Territory, Specialization and Globalization in European Manufacturing Although traditional manufacturing (textiles, clothing, footwear, furniture, etc.) has been in decline in developed countries, it still represents an important part of European employment due to its labour-­intensive character Moreover, its geographical concentration particularly exposes certain regions of Europe to job loss as the industry declines This book provides an explanation for the differences observed in the impact of globalization which is based on the influence of the territory and of the production specialization of the firms The conclusions presented in the book are drawn from a detailed study of the Spanish textile-­clothing sector The book highlights the intensity of the relationship between the organizational model of the territory where the firms are located (a high concentration of interrelated firms in a well-­defined geographical area called an ‘industrial district’), the specialization strategy implemented and the globalization of the economy It also suggests the need to consider those factors as interdependent determinants of firm performance, particularly given the current trend for firms to simultaneously concentrate geographically and multilocalize domestically and internationally The proposed methodology of analysis can be used to study other manufacturing sectors in other European countries A concise yet detailed volume, this is an invaluable contribution to the literature of economic and industrial globalization It will prove invaluable to both researchers and policy-­makers in the field Francisco Puig is Associate Professor in the Department of Management at the University of Valencia Helena Marques is Associate Professor in the Department of Applied Economics at the University of the Balaeric Islands Routledge studies in global competition Edited by John Cantwell University of Reading, UK, and David Mowery University of California, Berkeley, USA   Japanese Firms in 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Wilfred Dolfsma 40 Governance and Innovation Maria Brouwer 32 Entry and Post-­Entry Performance of Newborn Firms Marco Vivarelli 41 Public Policy for Regional Development Edited by Jorge Martinez-ưVazquez and Franỗois Vaillancourt 33 Changes in Regional Firm Founding Activities A theoretical explanation and empirical evidence Dirk Fornahl 42 Evolutionary Economic Geography Location of production and the European Union Miroslav Jovanovic 34 Risk Appraisal and Venture Capital in High Technology New Ventures Gavin C Reid and Julia A Smith 35 Competing for Knowledge Creating, connecting and growing Robert Huggins and Hiro Izushi 36 Corporate Governance, Finance and the Technological Advantage of Nations Andrew Tylecote and Francesca Visintin 37 Dynamic Capabilities Between Firm Organisation and Local Systems of Production Edited by Riccardo Leoncini and Sandro Montresor 38 Localised Technological Change Towards the economics of complexity Cristiano Antonelli 43 Broadband Economics Lessons from Japan Takanori Ida 44 Targeting Regional Economic Development Edited by Stephan J Goetz, Steven C Deller and Thomas R Harris 45 Innovation, Knowledge and Power in Organizations Theodora Asimakou 46 Creativity, Innovation and the Cultural Economy Edited by Andy C Pratt and Paul Jeffcutt 47 Co-­opetition Strategy Giovanni Battista Dagnino and Elena Rocco 48 Knowledge Intensive Entrepreneurship and Innovation Systems Evidence from Europe Edited by Franco Malerba 49 Innovation in Complex Social Systems Edited by Petra Ahrweiler 50 Internationalization, Technological Change and the Theory of the Firm Edited by Nicola De Liso and Riccardo Leoncini 51 Territory, Specialization and Globalization in European Manufacturing Francisco Puig and Helena Marques Territory, Specialization and Globalization in European Manufacturing Francisco Puig and Helena Marques First published 2011 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010 To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk © 2011 Francisco Puig and Helena Marques All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-203-84480-7 Master e-book ISBN ISBN13: 978-0-415-55206-6 (hbk) ISBN13: 978-0-203-84480-9 (ebk) Contents List of figures List of tables Preface Introduction 1.1 Background and motivation  1.2 Current challenges  1.3 Overview of the book  Networks and industrial districts 2.1 Inter-­organizational relationships and networks: a configuration typology  2.2 Industrial districts as territorial units of analysis  14 2.3 Strategic implications of the formation of industrial districts for European traditional manufacturing  19 2.4 Conclusions  27 Globalization, internationalization strategy and industrial districts 3.1 Industrial delocation: concept and evolution  30 3.2 Industrial districts and the new economic environment  32 3.3 The location effect in the internationalization process  39 3.4 Conclusions  45 The textile-­clothing industry in Europe: characterization and recent evolution 4.1 Characterization of the textile-­clothing industry  48 4.2 The recent evolution of the textile-­clothing industry in Europe  56 xi xiii xvi 28 47 168   Bibliography Mariotti, 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93 Alcabete 66, 67, 85 Alcoi-Ontinyent 24–5, 86, 87, 88, 89–91, 92, 93, 94–5, 110, 136–7 Alcúdia Crespins 87 Aldrich, H 7, Alfarrasi 87 Alicante 66, 67, 86, 92–5 Altenburg, T 12, 13 AMADEUS database 60, 63, 89 Amighini, A 36, 38–9 Amin, A 11, 17, 18, 118 analysis of variance (ANOVA) 122–3, 124, 129 Andalucia 65 Anglès 87 Annual Company Survey for France 81 Aragón 65 Aspelund, A 41 Association of Spanish Textile Firms (ACTE) 48 Association of Textile Entrepreneurs of the Comunidad Valenciana (ATEVAL) 79, 89, 91, 109, 110, 113, 139, 140 Asturias 65 asymmetric shocks 16 Atzeneta d’Albaida 87 automobile industry clusters 13 Avinyó 87 Bagella, M 6, 45 Baldwin, R 9, 15, 38, 49 Balears 65 Banyeres de Mariola 87, 88, 93 Baptista, R 13 Barcelona 66, 67, 85, 88, 92–5 Bartlett, C A 6, Basevi, G 35 Beamish, P W 29 Becattini, G 1, 3, 6, 14, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23 Becattinian networks (industrial districts) 10, 11 Becchetti, L 19, 44, 79, 124 behavioural perspective, internationalization 40–6 Bell, G 13, 124 Bellandi, M 16, 17, 22 Belloi, M 18 Belussi, F 3, 13, 14, 21, 29, 38, 39, 124 Belvis de la Jara 87 Beneixama 87 Bernard, A 42 Bihar 87 bilateral free trade agreements 61 Bilkey, W J 31 Blankenbourg-Holm, D 44, 45 Bocairent 87, 88, 93 Boix, R 18, 71, 80, 84, 88 book overview 3–5 ‘born global’ firms 41 Bramanti, A 10 Brash, J 41 Brenner, T 12, 13, 25, 79 Brulhart, M 15 Index   175 Brusco, S 11, 13, 17, 18, 22 Buckley, P J 101, 126 Buxey, G 47, 101, 129, 131, 132 Cainelli, L 19 Cairncross, F 28, 118 Caldari, K 13, 14 Camisón, C 1, 22, 25, 119 Canals 87 Cantabria 65 Capecchi, V 23 Casavola, P 20 Casson, M Castellón 66, 67, 83, 86, 92–5 Castilla-la-Mancha 64, 65, 66, 67, 85 Castilla-Ln 65 Catala 64, 65, 66, 67, 85 Cavusgil, S T 41 Central and Eastern Europe (CEECs) 61, 69 ceramic industrial districts 83 Cercs 87 Cerejeira, J C 81, 84 Chang, S J 101 Chen, M J 2, 101 Chetty, S 44, 45 Chevassus-Lozza, E 43–4 Chi, T 49 China, imports 62 Christoffersen, S 49 Ciudad Real 66, 67, 85 class-II industrial districts 11, 13 ‘classical’ delocation 31 Clerides, S 42 clothing firms 55, 74, 75, 89–91, 93–5, 96; Spanish imports/exports 68–9 clusters, types of 13 Cocentaina 87, 88, 93 Comext 62, 68, 69, 70 community of people 20 comparative advantage 38–9 competitive advantage 35, 36 competitiveness: determinants of 90; evaluation of 102, 103, 116–18, 138; Spanish textile-clothing industry 69–71; subsector effect on 127–9 complex activity economies 16 complex industrial clusters 12, 13 Comtrade 55, 58, 61 Comunidad Valenciana 64, 65, 66, 67; characterization of textile-clothing industry 73–6; district effect and international activity 120–5; economic importance of textile-clothing industry 71–3; economies of scale 22; effect of location on perceptions 114–20; firms’ strategic environment 102–10; geographical definition of 79–88; methodology of analysis 89–91; operationalization and preliminary statistical analysis 110–14; organizational characteristics 92–9; subsector effect on international activity 131–5; subsector effect on perceptions 125–31 contiguity 86–8 cooperation, districts 21 Coruña 66, 67, 86 Costa, M T 26, 45, 81, 124 Courlet, C 81, 84 Coviello, N E 43 Crestanello, P 35, 36, 38–9 Crevillent 87, 92, 93, 95–5 crisis 4, 16, 69, 70, 71, 120, 125, 129, 131, 134, 137 Cristovam, M L 47 Cuenca 67 cultural proximity 40 Dalziel, M 49 Dana, L P 30 Dangayach, G S 10 Daniels, J decline 16, 62, 63, 69, 70, 73, 76, 77 De Liso, N 19 Deardorff, A 28 Dei Ottati, G 18, 20, 21, 22, 109 Della Libera, P E 35, 36, 38–9 delocation: as internationalization strategy 29; process of 39; rationale for 35; timing of 37–8; what to delocate 35–7; where to delocate from and to 38–9 demand side flexibility 23 demand, evolution of 49–50 DeMartino, R 2, 103 Denis, C 29 dependent subcontractor networks 11, 13 dependent variables, operationalization of 111–13 descriptive analysis 92–5 Deshmukh, S G 10 Detrell, J 55, 56 Devaraj, S 126 Devinney, T M 25 Dicken, P 101, 104, 131, 132 diffusion 41 district effect: firm performance 25–6; international activity 120–5; perceptions of strategies and policies 118–20; perceptions of SWOT analysis 115–18 176   Index districtualization, Comunidad Valenciana 73 diversification, minimum level of 86–8 division of labour 21–2 downstream firms 22, 24–5, 137 Dunford, M 16 Dunning, J H 39 Ebers, M eclectic approach 36, 39 economic importance, textile-clothing industry 71–3 economies of scale 22 Elo, M 40 embeddedness empirical literature, industrial districts 18–19 employees, number of 86–8 employment shares, specialization criteria 80, 81 employment: Comunidad Valenciana 71–4; European textile-clothing industry 56, 57–8, 59, 60, 63; main textileclothing concentrations 88; Spanish textile-clothing industry 63–4, 65, 67, 70, 82 endogenous growth theory environment group: criterion and number of factors in rotation of 144; structural matrix 145 environmental strategic factors 104–5, 106, 107; findings 137, 138; importance of 142 EU-15: household expenditure 49–50; trading partners 61–2 EU-27: evolution of textile-clothing industry in 56–63; similarity of textileclothing industry in Spain 63–9 Europe: characterization of textile-clothing industry 48–56; evolution of textileclothing industry 56–71; example of concentration and territorial specialization 71–6 European traditional manufacturing; strategic implications of formation of industrial districts 19–26 European Union (EU): classification of textile-clothing subsectors 50–4; enlargement 61, 69, 70, 112; Europe Agreements 61; European Commission 48; textile-clothing employment/ production 59 Eurostat 49, 50, 53, 54, 56, 59, 60, 65, 70 Eusebio, R 42 export development, sequential process of 41–2 export markets: Europe 56–63; Spain 68–9, 70 export/import ratio 63 exports, relationship between current state and evolution of 105 external economies 14–16, 36, 38–9 external trade: Comunidad Valenciana 76; Spain 68 externalised delocation 31 Extremadura 65 Fabiani, S 26 factor analysis, summary of 112 fashion districts 35, 36 ‘federal’ organizational model Feenstra, R 30 Fernández, V 10 Fernández, Z Fernández-Otheo, C 29 Fiegenbaum, A 23 field work 91 Filatotchev, I 120 firm age 92–3, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98 firm growth 113 firms, number of 60, 63, 71 firms, population of 21–3 firms, size of 63, 92–3, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98 first-generation industrial districts 11, 13 Fletcher, R 29, 33 flexibility model 24 flexible specialization 23–5 footwear districts 36, 39 foreign direct investment (FDI) 28, 31, 36, 39, 73 Forslid, R France, industrial districts 81 Fujita, M 38 furniture districts 36 Galicia 64, 65, 66, 67, 86 Galletto, V 18, 71, 80, 84, 88 Galliano, D 44 Garcia, E Garciulo, M geographical definition 79–88: characteristics of districts 82–4; choice of database 85; delimitation of textileclothing activities to be included 85; geographical delimitation 80–2, 83–4; identification of textile-clothing industrial districts in Spain 85–8; integratrive proposal 83–4; perspectives Index   177 on 84; statistical measurement of main textile-clothing concentrations 85–6; territorial identification of industrial districts 86–8 geographical delimitation 80–4, 139 Ghauri, P N 3, 29, 38, 101, 126 Ghoshal, S 6, Giner, J M 22 Girona 66, 67, 85, 92–5 Giuliani, E 1, 119 Gleave, B 25, 79 globalization: responses of industrial districts to 36; typology of SME responses to 33 globalization–growth nexus 28–30 globalization–internationalization relationship 30 Goglio, S 18, 125 Golf, E 55, 94, 106, 129 Gordon, I 14 Grandinetti, R 21, 36, 37 Grandori, A Granovetter, M S 6, Guadalajara 67, 85 Guercini, S 38 Guia, J 22 Gulati, R 6, 9, 10 Hadjikhani, A 38 Hadley, R H 43 Hair, J F 103, 111, 113, 122, 132, 139 Hambrick, D C 101, 120 Hamilton, R T 104, 120 Hanson, G 30 Harris, R G 28 Harrison, B 25 Hawawini, G 101 Hayes, R H 126 Hayes, S G 47, 104, 129, 131 Head, K 15 Helpman, E 30, 40 Herfindahl Index (HI) 82 Hernández, F 26 Hernández, J M 80 Hesterly, W S heterogeneous evaluations/perceptions 118–19, 126, 138 heterogeneous industries 47, 140 Hite, J M Hitt, M A 102, 104–5 Hofstede, G 40 holdings 10, 11 home textile firms 55, 74, 75, 89–91, 93–5, 96–7, 98–9, 137 homogeneous evaluation/perceptions 115–16, 126, 127, 129–30, 137, 138 horizontal cooperation 21 Hostalric 87 household expenditure, EU-15 49, 50 hub-and-spoke districts 12, 13 Human, S E 10 Igualada 86–7, 88 imports of textile-clothing: EU 61–3; Spain 68–9 impulse-buying 49 independent firms 22–3 independent variables, operationalization of 110–11 industrial associations 49 industrial districts: background 14–16; characteristics of 82–4; concept and evolution 30–2; definitions of 17–18; diagrammatic representation of effect of 116; empirical literature 18–19; evolution and terminology 16–18; perspectives of analysis of 19; preliminary analysis of 110–11; as territorial units of analysis 14–19; see also Comunidad Valenciana industrialization, Comunidad Valenciana 73 industrialized clusters 12, 13 Inkpen, A C innovating environments 12–13 Innovation Model 40–2 input cycle, textile-clothing production 54–5 input flexibility 24 inputs, transformation of 55 Instituto Nacional de Estadistica (INE) 64, 66, 67, 71, 73, 77, 85, 89, 92 Instituto Valenciano de Estadistica (IVE) 72, 74, 75, 94 inter-organizational relationships, configuration typology 7–14 internal economies 14–15, 39 internal group, regression results 118 internal flexibility 24 internal strategic factors 104–6, 107; importance of 142 internal variables, labels of 152 international activity: and district effect 120–5; evaluations of evolution of 103, 104; and firm age 98; and firm size 98; intensity of 113, 123, 124, 125, 131–2, 137, 138; and location 98; relationship between current state and future 178   Index international activity continued evolution 103; sample firms 96; start of 113, 121, 122, 123, 131–2, 133, 137, 138; and subsector 99; subsector effect on intensity of 133–5; subsector effect on start of 132–3 international competition 112 International Labour Organization 32 internationalization strategy: industrial delocation 30–2; industrial districts and new economic environment 32–9; location effect in 39–45 internationalisation variables: normality test on 115; preliminary statistical analysis 113, 114 internationalization: degree of 44; diagrammatic representation of hypothesis for district effect on 122; diagrammatic representation of subsector effect on 132; factors hampering 33–4; factors helping 34; and networks 44; summary of hypothesis testing on 135; summary of hypothesis testing results on 125 investment 82 ISTAT 84 Italian National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT) 80–1 Italy 12, 13–14, 16–17, 25–6, 35, 36, 39, 80–1 Jarillo, J C 7, Jensen, B 42 Johanson, J 10, 40, 41, 42–3, 44, 120, 124 Johnson, G 102, 105 Jones, C Jones, R M 47, 104, 129, 131 Joshi, M P 102 Julien, P.-A 32, 33, 39, 124 kaisha 10, 11 Karlsson, C 24 Karnani, A 23 Kathuria, R 102 Kilduff, P 49 Knoke, D knowledge spills 40–1 Kogut, B 10 Kolmogorov–Smirnov test 113–14 Kotha, S 102 Krugman, P 6, 8, 13, 14, 15, 28, 40 Kuklinski, J H labour scarcity 35 labour-intensive products 35–7 Lainé, F 80–1, 84 Langlois, R N 10, 11, 13, 43 Lee, W 41 León, F light industrialization model 80 Likert scales 90–1, 108, 111, 139 Linares, E Lleida 66, 67, 85 Llonch, J 42 local labour markets (LLM) 80 location theory 35–7 location: box plot for intensity of international activity according to 124; box plot for start of international activity according to 123; descriptive statistics according to 147–9; distribution of firms by 74; effect on internationalisation process 39–45; effect on managerial perceptions 114–20; evaluation of environment with respect to 117; evaluation of strategies according to 119; findings 137; and firm age 96; and firm size 96; hypothesis testing results on 125; and international activity 98; and subsector 96; summary of hypothesis testing results on 121 localization coefficients (CL) 82 localization economies 15 locational distribution of sample 93 Lohrke, F 101, 120 Lugo 67, 86 Luostarien, R 28, 29 Lye, A 104, 120 McAuley, A 43 McCann, P 14 Maccarini, M E 45, 123 McCormick, D 12, 13 McEvily, B 10 McGahan, A M 101 Madrid 65, 92–5 main subsector members: findings 137, 138; valuation of need for public policies 130–1; valuation of performance, strategic needs and policy priorities 126; valuation of strategic environment, competitive position 127–9; valuation of strategic options 129–30 main subsector specialization, and international activity 131–5 Majocchi, A 45 management, district firms 22–3 Index   179 managerial perceptions 2: competitive position/firm evolution 102–3; industrial district effect on 114–20; international activity 103–4; strategic environment 104–7, 115–18; strategic needs and policy priorities 107–10; subsector effect on 125–31 Marchi, F 63 Mariotti, I 34, 36, 37, 39, 125 markets 32–3, 112; exploring 113; knowledge of 41 Markusen, A 12, 13, 17, 18 Marques, H 14, 15, 40, 61 Marshall, A 17, 18, 19, 23, 38 Marshallian networks (clusters) 10, 11, 12, 13–14 Martinez, M T 1, 83, 84, 119 Mason, P A 101, 120 Mataró 86–7, 88 Mattson, L G 10, 42–3, 44, 120, 124 Mayer, T 15 measurement scales 139 Mediona 87 Menguzzato, M Metcalf, H 15 methodology of analysis: field work 91; geographical definition of the industrial district 79–88; organizational characteristics of the sample 92–9; population and sample 89; questionnaire 89–91, 139, 141–3 metallic products districts 24 Meyer-Stamer, J 12, 13 Miles, R E milieu 12, 13 Ministry of Industry, Spain 83 Mittelstaedt, J D 44–5 Moen, O 41 Molina, F X 1, 18, 19, 83, 84, 119 Möller, K Montaverner 87 multidivisional firma 10, 11 multilocation 31, 39–40 municipalities most represented in sample 93 Murcia 65, 92–5 Muro de Alcoi 87, 88, 93 mutual interdependence 43 Myro, R 29 NACE 50–4, 59 Nassimbeni, G 17, 126 National Company Survey, Spain 81–2 national reorganization 30–2 Navarcals 87 Navarra 65 network flexibility 24 network model 42–5 network research, perspectives of 12 network theory networks: concept of 7–8; configuration typology 7–14; types of 9–11 new economic environment 32–9 new firms, number of 82 non-district firms: start and intensity of internationalization 121–5; valuation of need for public policies 119–20; valuation of strategic environment 115–18; valuation of strategic options 118–19; performance of 26 NUTSII regions 59, 60, 64–6 O’Donoghue, D 26, 79 Òdena 87 Olarte, T 19, 23 Oliver, A L 8, 9, 10 Olost 87, 88 Omiccioli, M 20 operationalization: of dependent variables 111–13; of independent variables 110–11 organizational characteristics 19, 20, 21–3; descriptive analysis 92–5; relationships between sample characteristics 95–9 organizational perspective 8–9 Orne, D 102 Ottaviano, G 35 Ourense 66, 67, 86 output flexibility 24 outputs, textile-clothing production 55 outsourcing 30–1 Overby, J W 30 Oxelheim, L 3, 29 Pais Vasco 65 Paniccia, I 6, 16 Parr, J B 6, 15 partial relocation 37 Passon, M 21 Pavitt, K 49 Pearce, J 120 Pecqueur, B 81, 84 performance: district effect 25–6; valuation of 126 Perrow, C Pietrobelli, C 19, 20, 23 Piore, M J 13, 21, 23 Piqueras, J 73 180   Index Pla, J 2, 8, 26, 69, 131 Pobla de Lillet 87 policies group, regression results 120 Pontevedra 67, 86 Porter, M 1, 6, 13, 35, 101 Porth, S J 102 Portugal 47–8, 81 pottery industry clusters 13 Prats de Lluỗanốs 87 pre-industrial clusters 12, 13 preliminary statistical analysis, internationalization variables 113–14 principal components analysis 111–12 product life-cycle theory 36, 37–8 production organization, current challenges 2–3 production process 54, 55, 56 production 112–13; decentralization of 21–2; European Union 59, 63; organization of 23–5; structure of 54; world 56–63 profitability ratios 25–6 Provan, K G 10 provincial agglomerations, Spain 66 provincial distribution, sample firms 92 public policies: demands by textile textileclothing firms 90, 91; district effect on perceptions of 118–20; efficacy of 12; evaluation of priorities 107–8, 109, 110; findings 138; importance of 143; labels of variables 152; subsector effect on perceptions of 129–31 Puig, F 3, 6, 26 Pyke, F 3, 17, 18 questionnaires 89–91, 139, 141–3 Quintiliani, F 20 Rabellotti, R 18, 19, 21, 36, 38–9 regional agglomerations, Spain 64 regional commuting areas 80 related firms 22 relationships, system of 21 reorganization models 31 replacement-buying 49 research findings 136–40; summary of 139 Ricardo, David 38 Rioja 65 risk capital networks 10, 11 rivalry 112 Robbins, D 120 Roberts, M 42 Robertson, P L 10, 11, 13, 43 Robins, K 11, 17, 18 Rodrik, D 30 Rossi, S 19, 44, 124 Route 128 13, 18 Sabel, C F 13, 23 Sammarra, A sample characteristics, relationships between 95–9 sample variables, nature of relationships between 99 Sant Bartomeu del Grau 87 Santa Margarida de Montbui 87, 88 Santa Maria, M J 22, 83, 84 Santa Pablo Montes 87 satellite industrial platforms 12, 13 Saxenian, A 13, 18, 19, 21 Schiele, H 15, 22, 23 Schmitz, H 13, 16, 21 Sedita, S R 21, 29, 38, 124 Sengenberger 3, 17, 18 Senn, L 10 Servais, P 30 Sforzi, F 17, 18, 19, 80, 81, 84 Signorini, L F 18, 19, 22, 25, 26 Silicon Valley 13, 18 Sing, H 101 Skinner, W 126 small and medium enterprises (SMEs) 1–2; types of 32–3 Smith, A 57 Snodgrass, C R Snow, C C social capital social characteristics, industrial districts 19, 20, 21–3 social context, internationalization 42–5 social perspective 9–10 social welfare 31–2 Soda, G Soler, V 18, 19, 22, 25, 26, 83, 84 Sưlvell, Ư 11, 21 Sonseca 86–7, 88 sourcing 32–3 Spain: current situation of 69–71; external trade 68; identification of textileclothing industrial districts 85–8; location of main textile-clothing provincial agglomerations 66; location of main textile-clothing regional agglomerations 64; textile-clothing indicators 70, 77; textile-clothing industry in 63–9; trade partners 69; see also Comunidad Valenciana specialization: and distribution 113; and Index   181 international activity 131–5; main textile-clothing concentrations 88; patterns in Comunidad Valenciana 73–4 specialization coefficients (CS) 60, 65, 67, 82, 85–6, 139; municipalities with highest 87 specialized flexible production 23–5 specialized textile-clothing machinery 55 specialized workforce 20 Spies, J 40, 61 Staber, U 9, 21 state-anchored districts 12, 13 statistical tables 144–52 Steinle, C 15, 22, 23 Stengg, W 47, 56, 57, 63 Stern, N 28 Stevens, J 111 Storper, M 13 strategic analysis, subsector effect on perceptions of 127–9 strategic environment: analysis of scenarios 102–4; analysis of strategic needs and policy priorities 107–10; district effect on perceptions of 115–18; subsector effect on 127; SWOT analysis 104–7 strategic factors 90–1 strategic group: criterion and number of factors in rotation of 145; structural matrix 146 strategic needs: evaluation of 107, 108, 109–10; findings 137, 138; importance of 143 strategic network 11 strategic options: heterogeneous valuation of 118–19; homogeneous valuation of 129–30 strategic perspective 10–11 strategies: district effect on perceptions of 118–20; subsector effect on perceptions of 129–31 structural crisis, Spanish textile-clothing industry 69–71 subcontracting 8–9, 30–1 subsectors: box plot of intensity of international activity according to 134; box plot of start of international activity according to 133; definition of 50–3; descriptive factors according to 150–1; diagrammatic representation of effect on perceptions 126; distribution of firms by 74; EU classification of 50–4, 139; and firm age 97; and firm size 97; and location 97; and international activity 99; effect on international activity 131–5; effect on perceptions 125–31; preliminary analysis of 111; structure of 72, 95; summary of effect on international intensity 134; summary of effect on start of internationalization 133; summary of results of hypothesis testing on 130; valuation of environment according to 128; valuation of strategies according to 129 Such, J 18, 19, 24 supply side flexibility 23 Sura, W 63 survival clusters 12, 13 Svahn, S Swamidass, P M 102 Swann, P 13 SWOT analysis: strategic environment 104–7, 108–9, 110; district effect on perceptions of 115–18 SWOT matrix 107 Taplin, I 47, 69 Tarragona 67, 85 Tattara, G 26 technical textiles 55; uses for 56 technological clusters 12, 13 telecommunications sector 38 territorial base networks 10, 11 territorial distribution, Spain 64–7 territorial identification 86–8 territorial networks, typologies of 11–14 territorial specialization 71–6 territorial units of analysis, industrial districts as 14–19 Tesar, G 41 textile fibres firms 74, 75, 89–91, 93–5, 97, 98 textile-clothing industry: characterization of 48–56; concentrations map 86; evaluations of current state and future evolution 102–3; evaluations of evolution of international activity 103–4; in NACE 50, 51–3; recent evolution in Europe 56–71; see also Comunidad Valenciana; Spain textiles, Spanish imports/exports 68–9 Thorelli, H B ‘tied’ delocation 31 Toledo 66, 67, 85, 88 Tomás, J A 49 Toms, S 120 Toni, A D 17 Tordera 87 182   Index Torrejón, M 49 Toyne, B 54 trade balances, EU-27 61 trade liberalization 59, 60–1, 62, 69, 70 trade partners: EU-15 62; Spain 69 trade, volume of 28 traditional artisan networks 11, 13 traditional manufacturing, Comunidad Valenciana 71–3 traditional organization model transaction costs theory ‘tree’ organizational model 8–9 Trullén, J 23 Tsang, E W Tybout, J 42 United Nations (UN) 32 Uppsala Model 40–2, 44–5 upstream firms 22 urbanization economies 15–16 Vahlne, J 40, 41 Valencia 66, 67, 86, 92–5 Valladolid 92–5 Vallés Oriental region 81–2 value systems 20 value-added production 35–7 value-chain activities, disaggregation level 8–9 Vázquez, A 8, 10 vehicle components sector 38 Velada 87 Venables, A 15, 28 Vernon, R 38 vertical cooperation 21 vertical integration 22, 23 Vilanova del Cami 87, 88 Vildecans, E 26, 45, 124 Villafranca del Cid 87 Ward, W A 43–4 Weber, A 37 Welch, D E 10 Welch, L S 10, 28, 29 Wheelwright, S C 126 Wiklund, J 24 Wilkinson, F 21 Williamson, J G 28 Williamson, O E Wilson, H 43 world production, textile-clothing industry 56–63; shares of 57; export share 58 World Trade Organization, Agreement on Textiles and Clothing 1, 16, 60, 106, 139 Ybarra, J A 18, 19, 73, 81–2, 83, 84 You, J.-L 21 Zaheer, A 10 Zhao, H 43 Zimmer, C 7, Zou, S 43 Zourek, H 3, 37, 120 Zucchella, A 2, 20, 29, 34, 39, 45, 120, 125, 126 .. .Territory, Specialization and Globalization in European Manufacturing Although traditional manufacturing (textiles, clothing, footwear, furniture, etc.) has been in decline in developed... agglomerations in Spain Location of the main textile-­clothing provincial agglomerations in Spain Textile-­clothing external trade for Spain (€ millions, 2000–07) Textile-­clothing indicators in Spain Change... traditional manufacturing industry and the working hypotheses to be transposed to the territory examined in the following two 4   Introduction chapters (Chapters and 6) The final chapter (Chapter 7) brings