a in five words): brass, glass, class, pass, grass. c) In unstressed final syllables: tariff, compass. 2. Words are spelled with –bb-, -dd-,-tt-, -gg-, -pp-, ll-, -ff-, -zz- before the final –le when preceded by a stressed short vowel if it is represented by a single letter: babble, pebble; fiddle, meddle, brittle, settle; struggle; apple, dapple; ruffle, shuffle; dazzle, puzzle. Exercise 1. Join up the left parts of the proverbs with the right ones so that they make sense and find their Armenian equivalents: 1. I’ll trust him no farther than a. between asses but kicks. 2. Buy the cheapest market b. and ride out tomorrow. 3. Don’t curse the crocodile’s mother c. must pay the fiddler. 4. He who falls today d. have stiff horns. 5. A rolling stone e. all beer and skittles. 6. No weather is ill, f. before you cross the river. 7. Old oxen g. ‘tis folly to be wise. 8. One man’s loss h. makes a brittle wife. 9. Nothing passes i. I can throw a millstone. 10. Where ignorance is bliss j. gathers no moss. 11. They that dance k. may rise tomorrow. 12. A brilliant daughter l. if the wind be still. 13. Life is not m. is another man’s gain. 14. You saddle today n. and sell in the dearest. 15 Exercise 2. Make phrases by joining together a word from the left column with a word from the right column: 1 sullen a. Falls 2. to shuffle b. of oneself. 3. pebbly c. the vacancy. 4. dazzling d. a sudden 5. all of e. oneself together 6. the apple f. roll 7. to pull g. of one’s eye 8. sausage h. looks 9. stiff i. sunshine 10. to fill j. beach 11. to make k. collar 12. the Niagara l. from foot to foot B. A final single consonant letter (except r and l) is doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel (-able, -ing, -est, -er, etc.) if the last syllable of the word is stressed, and the final consonant is preceded by a short vowel represented by a single letter: red – redder, redden, reddish; begin – beginning; thin – thinned, thinner. It is not doubled if (a) preceded by an unstressed vowel; (b) preceded by a vowel sound represented by two letters; (c) the suffix begins with a consonant: open – opened, opening; limit – limited, limiting; develop – developed, developing; repeat – repeated, repeating; look – looked, looking; turn – turned, turning; hot – hotly (but: hottest), forget – forgetful (but: unforgettable). N o t e. The words handicap, kidnap, outfit, worship are exceptions: handicapped – handicapping; kidnapped – kidnapping; outfitted – outfitting – outfitter; worshipped – worshipping – worshipper. Exercise 3. a) Form the Past Indefinite and the Participle 1 of the following verbs: slap, slim, warn, stop, slam, trim, skim, work, shrug, pat, knit, grip, pin, leap, nag, wrap, commit, look, omit, regret, slip, open, skin, fit, limit, grab, chat, trap, turn, worship, wed, shop, tip, wag, grin, plan, develop, repeat. 16 b) Form the comparative and superlative degrees of the following adjectives: big, hot, sweet, mean, weak, sad, thin, clear, broad, cool, fat, deep, meek, dim, flat, slim, wet, low, bright, neat, lean, red. C. Final r is doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel (-able, - ing, -est, -er, etc.) if preceded by a letter representing a stressed vowel, no matter if it is long or short (but not a diphthong): oc ' cur – oc ' currence; re ' fer – re ' ferred; bar – barrister; fur – furrier; stir – stirring; ab ' hor – abhorrent. But: ' differ – ' differed; appear – appeared; pre ' fer - ' preference. N o t e: Words with the consonant r in the root of two-syllable words after a stressed short vowel are spelled with –rr-: carry, marry, merry, hurry, porridge, squirrel, quarrel, terrace. Also in the word err and its derivatives erring, error. Exercise 4. Form the Past Indefinite and the Participle 1 of the following verbs and mark the stress. Offer, confer, war, flatter, infer, blur, stir, appear, administer, occur, scar, abhor, prefer, differ, deliver, fear, bother, pour, linger, bar, clatter, murmur, lower, alter, recover, conquer. Exercise 5. Open the brackets, doubling the final consonant of the root where necessary. Translate the sentences. 1. A fool bolts the door with a boiled car(r)ot. 2. A man without money is like a bow without an ar(r)ow. 3. He that goes a bor(r)owing goes a sor(r)owing. 4. Meat and mass never hinder(r)ed man. 5. A foreign war is prefer(r)able to one at home. 6. Better twice measur(r)ed than once wrong. 7. Don’t cry her(r)ings till they are in the net. 8. He knows which side of his bread is butter(r)ed. 9. It is not work that kills but wor(r)y. 10. Whose car(r)iage is greediness, his companion is beggary. D. Final l is doubled (British English) before a suffix beginning with a vowel (-able, -ing, -est, -er, etc.) irrespective of the stress if it is preceded by a short vowel represented by a single letter. It is not 17 doubled if preceded by a long vowel sound represented by two letters or a diphthong: travel – travelled; expel – expelled; control – controllable; cruel – cruellest; jewel – jeweller (exception: parallel – paralleled, parallelism). But: reveal – revealed; peal – pealed. N o t e 1: l is not doubled before –ish, -ist, -ism: devilish, liberalism, naturalist. N o t e 2: Derivatives and compounds of some words in –ll (all, full, skill, will, etc.) drop one l: all – almighty, always, altogether, already; till – until; skill – skilful; full – fulfil. Exercise 6. Form the Past Indefinite and the Participle 1 of the following verbs: Quarrel, reveal, curl, appeal, apparel, cancel, travel, peal, heal, annul, excel, compel, conceal, deal, expel, patrol, marvel, rebel, level, sail. Exercise 7 (revision). Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word given in the list below, making the necessary changes: (occu/r/ed, weep/p/ing, re/d/en, worshi/p/ed, acquit/t/ed, trave/l/ed, expe/l/ed, diffe/r/ed, murmu/r/ed, sti/r/ing, quarre/l/ed, wra/p/ed, regre/t/ed, fan/n/ed, revea/l/ed, cance/l/ed, prefe/r/ed, flog/g/ing, signa/l/ed, appea/r/ed) 1. She was so embarrassed that she began … . 2. King Midas … gold and constantly declared his great love for it. 3. Their opinions on that point … . 4. A hideous face suddenly … in the window. 5. This event … in 1964. 6. He has … a lot. 7. After his death it was … that he had been a millionaire. 8. The boy was … from school. 9. The branches of the tree … . 10. It was 3 a.m. and no one was … . 11. The concert has been … . 12. He and his wife … constantly. 13. The first snow-fall … the end of autumn. 14. She said that she … to stay at home. 15. He … that the incident had taken place. 16. Mary … the gift attractively. 17. The judge is condemned when the accused is … . 18. Everyone takes his … in his own way. 19. … fire and forced love never did well yet. 20. The … bride makes a laughing wife. 18 Section 2. Sentence Structure. Emphasis in Writing The simplest way to emphasize something is by such words as just, quite, whatever, whoever, only, etc.: e.g. I saw him once. – I saw him just once. – I saw him only once. What are you doing? – Whatever are you doing? – What on earth are you doing? Morthological means of emphasis include structures with do, will/would, and should. 1. The so-called emphatic do has many uses in English. a. To add emphasis to an entire sentence: "He does like spinach. He really does!" b. To add emphasis to an imperative: " Do come in." (actually softens the command) c. To add emphasis to a frequency adverb: "He never did understand his father." "She always does manage to hurt her mother's feelings." d. To contradict a negative statement: "You didn't do your homework, did you?" "Oh, but I did finish it." e. To ask a clarifying question about a previous negative statement: "Ridwell didn't take the tools." "Then who did take the tools?" f. To indicate a strong concession: "Although the Clintons denied any wrong-doing, they did return some of the gifts." 2. Will and would/used to plus infinitive are used to emphasize a habitual action in the present or in the past respectively: e.g. Grannies will spoil their grandchildren. (also denotes a willful action) He would/used to go for a walk in any weather. 3. Would not (wouldn’t) emphasizes unwillingness to do something (in the past): e.g. They would not agree to our proposals. She would not let him kiss her. 19 4. To emphasize the sensations of pleasure, surprise, shock, or disapproval one may use some patterns with the mood auxiliary should, the so-called “emotional should”, as in the following: e.g. I was pleased that she should have taken the trouble to read my first novel. Why should you accompany her there? She is old enough to look after herself. “Emotional should” is very often introduced by the phrases it’s odd that …, it’s strange that … and the like, as in the following: e.g. It’s strange that he should be the only one to meet me. It’s odd that you should be so forgiving. Exercise 1. Practise using emphatic connectives (whatever, whoever, etc.). 1. … has got to pay for it, it won’t be me. 2. … smashed my glasses shall pay for it, … he’s hidden himself. 3. Please take … one you want and bring it back … you want. 4. … it is you’ve found, you must give it back to … it belongs. 5. … the weather, we go biking at the weekend with … likes to join us. Exercise 2. Rewrite the sentences, beginning with it’s and using the pattern with emotional should. e.g. How odd! Both our wives have the same name. – It’s odd that both our wives should have the same name. 1. Quite naturally, you’re upset about what’s happened.2. It’s incredible! We’ve been living in the same street for two years and have never got to know each other. 3. You missed the one talk that was worth hearing. What a pity! 4. That’s curious! He asked you to come rather than me. 5. It’s typical of him. He expects everyone else to do all the work. 6. Isn’t it odd! They’re getting married, after all they’ve said about the marriage. 7. You have to pay as much tax. It’s crazy! 8. How splendid! You’ll be coming to live near us. 20 . . 11 . The concert has been … . 12 . He and his wife … constantly. 13 . The first snow-fall … the end of autumn. 14 . She said that she … to stay at home. 15 millstone. 10 . Where ignorance is bliss j. gathers no moss. 11 . They that dance k. may rise tomorrow. 12 . A brilliant daughter l. if the wind be still. 13 . Life