Đang tải... (xem toàn văn)
các vấn đề về ngữ âm tiếng anh
I. The vowels 1. Definition: The vowels are speech sounds. When we pronounce them, the organs of speech doesn’t form the obstructions. The airstream goes out without any stop and the vocal cords are always vibrated. 2. Monothongs (12): a. Monothongs are pure vowel sounds when we pronounce them, the organ of speech remains unchanged during the process of pronunciation. b. There are 4 ways to classify monothongs: - Shape of lips: * Spread: i, ɪ , ε, ӕ * Unrounded: з, ә, ᴧ Front Central Back * Rounded: u, ʊ, ͻ, ɒ, ɑ i u - Position of tounge: Close ɪ ʊ High High: i, ɪ, u, ʊ Half open з ͻ Middle Middle: ε, з, ә, ͻ ε ә Low: ӕ, ᴧ, ɒ, ɑ Open ӕ ᴧ ɒ Low - Highest part of tounge: ɑ Front: i, ɪ , ε, ӕ Spread Unrounded Rounded Central: з, ә, ᴧ Back: u, ʊ, ͻ, ɒ, ɑ - Length of sounds: Long: i, з, u, ͻ, ɑ Short: ɪ , ε, ӕ, ә, ᴧ, ʊ, ɒ 3. Dipthongs (8): a. Dipthongs are complex vowels sounds (consisting of 2 vowel sound elements), when we pronounce them, the organ of speech often glides to second sounds. b. Classification: - Glide to the sound / ɪ /: ai , ɒi, ei - Glide to the sound / ʊ /: әʊ, au - Glide to the sound / ә /: ɪ ә, εә, ʊә (1,2) closing dipthongs: the mouth moves from open to close (3) centring dipthongs: the mouth moves from outside to centre Monothongs Dipthongs - Pure vowel sounds - When we pronounce them, the organ of speech remains unchanged during the process of pronunciation. - Complex sounds - When we pronounce them, the organ of speech often glides to the second sounds. II. The consonants (24) 1. Definition: Consonants are speech sounds. When we pronounce them, the organs of speech always form the obstructions, the airstream is stopped before going out ans the pronunciation is with or without vibration of vocal cords. 2. Classification a. Place of articulation -> how obstructions are made / how the organs of speech combine to form the obstructions. - Bilabial: p, b, m, w (âm môi môi): two lips combine / come together to form the obstruction. - Labio - dental: f, v (âm môi răng): Lower lip and upper front teeth make / form the obstruction. - Dental: θ, δ (âm răng): tounge tip or blade and upper front teeth / set of teeth form the obstruction - Alveolar: t, d, s, z, l, n (âm đầu lưỡi - lợi): tounge tip and alveolar the obstruction - Post - alveolar: r (âm sau lợi): tip of the tounge and the back of the alveolar ridge make the obstruction. - Palato - alveolar: ʃ, ʓ, tʃ, dʓ (âm ngạc - lợi): tip of the tounge touch the part between hard palate and alveolar form the obstruction - Palatal: j (âm ngạc): the middle of the tounge touch the palate form the obstruction - Velar: k, g, ŋ (âm ngạc mềm - âm mạc): back of the tounge is closely soft palate make obstruction. - Glottal: h (âm thanh hầu): Vocal cords are closely that form obstruction b. Manner of articulation -> how the airstream goes through / break the obstructions to make the sounds. - Plosive: p, b, t, d, k, g (âm nổ): the airstream is completely stopped, then suddenly released. - Fricative: f, v, s, z, θ, δ, ʃ, ʓ, h (âm xát): the airstream is partially stopped and gradually released - Affricative: tʃ, dʓ (âm tắc - xát): the airstream is completely stopped and gradually released. - Nasal: m, n, ŋ (âm mũi): the airstream goes through nose - Lateral: l (âm bên): the airstream goes out by both sides of tongue - Glide: w, r, j (âm lướt): the airstream glides to the second sound c. Voicing -> refer to states of vocal cords - Voiceless: p, f, t, s, θ, ʃ, tʃ, k, h - Voiced: b, v, z, δ, ʓ, dʓ, g, l, r, m, n, ŋ, j, w d. Positions of soft palate -> states of soft palate - The soft palate is up: close the way to nose, open the way to mouth -> the airstream goes through mouth -> sounds are oral - The soft palate is down: close the way to mouth, open the way to nose -> the airstream goes through nose -> sounds are nasal Voicing Place of articulation Bilabial Labio- dental Dental Alveolar Post- Alveolar Palato- Alveolar Palatal Velar Gottal Manner of articulation Plosive Voiceless p t k Voiced b d g Fricative Voiceless f θ s ʃ h Voiced v δ z ʓ Affricative Voiceless tʃ Voiced dʓ Nasal Voiced m n ŋ Lateral Voiced l Glide Voiced w r j The difference between monothongs and dipthongs Vowels Consonants - No obstructions. - The airstream goes out without stop - Vocal cords are vibrated. - Have obstructions. - The airstream is stopped before going out - Vocal cords are/ are not vibrated Phonology: system and pattern of sounds I. Segments Segments are the smallest pieces of sounds that divided from a speech. II. Phonemes 1. Phonemes are the smallest sounds segments that can be distinguished by their contrast within words 2. If you want to find phonemes: - Do the contrast - Meet 3 conditions: * 2 words are diffirent in meaning * 2 words are the same number of segments * In each word there is only one different segment in the same distribution 3. 2 types of phonemes: - Segmental Phonemes: are phonemes that before becoming phonemes they are segments. - Supra segmental phonemes: intonation and stress can function as phonemes but they are not segments -> we called them supra segmental phonemes. III. Minimal pair and minimal set 1. Minimal pair is a pair of words: - they are different in meaning - they have the same number of segments - in each word there is only one different segment in the same distribution. Minimal pair is a way to find phonemes. One minimal pair gives us 2 phonemes. 2. Minimal set is set of words (more than 2 words): - they are different in meaning - they have the same number of segments - in each words there is only one different segment in the same distribution. Minimal set is a way to find phonemes. III. Allophones Allophones are phonemes derived from the same phoneme in different distribution or relation. E.g: /k/ -> car /k h a/; act /ak o t/; book /buk o / The transcription and the description - Transcription means to use a set of symbols representing sounds to show the sounds in the written forms. - Description means to use the words to describe the phonetic features of the sounds. 1. Types of transcription: Phonemic transcription (Broad transcription) Phonetic transcription (Narrow transcription and allophonic transcription - Use planting brackets // - Show the different phonemes. It doesn’t show the pronunciation. - Use square brackets [] - Show how sounds are pronounced including phonetic details such as aspiration, nasalization, etc. 2. Description: Phonetic features: - Vowel / Consonant - Oral / Nasal - Voiceless / Voiced - Place of articulation - Manner of articulation E.g: /i/: This is a monothong vowel. When we pronounce it, the shape of lips is spread, the tounge position is high, the highest part of tounge is front and the length of sound is long. /p/: This is a voiceless and oral consonants. When we pronounce it, the lips form the obstruction, the airstream is completely stopped then suddenly released. 3. Distinctive features a. Distinctive features are speacial features that can be used to distinguish one sound from another sound of a language. b. E.g /p/ and /b/: - /p/: bilabial, plosive, voiceless, oral - /t/: bilabial, plosive, voiced, oral -> voicing /p/ and /t/: - /p/: bilabial, plosive, voiceless, oral - /t/: alveolar, plosive, voiceless, oral -> Place of articulation /t/ and /s/: - /t/: alveolar, plosive, voiceless, oral - /s/: alveolar, fricative, voiceless, oral -> Manner of articulation V. Phonological Rules The function of phonological rules is to provide the phonetic information necessary for the transcribing of the atterances. 1. Vowel quality - At the end of word, quality is long - Before consonants, vowel quality is shortend. + followed by a voiced consonant, quality is short + followed by a voiceless consonant, quality is shorter 2. Nasalization Vowel will be nasalized when standing before nasal sounds: /m, n, ŋ/ 3. Aspiration [ h ] Aspiration is a little extra puff of air that sometimes goes with speech sounds: /p, t, k/ (fortis plosive) - Fortis plosive will be aspirated when standing in initial position of a stressed syllable. E.g: im’portant, in’telligent, en’courage… - Fortis plosive will be unaspirated when standing after the sounds /s/. E.g: stay, star, sky… - Exception: car, key 4. Unexploded [ o ] - Fortis plosive will be unexploded when standing before another fortis plosive. E.g: stopped, act - Fortis plosive will beunexploded when standing at the end of word and preceded by a vowel. E.g: map, hot,look 5. Devoicing The approximant sounds: /l, r, j, w/ will be devoiced when standing after fortis plosive /p, t, k/ E.g: Plan, cry, tuesday, question 6. Dentalization [ ̪ ] The alveolar sounds /l, n, t, d/ will be dentalized when standing before dental sounds: / θ, δ / E.g: health, month, eighth… 7. Palatalization /ɬ/ - /l/ will be palatalized when followed by a consonant and preceded by a vowel. E.g: milk, silk… - /l/ will be palatalized and dark when standing at the end of a word and preceded by a vowel. E.g: mill, feel, kill… VII. The assimilation 1. Definition When we are speaking very quickly (in informal speech), one sound may influence another sound makes it change and become a new sound. The new sound may be resemble or identical with the assimilating sound (neighbouring sound). These phenomena are called assimilation. Eg: that/p/ man, that/p/ boy, this shop, ink/ŋ/pot, kwin/m/bi… Definition: Assimilation is considered as a phonetic process in which one sound is changed to become resemble or identical with the neighbouring sound. 2. Types of assimilation 2.1. Regressive assimilation: Preceding sound Following sound Gʊd mͻniŋ b Regressive assimilation is a assimilation in which the following sound assimilates the preceding sound and the direction of assimilation is backward. 2.2. Progressive assimilation: Eg: good you Progressive assimilation is a assimilation in which the preceding sound assimilates the following sound and the directiong of assimilation is forward. 3. Degree of assimilation 3.1. Complete -> identical 3.2. Partial -> resemble 3.3. Intermediate: this year /δis jiә/ -> /δiʃiә/ /t/ + /p, m, b/ -> /p/ /s/ + / ʃ,j / -> /ʃ/ /d/ + /p,m,b/ -> /b/ /t/ + /j/ - /tʃ/ /t/ + /k,g/ -> /k/ /z/ + /j/ -> /dʓ/ /d/ + /k,g/ -> /g/ 4. The elision The disappearing of the sound (vowel or consonant) when we are speaking quickly and by the influence of the surroundings is called elission. eg: last month, worldwide, interesting, rapidly, similiar 5. The liaison (sound linking) The linking final sound of a word with the initial sound of the following word for the convenience of speaking that we call liaison. 2 types: link consonant with vowel, vowel with vowel VII. The English stress 1. The word stress 1.1. What is word stress? Eg: ‘Stju dәnt εdju’keiʃn - The prominent pronunciation for any syllables in the word is called word stress. - The energy that make the sound more prominent than surroundings is called - The stress mark “/” is put above the prominent syllable. One syllable word : two /t h u/ -> content word - have stress to /tu/ -> function word -> do not have stress 1.2. Types of word stress - Secondary stress: less prominent and “/” is put under the syllable - Primary stress: more prominent and “/” is put above the syllable 1.3. Function of word stress a. Show the syntactic relationship within the word: - Show the difference between a noun and a verb when having the same spellings: Eg: ‘Record Re’cord - Show the difference between a noun phrase and a compound noun: Eg: White ‘house ‘Whitehouse Green ‘ market ‘Green market b. Show the grammatical structure of words ‘diploment - dip’lomacy - diplo’matic ‘Photograph - pho’tography - photo’graphic ‘Monotone - Mo’notony - Mono’tonic 2. The sentence stress The sentence stress is to show the important information of the sentence Eg: We are learning English now - what are you doing now? - what are you learning now? -> Learning English -> English is the important information of the sentence VIII. The English intonation 1. What is the English intonation? When we are speaking, the voice is going up and down continuously causing the pitch change. The different patterns of pitch change occuring when we are speaking is called “intonation”. 2. Function of intonation 2.1. Attitudial function - Attitudes speaker - angry - sad - Feelings - happy - polite 2.2. Accentual function Show the important information that the speaker want to convey to the listener. 2.3. Grammatical function Show the different kind of the sentence 3. Basic intonation patterns 3.1. Falling - High fall: show the excitement (happy) or indignation (angry) - Low fall: show coldness or impatience 3.2. Rising - High raise: show question