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Sách Hướng dẫn tính toán công trình xử lý nước thải MWH''''s Water Treatment - Principles and Design, 3d Edition
Index A Absorbance, 18, 26–28, 904 Absorption, 392, 439, 846, 848–849, 1034–1036 See also Light absorption; Photon absorption Absorption clarifiers, 692–693 Acanthamoeba castellani, 131, 142–143 Acetone, 1425 Acid, 226, 1380–1381 Acid–base reactions, 226, 268–271 A/C pipe, see Asbestos-cement pipe Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), 140 Actiflo process, 693–694 Action spectrum, 998–999 Activated alumina, 194, 1657, 1658, 1670, 1694 Activated carbon, 11, 1123, 1125–1127, 1611–1612 See also Granular activated carbon (GAC); Powdered activated carbon (PAC) Activated silica, 578 Activation energy, 226, 256–257 Activation polarization, 1727 Active layer, 1336, 1343 Activity, 226 Activity coefficients, 226, 240–243 Adenoviruses, 119, 120, 129–130 AdOx model, 1463–1466 Adsorbability, 1134–1135 Adsorbate, 1119, 1120 Adsorbed dose, 67 Adsorbent, 392, 1118, 1120 Adsorbent particle density in an absorber (ρs ), 1118 Adsorbent-phase concentration, 1180 Adsorbent surface area per volume of bed, 1208 Adsorption, 11, 190, 195, 197, 1119–1253 applications of, 1122–1124 carbon, and charge neutralization, 557–558 chemical, 1120–1121, 1131, 1133 definition of, 392, 1119 factors involved in, 1131–1132 with GAC, see Granular activated carbon gas, 1157–1159 historical development of, 1121–1122 interfacial equilibria for, 1128 and interparticle bridging, 558–560 isotherm, see Adsorption isotherm liquid, 1147–1154 materials for, 1124–1128 NOM removal with, 1502 with PAC, see Powdered activated carbon phenomena of, 1120–1121 physical, 1120–1121, 1133–1134 PPCP removal with, 1611–1612 radionuclide removal via, 1605–1606 reactors using, 293 surface chemistry and forces involved in, 1131–1133 Adsorption isotherm, 1135–1169 BET, 1146–1147 determination of, 1136–1139, 1143–1145 and Dubinin-Radushkevich equation, 1157–1159 equilibrium, 1135–1169 Freundlich, 1141–1145 Langmuir, 1271–1273 MWH’s Water Treatment: Principles and Design, Third Edition John C Crittenden, R Rhodes Trussell, David W Hand, Kerry J Howe and George Tchobanoglous Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc and multicomponent equilibrium, 1154–1157 and Polanyi potential theory, 1147–1154 Adult diarrhea rotavirus, 125–126 Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), 195, 459, 462, 1417–1479 application in water treatment, 190 assessing feasibility of, 1432 by-products of, 1425–1426 and carbonate species, 1426–1427 definition of, 458, 1416 estimating performance of, 1418, 1421–1424 factors affecting, 1426–1431 Fenton’s reactions, 1477 hydrogen peroxide/ozone process, 1441–1455 hydrogen peroxide/UV light process, 1455–1472 of MTBE, 1423–1424 and NOM, 1428–1430 ozonation, 1432–1441 ozone/UV light, 1473 and pH, 1427–1428 photocatalysis with titanium dioxide, 1473–1477 PPCP removal, 1609–1610 and reactivity of parent component with hydroxyl radical, 1431 and reduced metal ions, 1430–1431 sonolysis, 1478–1479 types of, 1418 UV reactor used for, 525 Advection, 399–400 Aeration, 10, 11, 195, 1036–1060 advantages/disadvantages of, 1058–1059 1869 1870 Index Aeration (continued) application in water treatment, 190 DBP removal with, 1504 definition of, 1034 diffused, 1106–1107 and gas–liquid equilibria, 1038–1050 oxidation of iron and manganese by, 1560–1561 for radon removal, 1603–1604 rate of mass transfer for, 443 selection of equipment for, 1059–1060 in situ, 197 types of, 1037–1038 Aerators: aspirator-type, 1053, 1057 cascade, 1052, 1054 diffusion-type, 1056–1057 droplet, 1058–1059 mechanical, 1058, 1059, 1107 multiple-tray, 1052, 1054–1056 spray, 1051, 1100–1105 thin-film, 1058–1059 Aerobic (term), 74 Aeromonas hydrophilia, 110–112 Aggregate characteristics, 25–42 Aggregate water quality indicators, 18 Agitation, 288, 363 Agriculture, 59 AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), 140 Air: density, 1857–1859 viscosity, 1859 Air flotation, dissolved, see Dissolved air flotation (DAF) systems Air loading (DAF systems), 706–707 Air scour systems, 728, 791 Air stripping, 195, 210, 1035–1036 advantages/disadvantages of, 1058–1059 classification of, 1050–1053 definition of, 392, 1034 and gas-liquid equilibria, 1038–1050 low-profile, see Low-profile air strippers packed tower, see Packed tower air stripping reactors using, 293 removal of chlorination by-products, 1504 selection of equipment for, 1059–1060 spray-tower, 1105–1106 two-film model of, 439 types of, 1037 Air-to-water ratios, 1064–1066, 1090, 1098 Air treatment, 210–211 Air-water contactors, 1036–1037 Alachlor, 59 Aldehydes, 1488, 1490 Aldicarb, 59 Aldicarb sulfone, 59 Aldicarb sulfoxide, 59 Aldoketoacids, 1490 Algae, 62, 80, 143, 145–150 characteristics of, 78 ecology/nomenclature of, 145 enumeration of, 149, 151 and filter clogging, 149, 150 removal of, 196 and trophic level, 145, 147–148 Algal blooms, 146, 149 Alkalinity, 18, 50, 570 Allochthonous bacteria, 94–95 Allowable recovery, 1377–1379 Alpha (particle) radiation, 66 Alternative disinfectants, 195, 1500–1501 Altona, Germany, 5, 731 Alum, 4, 562–564 Alumino-silicate scales, 1777–1778 Aluminum, properties of, 1715 Aluminum hydroxide, 273–274 Alum sludge, estimating volume of, 1637–1638 Ambient air, 974 Ambient atmospheric pressure, 53 Amebiasis, 136 American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 808 American Water Works Association (AWWA), 201, 204, 808, 879, 885, 908 Ammonia, 957–961 addition of, during ozonation, 1516–1518 chlorine reaction with, 499 Ammonium sulfate, 960–961 Amoebic dysentery, 134–135 AMU (atomic mass unit), 55 Amy, Joseph, Anaerobic (term), 74 Analcite, 1267 Ancient world, water treatment in, 4, 731, 1703 Ancylostoma duodenale, 144 Anhydrous ammonia, 957–960 Anions, 45–47 Anisotropic turbulence, 364 Anode/anodic reactions, 458, 470, 1708, 1710, 1718, 1723–1724 Anoxic (term), 74 ANSI (American National Standards Institute), 808 Anthracite–sand biofilters, 802–803 Anthrax, see Bacillus anthracis Anthropogenic chemicals, 6–7 Anthropogenic contaminants, 3, 11, 51 Antibiotics, 100–101, 107, 115 Antiscalants, 1380–1381 AOC, see Assimiliable organic carbon AOPs, see Advanced oxidation processes Apparent particle density, (ρa ), 1118 AquaDAF unit, 719–720 Aqua Pellet system, 1687 Aqueducts, Aqueous (term), 229 Aqueous solution extraction, 1128 Archaea, 76 Array (of RO units), 1336, 1344 Arrhenius’ equation, 254, 1270 Arsenic: chemical properties of, 1536–1537 drinking water with elevated, 1534–1537 in residuals, 1689–1690 Arsenic removal, 194, 1534–1544 and chemical properties of arsenic, 1536–1537 coagulation processes, 1538–1540 ion exchange, 1542–1544 membranes, 1544 sorption processes, 1538, 1541–1542 treatment strategies for, 1538–1544 Asbestos-cement (A/C) pipe, 1703, 1704, 1707, 1780 Ascaris lumbricoides, 144 Asiatic cholera, 4–5, 84, 85, 92, 176–177 Aspirator contactors, 1034, 1053, 1057 Assimiliable organic carbon (AOC), 56, 57, 1486, 1512 Astroviruses, 128–129 Asymmetric membrane, 820, 1343, 1349 Asymmetric structure, 1336 Asymptomatic diseases, 85, 86, 88 Atherosclerosis, 1534 Atmospheric pressure, 53, 1859 Atom, fundamental properties of, 65–66 Atomic mass unit (AMU), 55 Atomic number, 1280 Atomic weights (table), 1863–1866 Atrazine, 59, 1165–1166, 1171–1172 Attachment efficiency (rapid filtration), 769–770 Index Augustus, Emperor, 99 Australia, 13 Autochthonous bacteria, 94 Autotrophs, 74 AWWA, see American Water Works Association Axial flow mixers, 613–615 B Bacillariophyta, 204 Bacillus anthracis, 92, 115–117 Bacillus cereus, 93 Bacillus subtilis, 1011, 1013 Backmixing, 334, 376 Backwash: bed expansion and porosity in, 751–755 chemically enhanced, 828, 880 definition of, 728 delivery systems, 791–792 in diatomaceous earth filtration, 808 forces on particles in, 748–749 intermixing in, 757 and multimedia filters, 756–757 rapid filter during, 735, 798 removal of fine particles in, 756 stratification in, 755–756 Backwash hydraulics, 748–757 Backwashing, 1252, 1253, 1319 biologically active filters, 803–804 granular activated carbon, 1252, 1253 membrane filtration design for, 879–880 rapid filter design for, 790–793 and resins, 1284 Bacteria, 5, 6, 77, 94–118 See also specific bacteria, e.g.: Escherichia coli characteristics of, 78 and corrosion, 1736–1738 membrane filtration of, 849 pH environment of, 80–81 removal of, 196 size of, 77 terrorism in water supplies, 115–118 viable but nonculturable, 154–155 Bacterial disease, 109–115 Bacterial pathogens, 109–115 classic waterborne, 95–101 modern waterborne, 102–109 Bacteriological control, 6–7 Baffle/baffling, 617–620 DAF clarification system, 714–715 effluent permeable, 672, 673 for improved reactor performance, 350 Baffled channels, 627–630 Bag filtration, 728, 808 Balantidium coli, 131, 142 Ballasted flocculation, 1661 Ballasted sedimentation, 693–694 Band gap energy, 1475–1476 Basicity, 573–574 Basins See also Sedimentation basins/tanks DAF clarification system, 713–716 earthen, 664 equalization, 1659–1660 flocculation, 12 width of, 713, 715 BAT, see Best available technology Batch operation, 433 Batch reactors, 288, 290–292, 967–968, 1182 Batch system, 392 Bayer-Lewatit upflow fluidized system, 1304 BDCM (bromodichloromethane), 1489 BDOC, see Biodegradable dissolved organic carbon Beds: expansion of, 751–755 in parallel, 1200, 1202–1204 porosity of, 1118, 1193 series, 1198–1202, 1206 Bed porosity, (ε), 1118 Bed volumes per hour (BV/h), 1315 Beer–Lambert law, 26, 511–512, 1000–1001 Belt filters, 1683–1685 Bench-scale tests, 1309–1317, 1440–1441 Beneficial use, 166 Beneficial-use designation step, 169–170 Benzene: diffusion coefficient for, 409–410 mass transfer coefficient for, 429–430 Best available technology (BAT), 166, 174, 201, 1634 Best practicable control technology (BPT), 1634 Beta (particle) radiation, 66 BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) isotherm equation, 1146–1147 Binary exchange component systems, 1290–1292 Biocolloids, 546 Biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC), 57, 1486, 1512 Biodegradable organic matter (BOM), 801, 1168–1169 1871 Biodosimetry, 904, 1004–1006 Biofilms, 801, 803–804 Biofiltration, 190, 1502–1503 Biological denitrification, 194, 1592–1595 Biological fouling, 53, 1382–1383 Biologically active filtration, 801–804 Biological processes, 10 Biological warfare, 92, 118 Bioterrorism, 115–118 Biot number, 1178, 1214 Blending, 363 below microscale, 375 definition of, 288 design of equipment for, 363, 376–380 devices for, 375–376 initial, 333 for process control, 380–382 rapid, 372–375 time required for, 370–375 uniformity of, 368–370 Blocking filtration laws, 863–867 ‘‘Blue baby syndrome,’’ 1591–1592 Blue-green algae, 78, 145, 146 Boiling, 3, 10 Boiling point: of organic contaminants, 53 of water, 21 BOM (biodegradable organic matter), 801, 1168–1169 Boundary layer models, 419–422, 428 BPT (best practicable control technology), 1634 Braces, 229 Brackets, 229 Brackish water, 14, 1341, 1381 Brasses, 1765–1767 Breakpoint, 1316 Breakpoint chlorination, 904 Breakthrough, 734–735 Breakthrough curve, 1217–1218, 1316–1317 Breakthrough profile, 1119, 1161 Brines: disposal of, 1599–1600 ion exchange, 1627, 1655–1656, 1669 management of, 1656–1658, 1669–1670 solid sorbent, 1656–1658 sorbent, 1627 Brine concentrators and crystallizers, 1402 Bromamine, 1518–1519 Bromate, 475, 1450, 1486, 1512–1515, 1519–1520 1872 Index Bromide, 475, 1426, 1496–1498, 1518–1519 Brominated by-products, 1426 Bromodichloromethane (BDCM), 1489 Bromoform, 1489, 1496–1498 Brown, Robert, 397 Brown algae, 146 Brownian motion, 553, 861 definition of, 392 discrete particle settling, 650–652 molecular diffusion, 396–397, 401 Brownian velocity, 404 Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) isotherm equation, 1146–1147 Bubble rise velocity, 704–705 Bubble size, 704 Bubble tanks, 294 Buchner funnel, 1638–1639 Budd, William, 84, 99 BV/h (bed volumes per hour), 1315 By-products of water treatment, 1416–1479 See also Residuals of AOPs, 1425–1426 chloramine, 1504–1508 chlorine, 1494–1504 chlorine dioxide, 1508–1512 historical overview, 1487–1489 known, 1489–1491 ozone, 1512–1520 regulatory requirements for, 1489, 1491–1494 C CA, see Cellulose acetate Cake filtration, 846, 847, 849–850 Cake information, 1374 Calcite, 1569 Calcium carbonate, 272–273, 1751–1782 Calcium carbonate precipitation potential (CCPP), 1776–1777 Calcium carbonate saturation buffer intensity, 1777 Calcium carbonate scale, 1700, 1772–1777 Calcium removal, single-stage selective, 1582–1585 Calcivirus, 119, 120, 126–128 Caldwell–Lawrence (CL) diagrams, 1579 Calgon ISEP system, 1304–1306 California Department of Health Services, 1507 California Institute of Technology, 170 California State Water Pollution Control Board, 170 California State Water Resources Control Board, 170 Camp–Stein root-mean-square velocity gradient, 365–367 Campylobacter jejuni, 103–107 Cancer, 108, 1534 Capacity index, 1776 Captive bubble contact angle, 840 Carbofuran, 59 Carbon adsorption, Carbonate hardness, 1530, 1568 Carbonate ions, 1426–1427 Carbon dioxide, 233 Carbonic acid, 1585–1586 Carbon preparation (in RSSCT), 1243–1250 Carbon residence time (CRT), 1173–1174 Carbon usage rate (CUR), 1119, 1192–1196 Carboxylic acids, 1490 Carcinogens, 13 Carcinogenic criteria, 171–173 Carthage, Cartridge filtration, 728, 808 Cascade aerators, 1052, 1054 Case studies: Gibson Island Advanced Water Treatment Plant (Queensland, Australia), 1825–1833 ion exchange process design, 1319–1329 Lostock Water Treatment Works (Manchester, United Kingdom), 1812–1819 North Cape Coral Water Treatment Plant (Florida, United States), 1806–1812 North Clackamas County Water Commission Water Treatment Plant (Oregon, United States), 1841–1848 River Mountains Water Treatment Facility (Nevada, United States), 1819–1825 Sunol Valley Water Treatment Plant (California, United States), 1833–1841 Cast iron, 1703–1704, 1706–1707 Cast iron–mortar lined pipe, 1704 Catalysis, 229 chemical reactions, 232–234 photocatalysis, 1416, 1473–1477 and rate constant, 254–257 Catalyst, 226 Catalytic oxidation, 459, 1421 Cathode/cathodic reactions, 458, 470, 1708, 1710, 1718, 1723–1724 Cathodic protection, 1700 Cations, inorganic, 45–47, 49 Cationic polymers, 576 Caustic soda softening, 1573–1574 CCC, see Critical coagulation concentration CCL (Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List), 186 CCP (concrete cylinder pipe), 1704 CCPP (calcium carbonate precipitation potential), 1776–1777 CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), 106, 114 CEB (chemically enhanced backwash), 828, 880 CECs (contaminants of emerging concern), 186 Cellulose acetate (CA), 841, 842, 1350–1351 Cement-based materials, dissolution of, 1778–1783 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 106, 114 Centerline discharge mixers, 378 Centrate, 1631 Centrifuges, 1685–1686 Ceramic membranes, 841, 842 Cerium, 1706 CFD, see Computational fluid dynamics Chain-and-flight-type sludge collector, 673, 674 Chalix, 1569 Challenge testing, 850–851 Channels: baffled, 627–630 open-channel systems, 997 predicting dispersion in, 345–349 Charge neutralization, 557–558 Charles’ law, 64 Chelsea Water Works Company, 731 Chemical actinometry, 1004–1005 Chemical adsorption, 1131, 1133 Chemical conditioning, 1627 Chemical contaminants, 181, 185 Chemical denitrification, 1592 Chemical disinfection, 190, 1486–1487 See also By-products of water treatment Chemically enhanced backwash (CEB), 828, 880 Chemical neutralization, 190 Chemical oxidation, 190 Chemical precipitation, 190, 1570–1575, 1663 Chemical purification, 10 Index Chemical reactions, 228–279 acid–base, 268–271 catalysis of, 232–234 complexation, 275–278 conversion in, 235–237 equilibrium, 237–243 kinetics of, 251–262 and mass transfer, 447–451 mechanisms of, 231–232 oxidation–reduction, 278–279 precipitation–dissolution, 272–275 rate constants of, 254–262 rate law/order of, 252 rate mechanism for, 262–267 rate of, 251–252 reaction sequence of, 230–231 relative rates of, 252–254 stoichiometry of, 233–235 symbols used in, 229 terminology for, 226–227 thermodynamics of, 243–251 types of, 228–230 in water treatment, 267–279 Chemical reduction, see Reduction Chemisorption, 1120–1121 Chick, Harriet, 912–916 Chick model, 924 Chick’s law, 912–917 Chick–Watson model, 912–917, 921–923, 925–926, 930 Chimney, 989 Chloramines, 375, 908, 943–945, 961 Chloramine by-products, 1504–1508 and chemistry of formation, 1505–1507 formation control for, 1507 removal of, 1507–1508 Chlorate, 500, 1508–1510 Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) pipe, 1705 Chlorination, 5, 6, 940–964 alternatives to, 1500–1501 with ammonia, 957–961 by-products of, see Free-chlorine by-products with chlorine dioxide, 961–964 and combined chlorine, 943–945 continuous, design issues for, 48 to form DBPs, 374–375 forms of, 946 and free chlorine, 940–943 gas, 949–951 liquid, 946–948 with sodium hypochlorite, 952–957 Chlorine (Cl2 ), 5, 13, 197, 491, 496–499 with ammonia, 499 application of, as oxidant, 498–499 forms of, 946 hydrolysis of, 449–451, 485–487 iron/manganese oxidation using, 1561–1563 liquid, 946–948 ozonation and preoxidation with, 1519 physical/chemical characteristics of, 496–497 predominance area diagrams for, 482–490 recognition of benefits of, 1487 taste/odor problems with, 462 Chlorine by-products, see Free-chlorine by-products Chlorine dioxide (CIO2 ), 197, 491, 497, 500 applications of, as oxidant, 500–501 chlorination, 961–964 and color removal, 463–464 as disinfectant, 1500 iron/manganese oxidation using, 1562 ozonation and preoxidation with, 1519 physical/chemical characteristics of, 500 Chlorine dioxide by-products, 1508–1512 and chemistry of formation, 1508–1510 formation control for, 1510 removal of, 1510–1511 Chlorine residuals, 111 Chlorine species, 484–490 Chlorite, 500, 1508–1510 Chloroacetic acid, 1428–1430 Chloroform, 1487–1488, 1496–1497 Chlorophyta, 146 Cholera, 3–6, 84, 92 See also Asiatic cholera Chromate, Chromaticity, 42 Chromophores, 458, 519 Chronic hepatitis, 123 Chrysophyta, 146 CIP (clean-in-place) cycle, 830 Circular pipe plug flow reactor, 291 Circular sedimentation tanks, 657–658, 677–679 Cistern, Clarifiers: absorption, 692–693 1873 reactor, 688–690 sludge blanket, 690–692 solids contact, 687–693 tube and lamella plate, 680–687 upflow, see Circular sedimentation tanks CL diagrams, 1579 Clean-bed head loss, 744–748 Cleaning, 880, 1097, 1403 Cleaning solutions, reverse osmosis, 1669 Clean-in-place (CIP) cycle, 830 Closed reactors, 295 Closed-system model, 338–340, 345 Closed-vessel systems, 995–997 Clostridium botulinum, 93 Clostridium perfringens, 93 CMBRs, see Completely mixed batch reactors CMFRs, see Completely mixed flow reactors Coagulants, 544, 557 inorganic, 562–573 jar-testing of, 578–582 precipitation of, 1630 recovery of, 1688–1689 reduction of, 582–583 synthetic organic, 543 Coagulant aids, 542, 577–578 Coagulant sludges (coagulation sludges), 1642–1648 chemical properties of, 1647 components of, 1639–1640 estimating quantities of, 1643–1647 physical properties of, 1647–1648 Coagulation, 5, 10, 194, 195, 197, 557–590 aids to, 577–578 alternative techniques for, 582–583 application in water treatment, 190 and color removal, 463 and DAF performance, 703 definition of, 542, 544 design issues for, 544 of dissolved constituents, 583–590 for DOC removal, 586–590 enhanced, 195, 542, 584–590, 1502 inorganic metallic, 562–573 and jar-testing, 578–582 mechanisms of, 557–561 and NOM, 583–586 organic polymers, 574–577 oxidation as a aid in, 464 prehydrolyzed metal salts, 573–574 process of, 544–545 radionuclide removal via, 1604 reactors using, 293 1874 Index Coagulation (continued) removal of dissolved inorganics, 590 theory of, 557–561 Coagulation pretreatment, 877–878 Coagulation sludges, see Coagulant sludges Coarse-media flocculators, 630 Coarse screening, 192 CoCoDAFF unit, 720–721 Co-current flow, 392 Co-current operation, 1299–1300 Co-current settlers, 684–685 Coefficient of variation (COV), 288, 368–369 Coions, 1267 Coliform test, 3, 13, 151–153 Collimated beam apparatus, 516–518 and dose response curve, 1010–1012 UV dose determination, 1006–1014 Collins–Selleck model, 921–924, 930 Collision frequency, 592–593 flocculation of, 600, 602 fractals of, 606–608 Collision theory, 255 Colloids, 18 Colloidal constituents, 31, 168 Colloidal particles, 642 Colloidal stability, 864 Color, 41–42 control of, 197 removal of, 463–464 of water, 18, 41–42 Columns: analysis of, 1195–1196 design of, 1317–1319 number of, 1325 Combined chlorine, see Chloramine Combined chlorine residual, 904 Combined reactions, 474–475 Comma bacillus, Community Water Supply Survey (CWSS), 177–178 Completely mixed batch reactors (CMBRs), 292, 297, 298, 305–310 definition of, 288 and half-life, 306, 309–310 mass balance in, 305–306 reaction rates in, 306 Completely mixed flow reactors (CMFRs), 292, 297–298, 318–323, 1066, 1161 contaminant removal in, 311–312 improving performance of, 344, 349 mass balance in, 310–311 modeling reactions in ideal, 310–323 performance of, 526, 1188–1189 photolysis rate for, 514–516 with recycle, 321–322 residence time/volume required for, 318–321 in series, 301–304 tanks-in-series analysis of, 312–313 time to achieve steady state in, 314–316 tracer curves from, 299–301 unsteady-state analysis of, 313–314 Complexation reactions, 275–278 Complex species, 226 Compliance with regulations, 174–175 Comprehensive performance evaluation/composite correction program (CPE/CCP), 204 Compression settling (Type IV), 642, 645 Computational fluid dynamics (CFD), 324, 985–986, 1004 Concentrate, 1336, 1337 Concentrate management, 1400–1402 Concentrate reverse osmosis, 1627 Concentrate stream, 1346 Concentration, 213, 1316 Concentration gradient, 395, 398 in boundary layer models, 419 graphical analysis of, 433–438 for mass transfer at interfaces, 415, 417 Concentration polarization (CP), 1336, 1368–1374, 1727–1728 Concentration polarization mass transfer coefficient, 1370–1371 Concentration profile, 1161–1162 Concrete, 1778–1779 Concrete cylinder pipe (CCP), 1704 Conditioning, 213, 1627, 1678–1680 Conductance, ionic, 410–411 Conducting electrolytes, 1708, 1710 Conductivity, 18, 21, 51, 1750, 1752 Conductor, 1708, 1710 Conduits, see Water conduits Conjugate base, 226 Conservative constituents, 288 Conservative tracers, 295 Constant-diffusivity RSSCT design, 1243 Constant pattern, 1215, 1219 Constant pattern homogeneous surface diffusion model (CPHSDM), 1220–1221 of GAC performance, 1222–1226 and impact of NOM on GAC performance, 1231–1236 Constituents of water, see Inorganic chemical constituents; Organic chemical constituents Constituent removal See also Softening arsenic, 194, 1534–1544 emerging constituents, 1531 iron and manganese, 464–465, 1544–1554 nitrate, 1591–1601 nontraditional constituents, 1531–1534 radionucleotides, 1601–1606 Contact filtration, 728 Contact modes, 433–434 Contactor or adsorber density, (ρf ), 1119 Contact time: free-chlorine, 1501 and PAC performance, 1170, 1172 reactors used for, 94 Contaminants See also Natural organic matter (NOM) anthropogenic, 3, 51 chemical, 185 emerging, 8–9 in public water supplies, 3–8 release of, 1767–1772 removal of, 311–312 reverse osmosis to remove, 1341 unregulated, 185–187 Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs), 186 Continuous chlorination, 5, Continuous contact operation, 393 Continuous-flow reactors, 290, 291, 310–323, 968–972 Continuously pressurized water systems, Continuous operation, 433–434 Controlling precipitate, 1097 Control volume, 289, 296–297, 400–401 Conventional filtration, 736 Conventional lime softening, 207, 209 Conventional oxidation, 458–459 Conventional treatment, 3, 193, 196, 204–206, 728 Conversion, reactant, 226, 235–237 Conversion factors, 1851–1856 Copper, 1702 bacterial corrosion of, 1737 corrosion potential, 1730, 1732–1734 as plumbing material, 1707, 1711–1712 properties of, 1715 Copper hydroxide, 275–278 Index Copper-induced pitting, 1757–1758 Copper sulfate, 196–197 Copper tubing, 1704, 1760–1763 Corrosion, 1701–1792 cement-based materials, 1778–1783 contaminant release from, 1767–1772 definition of, 1700, 1702 electrokinetics of, 1714–1725 electrolytic, 1701, 1749 estimating rate of, 1718 and free energy, 1708 galvanic, 1701, 1750–1752 inhibition of, 1700, 1734–1736 localized, 1701, 1746–1749 microbiologically induced, 1736–1738 mixed-potential model of, 1714, 1724–1736 Pourbaix diagrams of, 1710–1713 and scale formation, 1772–1778 testing of, 1788–1792 thermodynamics of, 1708–1713 treatment for, 1783–1788 uniform, 1701 Corrosion cell, 1700, 1708, 1710 Coulombic attraction, 1131, 1133 Coulombic repulsion, 1131, 1133 Countercurrent flow, 393 Countercurrent operation, 1301 Countercurrent packed tower, 1034 Countercurrent settlers, 683–684 Counterions, 542, 555, 557, 1264 Coupling, reverse osmosis, 1359 Coupon test, 1789–1790 COV (coefficient of variation), 288, 368–369 CP, see Concentration polarization CPE/CCP (comprehensive performance evaluation/ composite correction program), 204 CPHSDM, see Constant pattern homogeneous surface diffusion model CPVC (chlorinated polyvinyl chloride) pipe, 1705 Creeping flow, 743 Crete, Crevice corrosion, 1701 Crick, F H C., 82 Criteria, water quality, 166 Criteria development step (regulatory process), 170–173 Critical coagulation concentration (CCC), 542, 555, 557 Critical current density, 1740 Critical potential, 1740 Cross-current settlers, 685 Cross flow, 393 Cross-flow filtration, 820, 834–837 CRT (carbon residence time), 1173–1174 Cryogenic oxygen generation system, 976 Cryptosporidiosis, 140–142 Cryptosporidium spp., 13, 130, 133, 134, 138–142, 151, 153, 808, 826, 850, 875, 1013, 1014, 1631 Cryptosporidium muris, 139 Cryptosporidium parvum, 77, 133, 139–140, 732, 844, 849, 907, 929, 931, 997–999 Crystalization, 1627, 1664, 1665 Ct values, 904, 924, 930–932 Culture-based viability evaluation, 154–155 Cunningham correction factor, 403–404 CUR (carbon usage rate), 1119, 1192–1196 Current density, 1701 CWSS (Community Water Supply Survey), 177–178 Cyanobacteria, 77, 145, 146, 1163 Cyanogen halides, 1488, 1491 Cyanzine, 59 Cysts, 74, 135–137, 153, 196 D Da (dalton), 55, 820 Dacthal, 59 DAF systems, see Dissolved air flotation systems DAF (dissolved air flotation) thickening, 1674 Dalton (Da), 55, 820 Damkăohler number, 351, 352, 354 Dankwerts boundary condition, 1209, 1210 Darcy, Henry, 744 Darcy flow, 743–745 Darcy’s law, 1638 Davies equation, 241 DBC (direct bacterial count), 155 DBCM (dibromochloromethane), 1489 DBPs, see Disinfection by-products DBPFP, see Disinfection by-product formation potential Dead-end (transverse) filtration, 820, 835, 837 Decay rate, 905 Deep-bed monomedia filters, 737 1875 Deep-well injection, 1627, 1667–1669 DE (diatomaceous earth) filtration, 807–808 Degassers, 978 Demineralization, 14 Demistor, 1056 DENIPOR process, 1593, 1594 Denitrification: application in water treatment, 191 biological, 194, 1592–1595 bromate removal by, 1519–1520 chemical, 1592 definition of, 1530 DENITROPUR process, 1593 Dense membrane, 1336 Dense sludge, 1661 Densideg dense-sludge process, 693 Density: of air, 1857–1859 of resin beads, 1282–1283 of water, 21 Density currents, 642, 694–699 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 81–83, 997–999 Depth, effective, 670 Depth filtration, 728, 730, 758–759, 771–780 Desalination, 13, 1339–1341 Design analysis, 1089–1090 Desorption, 393, 1034–1036 Destabilization, 542 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans, 1737 Detachment, rapid filtration, 780 Detention time, 195, 682 Dewatering: definition of, 1627 filter press, 1682–1683 mechanical, 213, 1681–1686 DFHSDM (dispersed-flow homogeneous surface diffusion model), 1214 DFM, see Dispersed-flow model DFPSDM (dispersed-flow pore and surface diffusion model), 1214, 1238 Diarrhea, 99, 100, 102–109, 112, 113, 115, 117, 124–126, 128–129, 137, 140 Diatoms, 146 Diatomaceous earth, 728, 807–808 Diatomaceous earth (DE) filtration, 807–808 Diatomaceous earth sludges, 1650–1651 Dibromochloromethane (DBCM), 1489 Dicamba, 59 1876 Index Dichloroethene, 465–468 1,2-Dichloropropane, 59 Dielectric constant (ε), 21 Differential settling, 591–592 Diffused aeration, 1106–1107 Diffused air, 1056–1057 Diffuser walls, 631–633 Diffusion See also Homogeneous surface diffusion model (HSDM) and Brownian velocity, 397 definition of, 289, 393 dispersed-flow pore and surface diffusion model, 1214, 1238 film, 1175 molecular, 396–404 and nonideal flow, 334 particle, 763–764 plug flow pore and surface diffusion model, 1213–1220 pore surface diffusion model, 1174–1176 reverse osmosis, 1351–1353 sheer-enhanced, 861 solution–diffusion model, 1357–1358 and temperature, 404 Diffusion coefficients, 404–415 definition of, 393 for electrolytes, 407, 410–412 gas-phase, 412–415 ion-exchange, 1297 for large molecules/particles, 405–407 liquid-phase, 405–412 and mass transfer coefficients, 429–433 for oxygen, 412 relating to kinetic energy, 401 for small neutral molecules, 407–410 for solutes in gases and liquids, 398 sources for, 404 surface, 1220 Diffusion contactors, 1034 Diffusion-type aerators, 1056–1059 Diffusivity, 393 Dimensionless time, 1211 Dimethylamine, 1505 Dimethylhydrazine, 1505 Dinoflagellates, 146 Dinophyta, 146 Dioxane, 1425 Dioxin, 59 DIP (ductile iron pipe), 1704 Dipole attraction and repulsion, 1133 Dipole–dipole attraction, 1131, 1133 Dipole–induced dipole attraction, 1131 Dipole moment, 21, 52–53 Direct bacterial count (DBC), 155 Direct filtration, 193, 205–206, 729, 736 Direct integrity monitoring, 883–884 Direct viable count, 155 Discrete particles, 642 Discrete particle (Type I) settling: definition of, 642 ideal, 652–653 principles, 645–652 in sedimentation basins, 652–658 velocity of particles, 645–650 Disease, see Waterborne disease Disinfectants: alternative, 195, 1500–1501 declining concentration of chemical, 927–928 and PAC performance, 1164–1165 Disinfection, 196, 905–1017 application in water treatment, 191 by-products from, see By-products of water treatment chemical, 1486–1487 with chlorine, see Chlorination contact time used in, 294 definition of, 904 historical perspective on, 906–908 kinetics of, see Disinfection kinetics methods of, 908–911 organic compounds formed during, 59 with ozone, see Ozone disinfection reactors using, 293 reverse osmosis used in, 1400 with ultraviolet light, see Ultraviolet light disinfection and waterborne disease elimination, Disinfection by-products (DBPs) See also By-products of water treatment definition of, 905, 1486 and enhanced coagulation, 584 formation of, 374–375, 464, 1487–1488 regulations related to, 181, 185 removal of, 195 Disinfection by-product formation potential (DBPFP), 463–464, 1206 Disinfection contactor design, 979–991 over-under baffled contactors, 987–991 pipeline contactors, 980–981 serpentine basin contactors, 982–987 Disinfection kinetics, 912–932 Chick’s law of, 912–914 Chick–Watson model of, 912–917 classical, 912–916 Collins–Selleck model of, 921–923 contemporary models of, 917–923 and disinfection effectiveness, 929–930 dispersion and t10 concept, 939 dispersion in, 937–938 model comparisons for, 923–926 in nonideal reactors, 932–939 parameters for, 925–926 Rennecker–Mari˜ nas model of, 918–920 SFM model of, 933–937 temperature influence on, 928–929 Disk and disklike particles, 34 Dispersed air, 1057 Dispersed-flow homogeneous surface diffusion model (DFHSDM), 1214 Dispersed-flow model (DFM), 336–345 and open/closed systems, 338–341 performance of, 526–527 of reactive system, 350–353 Dispersed-flow pore and surface diffusion model (DFPSDM), 1214, 1238 Dispersion: definition of, 289 disinfection kinetics, 937–938 and nonideal flow, 334–335 in pipeline contactor, 980–981 predicting in a channel, 345–349 and t10 , 939 Dispersion numbers, 982–984 Disposal: of liquid streams, 1660, 1662 of residuals, 1402–1403 of semisolid residuals, 1689–1694 Dissolved air flotation, 642 Dissolved air flotation (DAF) systems, 196, 701–721 and air loading, 706–707 application in water treatment, 191 basin layout and geometry for, 713–716 bubble size/rise velocity, 704–705 design considerations for, 712–721 design example of, 710–712 factors affecting, 703–712 float removal in, 718–719 floc-bubble aggregate rise velocity, 704–705 and floc–bubble attachment, 709–712 Index and floc-bubble separation zone, 712 and floc characteristics, 703–704 minimum volume of gas, 707 proprietary units, 719–721 recycle systems in, 716–717 saturation concentration of air in water, 708–709 subnatant removal in, 718 Dissolved air flotation (DAF) thickening, 1674 Dissolved constituents, 32–33, 168 Dissolved gases, 168, 210 Dissolved inorganics, 590 Dissolved organic carbon (DOC), 55–57, 60–61, 586–590 Dissolved organic matter (DOM), 862–863 Dissolved solids, 583–590, 1096–1097 Dissolved substances, 1000–1001 Distillation, 193, 1664 Divinylbenzene (DVB), 1268, 1269, 1275, 1276, 1284 DL (longitudinal dispersion coefficient), 980 DLVO theory, 553, 555 DMF, see Dispersed-flow model DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 81–83, 997–999 DOC, see Dissolved organic carbon Dolomieu, Deodat de, 1569 Dolomite, 1569 DOM (dissolved organic matter), 862–863 Donnan potential, 1268, 1279 Dosages: metal-salt, 570–571 permanganate, 508–509 polymer, 576 reduced concentration vs PAC, 1186–1187 for UV light/hydrogen peroxide oxidation, 1465–1466 Dose: from collimated beam, 1006–1014 for pathogenicity, 88–90 radioactive, 67 of UV light, 930–931, 997, 1000, 1006–1014 Dose equivalent, 67 Dose-response curve, 905, 1010–1012 Drag coefficient, 646–647 DR (Dubinin–Radushkevich) equation, 1157–1159 Drift velocity, 1296 Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List (CCL), 186 Drinking water supply, See also Water treatment Driving force, mass transfer, 415, 435–436 Droplet aerators, 1058–1059 Droplet air-water contactors, 1034, 1050 Drug resistance, 100–101, 107, 115 Drying beds, 1677–1678 Dual-media filters, 737 Dubinin–Radushkevich (DR) equation, 1157–1159 Ductile iron, 1703–1704, 1706–1707 Ductile iron pipe (DIP), 1704 Dunlingsen, Robley, Duodenal ulcers, 107 DVB, see Divinylbenzene Dynamic viscosity, 22 Dysentery, 100–101 Dystrophic lakes, 147 E E coli, see Escherichia coli EaggEC (enteroaggregrative E coli), 102–104 Earthen basins, 664 EBC (equivalent background concentration), 1167–1168 EBCT, see Empty-bed contact time EBCTLC (empty-bed contact time of the full-scale column), 1138–1139 EBCTSC (empty-bed contact time of the rapid small-scale column), 1138–1139 Eberth, Karl, 5, 84, 99 EC (electrical conductivity), 51 Echovirus, 119, 120 Eckert pressure drop, 1076–1078 Eddy size, 364–365, 375 EDL, see Electric double layer EDR (electrodialysis reversal), 1663 EDSTAC (Endocrine Disruptor Screening and Testing Advisory Committee), 187 EE/O, see Electrical efficiency per log order Effective size (ES), 729, 738–739, 1283 Effluent concentration, 1468–1472 Effluent permeable baffle, 672, 673 Effluent water quality, 781 Egg, 74 Egypt, EHEC (enterohemorrhagic E coli), 102–105 EH –pH predominance area diagrams, 482–490 1877 EIEC (enteroinvasive E coli), 102–105 Einstein, Albert, 401 Electrical conductivity (EC), 51 Electrical efficiency per log order reduction (EE/O): definition of, 1416 for photolysis, 529–532 for UV light/hydrogen peroxide oxidation, 1466, 1468 Electrical potential: determining equilibrium constant from, 475–477 evaluating free-energy change and, over concentration range, 478–482 and free-energy change, 471–474 impact of pH on, 477–478 Electrical resistance method, 1790 Electric double layer (EDL), 542, 550, 553–557 Electrochemical cell, 470 Electrode kinetics, 1708 Electrode potentials, 469–482 assessing reaction feasibility with respect to, 470–471 determining whether reaction will proceed, 471–482 mechanistic description of, 470 Electrodialysis reversal (EDR), 1663 Electrohydraulic cavitation, 1421 Electrokinetics, 550–551, 1714–1725 Electrolytes: conducting, 1708, 1710 diffusion coefficients for, 407, 410–412 polyelectrolytes, 545, 574 Electrolytic corrosion, 1701, 1749 Electron acceptor, 458, 466 Electron beam irradiation, 1421 Electron donor, 458, 466 Electronic particle size counting, 36–37 Electronic resources, 1867 Electron microscope (EM), 119, 128 Electroosmosis, 550 Electrophoresis, 550–552 Electrostatic attraction, 1135 Electrostatic repulsion, 552 Elementary reactions, 226, 232 Ellipsoid particles, 34 El Tor cholera epidemic, 98–99 Elution curves, 1314–1315 EM (electron microscope), 119, 128 Emerging constituents, 1531 Emerging contaminants, 8–9 Emerging organic compounds, 59 1878 Index Empty-bed contact time (EBCT), 804, 1119, 1191–1192, 1195–1196, 1264, 1299 Empty-bed contact time of the full-scale column (EBCTLC ), 1238–1239 Empty-bed contact time of the rapid small-scale column (EBCTSC ), 1238–1239 Endemic, 74 Endocrine disruptors, 166, 185, 187, 1606 Endocrine Disruptor Screening and Testing Advisory Committee (EDSTAC), 187 Endopore, 74 Energy recovery, 1403–1405 Engineering properties of water, 21–22 Enhanced coagulation, 195, 542, 584–590, 1502 Enhanced Coagulation Guidance Manual, 584 Enhanced softening, 1530 Enmeshment, 542, 559–561 Entamoeba spp., 131–132, 134–136 Entamoeba dispar, 132, 135 Entamoeba histolytica, 131, 134–136 Enteric (term), 74 Enteric disease, 85–86, 120 Enteroaggregrative E coli (EaggEC), 102–104 Enterobacteriaceae spp., 100–102 Enterocolitis, 108–109 Enterohemorrhagic E coli (EHEC), 102–105 Enteroinvasive E coli (EIEC), 102–105 Enteropathogenic E coli (EPEC), 102–104 Enterotoxigenic E coli (ETEC), 102–104 Enterovirus, 119, 120, 130 Enthalpy of formation (DHf ), 22 Enthalpy of vaporization (DHv ), 22 Entrophic lakes, 147 Environmental engineering, 27–28, 395 EPA, see U.S Environmental Protection Agency EPEC (enteropathogenic E coli), 102–104 EPICS (equilibrium partitioning in closed systems), 1043 Epidemics, 74, 87, 91–92, 98, 100–101, 123–124, 176–177 EPI (Estimation Programs Interface) Suite, 1045 Equilibrium chemical reactions, 237–243 Equilibrium constants, 238, 475–477 Equilibrium isotherm, 1119, 1135–1169 Equilibrium line, 434, 436 Equilibrium partitioning in closed systems (EPICS), 1043 Equilibrium state, 246 Equipment movement, sedimentation basin performance and, 700 Equivalent background concentration (EBC), 1167–1168 ES, see Effective size Escherich, T., 5, 105, 152 Escherichia spp., 77 Escherichia coli (E coli), 5, 77, 90, 102–105, 152–154 Estimation Programs Interface (EPI) Suite, 1045 ETEC (enterotoxigenic E coli), 102–104 Ethylene thiourea (ETU), 59 Euglenas, 146 Euglenophyta, 146 Eukaryotic cells, 77 Eutrophic lakes, 145, 147–148 Evans diagrams, 1723, 1739–1740 Evaporation, 1164, 1664, 1665 in drying beds, 1677–1678 solar, 1164, 1665 Ewald, Paul, 83, 98, 107 Excess lime-sofa ash, 1581 Excess lime softening, 1580 Excess lime split-stream process, 1578–1579 Exchange capacity, 1275–1277 Exchange current density, 1718–1721 Exemptions, 175 Exit age distribution, 326 Expanded-bed upflow reactor, 291 Extinction coefficient, 1416 Extracting phase, 393, 434–438 Extraction, F FA (fulvic acid), 55 Facultative organisms, 74 Facultative parasite, 109 Faraday, Michael, 1739 Faraday constant, 411 Faraday’s law, 509, 1710, 1714–1715, 1718 FBR (Filter Backwash Recycle Rule), 185 FBT (flat-bladed turbine), 618 Fecal coliform test, 153 Fecal–oral route (disease transmission), 74, 86, 87, 101, 109, 121, 130, 134–136, 142, 143 Feed-and-bleed strategy, 832–834 Fenton’s reactions, 1420, 1477 Fermentation test, Fermentation tube method, Ferric chloride, 566–567 Ferric sulfate, 566–567 Ferrochlor process, Ferrous ion, 1510–1511 Fiberglass-reinforced plastic pipe (FPR), 1704 Fibroid chemosorbents, 1657, 1694 Fick’s first law, 397–398, 400, 418, 447 Fick’s second law, 400–401, 1177 Films, 1736–1746 passive, 1739–1741 on stainless steel, 1741–1743 Film diffusion, 1175 Film model (mass transfer at interfaces), 417–418 Filters, algae clogging of, 149, 151 belt, 1683–1685 gravity belt, 1683–1685 membrane, 14, 830–833 mixed-media, 757 multimedia, 756–757 performance of, 770–771 pressure belt, 1683–1685 Filter Backwash Recycle Rule (FBR), 185 Filter beds, 794–796, 1313 Filter media, 737–743 biologically active filtration, 802–804 characteristics of membrane, 842 diatomaceous earth, 807–808 grain shape of, 739–741 granular bed porosity of, 742 greensand filtration, 807 material density of, 741–742 material hardness of, 742 membrane, 844–851 properties of membrane, 839–840 rapid, 737–738, 785 retention rating of membrane, 844–846 size/uniformity of, 738–739 slow sand, 743 specific surface area of, 742–743 structure of membrane, 841, 843–844 Filter press dewatering, 1682–1683 Filter run, 734–735, 781 Filter support media, 793–794 Filter underdrains, 793–794 Index Nanofiltration (NF), 193, 207, 1338–1339, 1503–1504, 1662–1663 Nanofiltration membrane, 1336 Nanomaterials, 186 Nanoparticles, 9, 166, 187 Nanotechnology, 187, 188 NASBA (nucleic acid sequence-based amplification), 155 National Academy of Sciences (NAS), 153–154, 171–173 National Drinking Water Advisory Council (NDWAC), 173 National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NIPDWR), 179, 181, 182 National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), 1652, 1666 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWR), 174, 175, 179, 181–185 National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (NSDWR), 61, 179, 181 Natural organic matter (NOM), 53–56, 543, 571, 1165–1170 adsorption for removal of, 1502 adsorption of, 1122 advanced oxidation processes, 1428–1430 chemistry of, 54–55 chlorination to form DBPs, 374–375 chlorine by-product formation, 1494–1498 and coagulation, 583–586 and color of water, 463 definition of, 18 effect of, on water quality, 54 and enhanced coagulation, 1502 hydrogen peroxide/UV light oxidation, 1462–1463, 1467–1468 ion exchange for removal of, 1503 measurement/classification of, 55–56 oxidation of, 504 ozone/biofiltration for removal of, 1502–1503 and performance of GAC, 1226–1236 reaction of chlorine with, 1488 reduction of, before chlorine addition, 1501–1504 removal of, 195 and reverse osmosis, 1341, 1503–1504 Natural organic matter fouling, 862–863 Natural radionucleotides, 1530 Natural treatment systems, 1663 NDMA, see N -Nitrosodimethylamine NDPT (nondestructive performance tests), 851 NDWAC (National Drinking Water Advisory Council), 173 Necator americanus, 144 Nephelometric turbidity units (NTUs), 29 Nernst equation, 472, 1721 Nernst–Haskell equation, 406, 407, 410, 412 Nernst–Planck equation, 406 Net driving pressure, 1363 Neutral species, 32–33, 1134–1135 Newton, Issac, 646 New York State Board of Health, 5, 177 NF, see Nanofiltration Nice, France, Nickel, 1715 NIPDWR, see National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations Nitrates: occurrence of, in water supplies, 1591–1592 removal of, 194, 1591–1601 solubility of, 1591 Nitrification, 191 Nitrosamines, 1491 NLVs (Norwalk-like viruses), 124–125, 127–128 NMWL (nominal molecular weight limit), 844 N -Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), 8, 9, 186–187, 512–513, 527–529, 1486, 1488, 1531 No-adverse-effect dosage, 173 Nollet, Jean Antoine, 1342 NOM, see Natural organic matter Nominal molecular weight limit (NMWL), 844 Noncarbonate hardness, 1530, 1568 Noncarcinogenic criteria, 173 Nonconservative constituents, 289 Nonconservative tracers, 295 Nonconstant-diffusivity RSSCT design, 1243 Nondestructive performance tests (NDPT), 851 Nongastrointestinal viruses, 120–124 Nonideal flow, 333–350 application of RTDs/t10 concept, 344–346 causes of, 333–335 1887 dispersed-flow model of, 336–341 dispersion as, 335–336 improving, 345–349 models used to describe, 335–344 tank-in-series model of, 341–344 types of, 333 Nonideal reactors, 292 disinfection kinetics, 932–939 performance modeling of, 350–355 performance of, 526–529 tracer curves for, 323–333 Noninflammatory gastroenteritis, 92–94 Nonpathogenic E histolytica, 135 Non–point source pollutants, 56 Nonthermal plasma, 1421 Nontraditional constituents, 1531–1534 Normality (N), 25 Normalization concentration, 325–326 Normalized time, 324–325 Noroviruses, North Cape Coral Water Treatment Plant (Florida, United States), 1806–1812 performance data, 1811 setting, 1806–1807 treatment processes, 1808–1811 unique design features, 1811, 1812 North Clackamas County Water Commission Water Treatment Plant (Oregon, United States), 1841–1848 performance data, 1847 setting, 1841–1843 treatment processes, 1843–1846 unique design features, 1846–1847 Norwalk-like viruses (NLVs), 124–125, 127–128 Nozzles, fixed-orifice, 717 NPDES (National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System), 1652, 1666 NPDWR, see National Primary Drinking Water Regulations NSDWR, see National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations NTUs (nephelometric turbidity units), 29 Nuchar SA-20 Westvaco, 1164 Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA), 155 Number of transfer units (NTUs), 1035 O Ocean, 14 Odor(s), 61–63 adsorption of, 1123 1888 Index Odor(s) (continued) control of, 63, 197, 461–462, 1123 factors affecting, 1162–1163 in groundwater, 62–63 oxidation of, 461–462, 499, 504, 508 PAC control of, 1160 prevention of, 63 sources of, 62–63 in surface waters, 62 Off-gas treatment, 978–979 Oligomesotrophic lakes, 148 Oligotrophic lakes, 145, 147–148 OM, see Organic matter Onda correlation, 422, 424 180◦ turns, in serpentine basin contactors, 985–987 Online production factor, 889–890 Onsite oxygen generation, 976 Oocysts, 75, 138–142, 153 Open-channel systems, 997 Open reactors, 295 Open-system model, 338, 340–341, 345 Operating cycle (slow sand filtration), 805–806 Operating diagrams, 433–438 analysis using, 436–438 contact modes, 433–434 development of, 434–436 Operating line, 434–435 Operation patterns of reactors, 290–292 Opportunistic pathogens, 86–87, 112–114, 142 Order of reaction, 252 Organic by-products, 1159 Organic chemical constituents, 51–61 classification of, 52–53 definition of, 52 from human activities, 56–59 municipal waste water as, 59 natural, 53–56 oxidation of trace, 465 quality indicators for, 59–61 regulation of, 178 sources of, 53 synthetic, 56 water-disinfection formation of, 59 Organic matter (OM): analysis of PAC performance for removal of, 1160–1163 and PAC performance, 1165–1170 shapes of, 34 Organic polymers, 574–577 Organic solvent extraction, 1129 Organic wastewater contaminants (OWCs), 185 Orica Limited Company, 1306 Oropharyngeal anthrax, 117 Orthokinetic flocculation, 545, 591 Orthophosphates, 1759–1760, 1785–1787 Osmosis, 823, 1336, 1353–1357 See also Reverse osmosis Osmotic pressure, 1337 Outlets, serpentine basin contactors, 985 Outlet currents (sedimentation basins), 700 Outlet structure (rectangular sedimentation basins), 672, 673 Outside-in filtration, 834–836 Outside peer review, 173–174 Overall cycle time, 1326 Overall reactions, 231–232 Over-under baffled contactors, 987–991 OWCs (organic wastewater contaminants), 185 Oxidants, 13, 490–509 applications of, 460–461 chlorine as, 498–499 chlorine dioxide as, 499–501 as coagulation aid, 464 definition of, 227, 458 hydrogen peroxide as, 501–502 iron/manganese removal with, 464–465 oxygen as, 491–496 ozone as, 502–505 and PAC performance, 1164–1165 permanganate as, 505–509 for taste/odor control, 462 water treatment applications for, 460–465 Oxidation, 194, 197, 458–532 See also Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) air, 1560–1561 of bromide to bromate, 475 by-products of, see By-products of water treatment chlorine, 1561–1563 with chlorine dioxide, 1562 as coagulation aid, 464 and color removal, 463–464 definition of, 458, 459 in greensand filtration, 807 of iron, 464–465, 476–477, 498, 502–504, 506–507 of manganese, 464–465, 479–482, 495, 498–499, 503–504, 506–508 of NOM, 504 ozone, 1511, 1564 photolysis as, see Photolysis PPCP removal with, 1611 reactors using, 293 of sulfide, 498, 502, 504 of tastes/odors, 499, 504, 508 of trace organic constituents, 465 in water treatment, 459–465 Oxidation potential: for chlorine, 496 for chlorine dioxide, 500–501 for combined reactions, 474–475 for hydrogen peroxide, 473–474, 502 for oxygen, 473–474, 493 for ozone, 503 for permanganate, 505 Oxidation-reduction (redox), 458, 459, 465–468 assessing feasibility of, 471–482 balancing, 467–468 chemical reactions, 278–279 and corrosion, 1714–1715 definition of, 227 electrode potentials in, 469–482 microorganism response to, 80–81 predominance area diagram of, 482–490 rate of, 490 standard potentials (table), 1709 Oxidizing agent, 465 Oxygen (O2 ), 491–496 applications of, as oxidant, 494–496 diffusion coefficients for, 412 exchange current for zinc in acid solution saturated with, 1721 oxidation of iron with dissolved, 476–477 oxidation power of, 473–474 physical/chemical characteristics of, 492–493 reduction of gaseous, 483 source of, for ozone disinfection, 974–978 Oxyhalides, 1490 Ozamyl, 59 Ozonation, 1432–1441 and biologically active filtration, 801 coagulant reduction for, 582–583 determination of destruction of target compounds from bench-scale tests, 1440–1441 fraction of target compound destruction example, 1437 hydroxyl radical production from NOM, 1435–1440 hydroxyl radical production from OH− , 1432–1435 Index O3 /UV process, 1473 PPCP removal with, 1611 time required for destruction of target compound, 1438–1440 Ozonation system design: and batch reactor testing, 967–968 and continuous-flow reactor testing, 968–972 and flow-through reactors, 968–972 Ozone (O3 ), 5, 197, 491, 497, 502–505, 1419–1421 chemistry of, 964–965 and color removal, 464 as disinfectant, 1500 for disinfection, 908–909 generation of, 972–973 iron/manganese oxidation using, 1564 NOM removal with, 1502–1503 oxidation of manganese with, 479–482 oxidation with, 1511 physical/chemical characteristics of, 503 reaction rate constant for decomposition of, 307–308 Ozone by-products, 1425–1426, 1512–1520 and chemistry of formation, 1513–1515 estimating formation of, 1515 formation control for, 1515–1519 removal of, 1519–1520 Ozone decay, 965–966 Ozone demand, 965 Ozone disinfection, 964–979 off-gas treatment in, 978–979 oxygen source for, 974–978 and ozone generation, 972–973 ozone injection systems, 976–978 Ozone injection systems, 976–978 P PAC, see Powdered activated carbon PAC-20B Atochem, 1164 Pacini, Falipo, 4, 84 Packed-bed reactor, 291 Packed-bed upflow reactor, 291 Packed columns, 294 Packed towers, 1051, 1056, 1058 Packed tower air stripping, 1060–1097 design approach to, 1092–1093 design variables for, 1090–1092 design vs rating analysis of, 1089–1090 height design equation for, 1068–1073 mass balance analysis for countercurrent, 1060–1066 mass balance for multistage, 1066–1067 performance for, 1095–1097 power requirements for, 1086–1089 Packing density, 820, 828 Packing factor, 1035 Packing material, 1091–1092 PACl (prehydrolyzed alum salts), 573–574 PAC reactors, 878, 1161 Paddle flocculators, 622 See also Horizontal paddle wheel flocculators Paisley, Scotland, PA membranes (polyamide membranes), 1350–1351 Pandemics, 75, 84, 98, 100–101 Parallel bed operation, 1200, 1202–1204 Parallel reactions, 227, 231 Parallel softening and coagulation, 1576, 1578 Paralytic poliomyelitis, 121 Parasites, 75 See also specific types Paratyphoid fever, 100 Parent compound, 1431 Particles, 30–41, 546–557 See also Particle removal; Particle size classification of, for settling, 644–645 definition of, 18, 30–31 discrete settling of, see Discrete particle settling electrical double-layer compression, 553–557 electrical properties of, 546–552 fractal theory of, formation, 603 interactions of, with solvents, 546 origin of, 31 quantification of, 34–38 sedimentation basins for settling of discrete, 652–658 shapes of, 34 sources of, 31–33 stability of, 552–554 surface characteristics of inorganic vs organic, 548 Particle collisions, 592–593 Particle counters, 36 Particle-counting chamber, 36 Particle-particle interactions, 553–554 Particle porosity, (εp ), 1118 Particle removal, 757–780 and depth filtration, 758–759 by detachment, 780 1889 by diffusion, 763–764 by interception, 762 phenomenological depth filtration model of, 771–780 by sedimentation, 763 with straining, 758 total transport efficiency, 763–764 Yao filtration model of, 760–764 Particle settling: Type I, see Discrete particle settling Type II, 642, 645, 654–655 Type III, see Hindered settling Type IV, 642, 645 Particle settling velocity, 643, 645–650 Particle size: and GAC, 1252, 1314 of ion exchange resin beads, 1283–1284 size classification of, 31, 34, 35 Particle size counters, 36, 37 Particle-solvent interactions, 546 Particle stability, 552–554 Particulate fouling, 860–862, 1374–1376 Particulate matter, 14, 1001–1003 Parts per billion (ppb), 25 Parts per million (ppm), 25 Parts per million by mass (ppmm ), 25 Parts per million by volume (ppmv ), 25 Parts per trillion (ppt), 25 Passivation, 1712, 1739–1741 Passivation potential, 1740 Passive film, 1744 Passivity, 1701, 1739–1741 Pasteur, Louis, 3, 5, 84, 177 Pathogens, 13 classic waterborne bacterial, 95–101 definition of, 75, 905 in drinking water, 83–94 emerging bacterial, 109–115 infection outcomes, 88–92 mass-based toxicity of, 90 modern waterborne bacterial, 102–109 monitoring for presence of, 151–155 mortality ratios for, 92, 93 and water treatment, 87 Pathogenic E histolytica, 135 Pathogenicity, 88–92 Pauling, Linus, 82 PBT (pitched-blade turbine), 617, 618 PCCP (prestressed concrete, steel cylinder pipe), 1705 PCF (pressure correction factor), 1363–1367 PCR (polymerase chain reaction), 155 PDFC (pore diffusion flux), 1220 1890 Index Peclet number, 1212, 1242 Peer review, 173–174 Pelletization, 213 Penetration model (mass transfer at interfaces), 418–419, 428 pε–pH (EH –pH predominance area) diagrams, 482–490 Peptic ulcers, 107 Percent transmittance, 28 Perchlorate, 9, 186, 1325 Perforated-pipe laterals, 718 Permanganate (MnO4 ), 197, 491, 505–509 Permeability, 820, 854 Permeate, 821, 828, 1337 Permeate flux, 851–854, 1388–1394 Permeate stability, 1399 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 185 Personal care products, see Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) PES (polyethersulfone), 841, 842 Pesticides, 59, 195 PFHSDM (plug flow pore and surface diffusion model), 1213–1220 PFRs, see Plug Flow Reactors pH, 570 adjustment with H2 SO4 , 374 and adsorbability, 1134 advanced oxidation processes, 1427–1428 and coagulation, 565–566 and corrosion control, 1784–1785 and corrosion of iron pipe, 1752–1754 definition of, 18 dependence of chemical species on, 239 depression of, during ozonation, 1516 and Henry’s law constants, 1049–1050 impact of, on reduction potential, 477–478 and iron oxidation, 1551 microorganism response to, 80–81 and rate constants, 258–261 temperature dependence of, 249–251 as water quality indicator, 44, 48–49 Phaeophyta, 146 Pharmaceuticals, therapeutic vs environmental exposure to, 1607 Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), 1606–1612 chemical properties, 1608 definition of, 166 occurrence and significance in water supplies, 1607–1608 treatment strategies, 1609–1612 unregulated, 185, 187 Phenomenological filtration models, 771–780 development of, 771–773 optimization of, 778–780 steady-state, 773–775 Phosphates, 1785–1787 Photocatalysis, 1416, 1473–1477 Photolysis, 509–532 definition of, 1416 energy required for, 509–511 estimating, for single absorbing solute, 511–518 of hydrogen peroxide, 510–511 and multiple wavelengths, 522–523 NDMA removal by, 527–529 in presence of multiple absorbing compounds, 518–522 quantum yield and rate of, 513–514 quantum yield in collimated beam apparatus, 516–518 rate of, in completely mixed flow reactor, 514–516 titanium dioxide, 1473–1477 in water treatment, 523–532 Photons, 1416 Photon absorption, 513–514, 521 Photoreactivation and dark repair, 905, 998 Photoreactor design, 524–526 PHS, see U.S Public Health Service Phylogenetic tree of life, 76 Physical adsorption, 1133–1134 Physical and Chemical Quality, 17–67 Physical characteristics of water, 25–43 absorbance/transmittance, 26–28 color, 41–42 particles, 30–41 temperature, 42, 43 terminology for, 18–19 turbidity, 29–30 Physicochemical unit processes, 166, 189 PICA B PAC, 1166 Picloram, 59 Pilot testing/pilot studies, 15, 885–888, 1081–1082, 1309, 1310, 1321, 1323–1324 adsorption analysis, 1197–1198 considerations in setting up, 215–217 expectations for, 888 GAC, 1237, 1248–1250 period for, 886–887 rapid filter design, 785–786 reverse osmosis process design, 1395, 1398 self-contained units for, 888–889 system design from, 889–892 systems development for water treatment, 214–217 Pinning, 885 Pipes, earliest, 1703 See also Water conduits Pipeline contactors, 980–981 Pipeline mixers, 378 Pipe sizing, 211, 213–215 Pitched-blade turbine (PBT), 617, 618 Pitting, 1747–1749 copper-induced, 1757–1758 of copper tubing, 1762–1763 definition of, 1701 from potential reversal, 1758–1759 Pitting attack, 1762–1763 Pitzer model, 1380 Plant capacity and recovery, 876 Plasmids, 83 Plastic conduit, 1702, 1707 Plate and frame filter press, 1682–1683 Platinum, 1715–1716 Platinum–cobalt solution standard, 41 PLC (programmable logic controller), 888 Plug flow pore and surface diffusion model (PFHSDM), 1213–1220 Plug flow reactors (PFRs), 291, 292, 298, 299, 316–323 circular pipe plug flow, 291 definition of, 289 improving performance of, 349–350 mass balance in, 316–317 modeling reactions in ideal, 316–318 performance of, 526 performance of CMFRs and, 1188–1189 rectangular channel, 291 with recycle, 321–323 residence time/volume required for, 318–321 steady-state analysis in, 317–318 tracer curves from, 299–300 Plugging, 1374 Point source pollutants, 56 Poiseuille’s law, 744, 1638 Poisoning processes, 10 See also Disinfection Polanyi potential theory, 1147–1154 adsorption parameters derived from, 1149–1152 Index determination of Freundlich parameters using, 1151–1154 Polarity: of organic substances, 52–53, 88 relative, 58 of water molecule, 20 Polarization: activation, 1727 and electrical current, 1715–1718 Polar species, 1134 Poliomyelitis, 152 Poliovirus, 119–122 Polyamide (PA) membranes, 1350–1351 Polyelectrolytes, 545, 574 Polyethersulfone (PES), 841, 842 Polymers, 1678–1679 mixing of, 577 natural, 577 organic, 574–577 synthetic organic, 574–576 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 155 Polymer bridging, 558–560 Polyphosphates, 194, 1786–1787 Polypropylene (PP), 841, 842, 1705 Polysulfides, 463 Polysulfone (PS), 841, 842 Polyvalent cation content, see Hardness Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 1705, 1707 Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), 841, 842 Pontiac fever, 111 POPs (persistent organic pollutants), 185 Pore charge, 839 Pore constriction, 857 Pore diffusion flux (PDFC), 1220 Pore sizes, 1125–1127 Pore surface diffusion model (PSDM), 1174–1176 Porosity, 839 adsorbent, 1131 and backwash hydraulics, 751–755 bed, 1193 Posttreatment: membrane filtration design, 880 reverse osmosis, 1399–1400 for reverse osmosis, 1345–1346 Potassium, 197 Potassium permanganate (KMnO4 ), 497, 505–507, 1500, 1559–1560, 1562–1566 Potential reversal, pitting from, 1758–1759 Potentiometer, 1715 Poughkeepsie, New York, Pourbaix diagrams, 1701, 1710–1713 Powdered activated carbon (PAC), 197, 1159–1189, 1694 adsorption capacity for, 1162, 1163 adsorption using, 11 and atrazine adsorption examples, 1171–1172 contact time, 1171–1172 determining dosages of, 1159–1160 and disinfectants/oxidants, 1164–1165 with FBR, 1173 homogeneous surface diffusion model, 1174–1189 location of addition, 1164–1166 and natural organic matter, 1165–1170 and organic matter, 1165–1170 performance analysis of, 1160–1173 PPCP removal with, 1612 production of, 1125–1127 size of, 1123 as sorbent, 1657 types of, 1163–1164 uses/advantages/disadvantages of, 1251 in water treatment, 1159 Powdered activated carbon-membrane reactors, 878, 1161 Power number, 616 PP, see Polypropylene ppb (parts per billion), 25 PPCPs, see Pharmaceuticals and personal care products ppm (parts per million), 25 ppmm (parts per million by mass), 25 ppmv (parts per million by volume), 25 ppt (parts per trillion), 25 Preadsorption, 1228–1229 Precipitate, 229, 559, 1097 Precipitate potential, 1096 Precipitation, 197 chemical, 1570–1575 of coagulant sludges, 1643–1644 definition of, 227 and enmeshment, 559–561 of inorganic salts, 1376–1382 reactors with recycle used for, 295 Precipitation–dissolution, 194, 272–275 Precipitation softening, 1570–1575 Precoagulation time, 1164 Precoat filtration, 729, 807–808 Predominance diagram: for chlorine, 498 for chlorine dioxide, 500, 501 for hydrogen peroxide, 502 1891 for oxygen, 493 for ozone, 503 for permanganate, 505, 506 for redox reactions, 482–490 Preferential sorption-capillary flow model, 1358 Prehydrolyzed alum salts (PACl), 573–574 Prehydrolyzed metal salts, 573–574 Preoxidation, 1519 Presaturant ions, 1264, 1268, 1296 Presedimentation, 664–667 Pressure: ambient atmospheric, 53 atmospheric, 1859 and cross-sectional area/height of tower, 1076–1080 net driving, 1363 osmotic, 1337 and permeate flux, 852–854 spreading, 1155 transmembrane, 821 vapor, 22, 1038–1040, 1045 Pressure-based integrity tests, 883–884 Pressure belt filters, 1683–1685 Pressure contactors, 1189 Pressure correction factor (PCF), 1363–1367 Pressure drop, 1326 Pressure filtration, 800 Pressure-vessel configuration, 832–833 Prestressed concrete, steel cylinder pipe (PCCP), 1705 Pretreatment: membrane filtration design, 879 to prevent scaling, 1380–1381 rapid filtration, 732–733 reverse osmosis, 1344, 1345, 1398–1399 Priestly, Joseph, 491 Prions, 80 Probabilistic multistage model, 172 Product mass, 234–235 Programmable logic controller (PLC), 888 Prokaryotic cells, 77 Prometon, 59 Propeller, 618 Protozoa, 78, 130–143, 849 Acanthamoeba castellani, 142–143 Cryptosporidium, 138–142 Entamoeba, 131–132, 134–136 Giardia lamblia, 136–138 Naegeria fowleri, 142–143 PS (polysulfone), 841, 842 PSA system, 976, 977 1892 Index PSDM (pore surface diffusion model), 1174–1176 Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 110, 113–115 Pseudo-steady-state (PSS) model, 1463–1466 Public health, Public Health (Robley Dunlingsen), Public notification, 175 Pulsator, 691, 692 Pulsed corona discharges, 1421 Pumped diffusion mixer, 12 Pumped flash mixers, 294 Pump Station Deisgn (Jones), 204 Purification, chemical, 10 PVC (polyvinyl chloride), 1705, 1707 PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride), 841, 842 Q QSAR (quantitative structure–activity relationship), 261–262 Quality Criteria for Water, 170 Quality standards, see Water quality standards and regulations Quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR), 261–262 Quantum yield: in collimated beam apparatus, 516–518 definition of, 1416 in hydrogen peroxide/UV light oxidation process, 1456 photolysis with titanium dioxide, 1476 and rate of photolysis, 513–514 Quicklime, 1571, 1688 R R (roentgens), 67 Rabbit fever, see Franciscella tularensis Rad, 67 Radial flow, 689 Radial flow mixers, 613–614 Radiation, 66 Radiation adsorbed dose (rad), 67 Radical species, 231 Radioactive particles, 65–67 Radioactivity, 67 Radionuclides, 65–67 chemistry of, 1602 definition of, 19 occurrence of, 1602 regulation of, 178 removal of, 1601–1606 Radium, 66, 195, 1603 Radium-226, 1602 Radium-228, 1602 Radon, 195, 1603 Radon-222, 1602, 1604 Rajagopalan and Tien (RT) filtration model, 764–766 Random packing, 1035 Raoult’s law, 1038–1040 Rapid blending, 372–375 Rapid filter design, 780–796 backwashing systems in, 790–793 and clean-bed head loss, 744–748 example, 796–799 flow control in, 934–937 and negative pressure in filter beds, 794–796 performance criteria for, 780–782 pilot testing in, 785–786 process design criteria for, 782–785 residual management, 795 system components of, 793–794 Rapid filtration, 757–780 and attachment efficiency, 769–770 classifications of, 735–737 definition of, 729 depth, 758–759 detachment in, 780 effectiveness in filtration stage, 734–735 and filter performance, 770–771 granular filtration, 838 media for, 737–738 operating characteristics of, 831 particle removal in, 757–780 phenomenological depth filtration models of, 771–780 and pretreatment, 732–733 process flow description of, 733–734 Rajagopalan and Tien model, 764–766 slow sand vs., 805 straining in, 758 Tufenkji and Elimelech model, 764–769 uniformity of media, 732 Yao model, 760–766 Rapid hydrolysis reactions, 449–451 Rapid reversible reactions, 447, 449 Rapid sand filtration, Rapid small-scale column tests (RSSCTs), 1236–1250 carbon preparation for, 1243–1250 constant-diffusivity design for, 1243 EBCT scaling, 1238–1239 hydraulic loading scaling, 1240–1242 nonconstant-diffusivity design for, 1243 operation time scaling, 1240–1242 scaling down full-scale adsorber to, 1237–1238 Rate constants: catalysis, 254–257 chemical reactions, 254–262 determination of, 261–262 factors affecting, 254–258 and ionic strength, 258 for ozone oxidation, 504–505 and pH, 258–261 temperature, 254–257 Rate law, 252 Rate of reaction, 251–252 Rating analysis, 1089–1090 RCP (reinforced concrete pipe), 1705 RCPP (reinforced concrete pressure pipe), 1705 RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act), 1690, 1692 Reactant conversion, 235–237 Reactions, chemical, see Chemical reactions Reaction orders, 227, 360–362 Reaction rates, 251–254, 262–267 in CMBRs, 306 empirical, 266–267 for individual reaction steps, 262–264 for overall reaction, 264–266 for redox reactions, 490 Reaction rate law, 227 Reactivation: definition of, 905 GAC, 1129–1130 UV disinfection, 998 Reactive system: dispersed-flow model, 350–353 tanks-in-series model, 353–355 Reactivity, 1467–1468 Reactors, 290–382 batch, 288, 290–292, 967–968, 1182 completely mixed batch, 305–310 completely mixed flow, see Completely mixed flow reactors (CMFRs) continuous-flow, 290, 291, 310–323, 968–972 definition of, 289 expanded-bed upflow, 291 floc blanket, 1173 flow, 289 flow-through, 968–972 fluidized, 1130 hydraulic characteristics of, 292 hydraulic-characterized, 292 Index hydrogen peroxide/UV light oxidation process, 1459–1463 ideal, see Ideal reactors and mass balance analysis, 295–297 modeling performance of, 522 nonideal, see Nonideal reactors open/closed, 295 operation-pattern based, 290–292 PAC, 1161 packed-bed, 291 performance modeling with tracer curves, 355–362 photolysis with titanium dioxide, 1476 plug flow, see Plug flow reactors (PFRs) powdered activated carbonmembrane, 878, 1161 recycle, 295, 321–323 residence time/volume for, 318–321 terminology for, 288, 289 types of, 290–295 unit-operation based, 293–295 upflow sludge blanket, 1599 UV, 525, 1014–1015 Venturi, 294 Reactor clarifiers, 688–690 Recarbonation, 1530, 1574–1575 Recommended Standards for Water Works (Great Lakes Upper Mississippi River Board), 204 Record keeping, 174–175 Recovery, rapid-filter, 780–782, 799 Rectangular basin (horizontal flow), 689 Rectangular channel plug flow reactor, 291 Rectangular sedimentation basins, 653–656, 667–676 inlet structure of, 668–669 outlet structure of, 672, 673 settling zone of, 669–672 sludge zone of, 672–674 Rectangular tank, 664 Recycled wastewater, 1341–1342 Recycle reactors, 295, 321–323 Red algae, 146 Redox, see Oxidation-reduction Reduced concentration, PAC dosage vs., 1186–1187 Reducing agent, 465 Reductant, 227, 458 Reduction, 458 See also Oxidation-reduction (redox) bromate removal by, 1520 definition of, 458, 459 in water treatment, 460 Red water, 1767–1768 Regenerant consumption, 1319 Regenerant dose, 1316, 1317 Regeneration, 1299–1303, 1316–1319 GAC, 1129–1130 for nitrate removal, 1598–1599 requirements for, 1327–1329 Regeneration curves, 1264 Regeneration cycle time, 1328–1329 Regeneration volume, 1327 Regulatory processes, 168–176 See also Water quality standards and regulations beneficial-use designation step of, 169–170 criteria development step of, 170–173 goal-selection step of, 175–176 international water quality, 188 standard-promulgation step of, 173–174 steps in, 169 Reinforced concrete pipe (RCP), 1705 Reinforced concrete pressure pipe (RCPP), 1705 Rejection, 846–847, 1351, 1360 Relative polarity, 58 Relative quenching rate (QR ), 1416 Relative rates (chemical reactions), 252–254 Rem, 67 Removal efficiency, 217–218 Rennecker–Mari˜ nas model, 924–926, 930 Repair of modules, 885 Reporting requirements, 174–175 Reproduction: definition of, 75 of pathogens, 88 Reservoirs: destratification of, 197 materials used for, 1708 Residence time, 318–321 Residence time distribution (RTD), 324, 328–330 definition of, 289 for nonideal flow, 344–346 single-parameter fit for, 342–344 Residuals, 1634–1642 See also Sludge(s) biological properties of, 1642 chemical properties of, 1641–1642 classification of, 1629 constituents of concern in, 1631, 1633 definition of, 211, 1627 1893 environmental constraints on, 1633–1634 in filter waste washwater, 1651–1653 in ion exchange brine, 1655–1656 lime precipitation sludges, 1648–1650 in membrane concentrate, 1653–1655 physical properties of, 1634–1642 regulatory constraints on, 1634 from reverse osmosis, 1402–1403 sources of, 1629–1630 volume of, 1633 Residual-handling requirements, 890 Residual liquid streams, 1659–1662 Residuals management, 1628–1634, 1659–1695 brines and washwater, 1669–1670 definition of, 211, 1628 ion exchange brines, 1669 issues in, 1629–1634 liquid streams, 1659–1662 membrane concentrate and cleaning solutions, 1662–1669 process selection in, 1694–1695 sludge, 1670–1689 solid sorbent brines and washwater, 1656–1658 spent solid sorbents, 1693–1694 systems development for water treatment, 211–214 treatment processes for, 211–214 and ultimate reuse/disposal, 1689–1694 Resins See also Ion exchange resins estimating, 1278 gel-type, 1264, 1269, 1276 macroreticular, 1264, 1269–1270 MIEX, 583, 1306–1307 nitrate-specific, 1596–1597 surface area of, 1324 synthetic, 1265, 1267 volume of, 1324 Resin swelling, 1264 Resistance-in-series model, 858–859 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 1690, 1692 Resources, electronic, 1867 Retentate, 821, 828 Retention capabilities, 875–876 Retention rating, 821, 839, 844–846 Return flows, 1627 Reuse (semisolid residuals), 1689–1694 Reverse osmosis (RO), 11, 14, 15, 193–196, 207, 208, 1339–1405 applications for, 191, 1339–1342 1894 Index Reverse osmosis (RO) (continued) concentrate management in, 1400–1402 concentrate stream in, 1346 concentrate treatment, 1662–1663 concentration polarization in, 1368–1374 coupling in, 1359 definition of, 1337 dependence of flux on temperature and pressure, 1362–1368 equation for water and solute flux, 1360–1363 estimating waste stream quantity/quality from, 1654–1655 and fouling, 1375, 1381–1383 historical perspective on, 1342–1343 hollow-fine-fiber modules in, 1348 membrane filtration vs., 823, 824, 1338–1339 membrane material for, 1350–1351 membrane structure in, 1349–1351 nanofiltration vs., 207 nitrate reduction via, 1596 NOM removal by, 1503–1504 objectives/alternative processes of, 1340 osmotic pressure, 1351–1357 pore flow models of, 1358 posttreatment for, 1345–1346 PPCP removal with, 1610–1611 preferential sorption-capillary flow model of, 1358 pretreatment for, 1344, 1345 process description, 1343–1348 process design for, 1383–1405 radionuclide removal via, 1605 rejection capabilities of, 1351 and scaling, 1376–1382 softening with, 1576 solute rejection mechanisms in, 1360 solution-diffusion model of, 1357–1358 spiral-wound modules in, 1346–1348 standardization of operating data for, 1365–1368 and water/solute flux, 1357–1360 Reverse osmosis process design, 1383–1405 calculations in, 1384–1397 and disposal of residuals, 1402–1403 energy recovery, 1403–1405 functional specifications for, 1395 with manufacturer software, 1396–1397 membrane array, 1384–1398 permeate flux and concentration calculation example of, 1388–1394 pilot testing of, 1395, 1398 posttreatment, 1399–1400 pretreatment, 1398–1399 Reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR), 155 Reversible reactions, 227, 229 Reynolds number, 420, 421, 615–616, 647, 648, 743–757 Rhodophyta, 146 Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 81–82, 997–998 Rinse water, 1328 Ripening, 729, 734, 806 Rivers, 14 River Mountains Water Treatment Facility (Nevada, United States): performance data, 1825, 1826 setting, 1819–1821 treatment processes, 1822–1823 unique design features, 1823–1825 RMS (root-mean-square) velocity gradient, 365–366, 596 RNA (ribonucleic acid), 81–82, 997–998 RO, see Reverse osmosis Rods (particle), 34 Roentgens (R), 67 Romans, ancient, 4, 731, 1703, 1778 Root-mean-square (RMS) velocity gradient, 365–366, 596 Rotary kiln furnace, 1130 Rotation, 234 Rotavirus, 119, 120, 124–126 Roughing filters, 692–693 Roughness, surface, 839 RSSCTs, see Rapid small-scale column tests RTD, see Residence time distribution RT (Rajagopalan and Tien) filtration model, 764–766 RT-PCR (reverse transcriptase PCR), 155 Running annual average (RAA), 1486 Rushton turbine, 618 S S (stripping factor), 1035, 1063–1066 SAB (Science Advisory Board), 174 Sabin vaccine, 122 SAC exchangers, see Strong-acid cation exchangers Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 6, 169, 170, 174, 179–181, 187 St Louis, Missouri, Salk vaccine, 121–122 Salmonella spp., 84, 96, 99–100 Salmonella choleraesuis, 96 Salmonella enteritidis, 97 Salmonella gallinarum, 99 Salmonella paratyphi A, 96, 100 Salmonella pullorum, 99 Salmonella schottmeulleri, 96 Salmonella typhi, 96, 99–100, 115 Salmonella typhimurium, 96 Salmonella typhosa, SAL-PROC system, 1401–1402 Salt(s), 14, 63 Salt passage (SP), 1365, 1367, 1368 Salt quality, 1327–1328 Samples/sampling: concentration units used for, 23–25 physical aggregate characteristics of, 25–42 Sanitation, 87, 100 Sanskrit, Sapporo-like viruses (SLVs), 127 Saturation concentration, 708–709 Saturation loading curves, 1264, 1313–1314 Saturator vessel, 716–717 Sauter mean diameter, 1103 SBA exchange resin, see Strong-base anion exchange resin SBA exchangers, see Strong-base anion exchangers SBR process, 1599 Scale(s), 1736–1746 alumino-silicate, 1777–1778 calcium carbonate, 1772–1777 formation of, 1772–1778 on lead-tin solder, 1746 and reverse osmosis, 1376–1382 semiconducting properties of, 1744 thick vs thin, 1743–1744 Scaling up, 1317 Schistosoma spp., 144 Schistosoma haematobium, 144 Schistosoma intercalatum, 144 Schistosoma japonicum, 144 Schistosoma mansoni, 144 Schistosomiasis, 143 Schmidt number, 420, 421, 427 Schmutzdecke, 729, 804, 805 Science Advisory Board (SAB), 174 SDI (silt density index), 1374–1376, 1395 SDWA, see Safe Drinking Water Act Seawater: blending freshwater with, 1400 desalination, 1339–1341 small VBNC bacteria in, 155 Index Second-order hydroxyl radical rate constant, 1416 Second-order reactions, 360–361 Sedimentation, application in water treatment, 192 contact time used in, 294 and density currents, 694–699 and equipment movement, 700 evolution of, 643 high-rate, 679–691 and inlet energy dissipation, 699–700 and outlet currents, 700 particle, 763 physical factors affecting, 694–700 and wind, 699 Sedimentation basin design, 664–679 circular, 677–679 example of, 674–676 presedimentation facilities, 664–667 rectangular, 653–656, 667–676 square, 679 Sedimentation basins/tanks, 12, 643, 652–658 See also Rectangular sedimentation basins circular, 657–658 discrete-particle, 652–658 ideal, 652–653 nonideal flow in conventional, 695 performance of, 700 Sedimentation potential, 550 Segregated-flow models (SFMs), 355–362, 933–937 Selectivity: coefficients of, 1287–1288 definition of, 227, 1265 ion exchange, 1286–1288 ion-exchange-resin, 1277–1281 Selenium, 194 Semibatch strategy, 833, 834 Semipermeable membrane, 821, 1337 Semisolid residuals, 1630, 1689–1694 Semispherical particles, 34 Semmelweiss, Ignaz, Sensitivity index, 1777 Separation, mechanical, 10 Separation factor, 1265, 1288–1291, 1293–1294 September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, 115 Sequencing batch reactor (SBR) process, 1599 Series bed operation, 1198–1202, 1206 Series reactions, 227, 230 Serpentine basin contactors, 982–987 180◦ turns in, 985–987 inlets and outlets, 985 with specified dispersion numbers, 982–984 with specified t10 /τ, 984–985 Serpentine configuration plug flow reactor, 291 Serum hepatitis (Type B), 122–123 Service flow rate (SFR), 1265, 1275, 1276, 1315 Settleable particles, 643 Settling: differential, 591–592 particle, see specific types Settling velocity, 666, 669–670 Settling zone (rectangular sedimentation basins), 669–672 SFMs (segregated-flow models), 355–362, 933–937 SFR, see Service flow rate Shear velocity, 980, 982 Sheer-enhanced diffusion, 861 Sherwood number, 420, 421, 428, 1179, 1240–1241 Shiga, Kiyoshi, 100 Shigella spp., 97, 100–101 Shigella boydii, 97, 100–101 Shigella dysenteriae, 97, 100–101 Shigella flexneri, 97, 100–101 Shigella sonnei, 97, 100–101 SHMP (sodium hexametaphosphate), 1380–1381 Short circuiting, 333–334, 350 Siderite, 1767–1768 Side-stream injection systems, 977–978 Sidewall height, 1326 Sieve analysis, 738 Sievert (Sv), 67 Silica scaling, 1381 Silicates, 1759, 1787–1788 Silt density index (SDI), 1374–1376, 1395 Simazine, 59 Simplified pseudo-steady-state (Sim-PSS) model, 1447–1448, 1457–1459 effluent concentration calculation, 1468–1472 PSS and AdOx models vs., 1463–1466 Simpson, James, 731 Single crossflow membrane module, 831 Single-stage selective calcium removal, 1582–1585 Single-stage softening, 1575–1577, 1580, 1587–1591 Single-state softening, 1530 SI (International System) of units, 67 1895 Size See also Particle size of bubbles, 704 of eddies, 364–365, 375 effective, 729, 738–739, 1283 of microorganisms, 77–80 of organic molecules, 52 of pores, 1125–1127 Slow sand filtration, 4, 5, 193, 729, 730, 804–807 Sludge(s), 1628 See also Sludge management coagulation, 1639–1648 definition of, 211 dense, 1661 diatomaceous earth, 1650–1651 lime precipitation, 1648–1650 specific gravity of, 1635–1636 specific resistance of, 1638–1639 storage of, 212 volume of, 1636–1638 Sludge blanket clarifiers, 690–692 Sludge lagoons, 1674–1676, 1692–1693 Sludge management, 1670–1689 with Aqua Pellet system, 1687 with coagulant recovery, 1688–1689 with conditioning, 1678–1680 with lime pelletization, 1687–1687 with thickening/dewatering, 1672–1678 Sludge zone, 672–674 SLVs (Sapporo-like viruses), 127 Small-diameter columns, 1310–1313 Small neutral molecules, 407–410 Small-scale column testing, 1310–1313 elution curves in, 1314–1315 saturation loading curves in, 1313–1314 service flow rate assessment in, 1315 Smith, Theobold, 5, 152, 177 Snow, John, 3, 4, 84, 176–177, 731, 906 SOCs, see Synthetic organic compounds Sodium, diffusion of, 407 Sodium chlorite, 964 Sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP), 1380–1381 Sodium hypochlorite, 952–957 Softening, 1568–1591 See also Lime softening carbonic acid concentrations for, 1585–1586 caustic soda, 1573–1574 by chemical precipitation, 1570–1575 chemistry of, by precipitation, 1571–1575 1896 Index Softening (continued) in concentrate management, 1401 definition of, 1530, 1568 dose calculations for, 1579–1591 enhanced, 1530 and ion exchange/reverse osmosis, 1576 kinetics of, 1575 lime-soda, 193, 1573, 1579–1591 membrane, 207, 209 and NOM removal, 1342 parallel, and coagulation, 1576, 1578 precipitation, 1570–1575 with reverse osmosis, 1343 single-stage, 1530, 1575–1577, 1580, 1587–1591 and sources of hardness, 1569–1571 split-treatment, 1576, 1578–1579 two-stage, 1576–1577 undersoftening, 1575 Solar evaporation, 1664, 1665 Solder, 1746, 1763–1765 Solids: dissolved, 583–590, 1096–1097 suspended, 19, 31, 34 total dissolved, 14, 19, 51, 63, 193 Solids concentration effects, 697–699 Solids contact clarifiers, 687–693 reactor clarifiers, 688–690 rectangular basin and upflow vs., 689 roughing filters and absorption clarifiers, 692–693 sludge blanket clarifiers, 690–692 Solids flux analysis, 659–661 Solid phase, 229, 294 Solid-phase loading, 1183 Solids removal, plate and tube settlers for, 682 Solid residuals, 1630 Solid sorbent brines, 1656–1658 Solubility, 272–275 and adsorbability, 1134 and Henry’s law constants, 1045 of metal salts, 564–566 of nitrates, 1591 Soluble threshold limit concentration (STLC), 1691 Solutes: definition of, 394 diffusion coefficients for, 398, 404, 405 Solute flux, 1360–1365, 1387 Solution–diffusion model, 1357–1358 Solvents, 394, 546 Somerville, New Jersey, 732 Sonic testing, 884–885 Sonolysis, 1416, 1420, 1478–1479 Sorbent: definition of, 1628 in residuals management, 1693–1694 spent, 1628 Sorbent brines, 1627, 1656–1658 Sorption: brines and washwater from, 1656–1658, 1669–1670 definition of, 394 spent solid sorbents, 1693–1694 Source control, 196 SP, see Salt passage SPDFR (surface-to-pore diffusion flux ratio), 1220 Specific deposit, 729 Specific flux, 821 Specific interaction model, 1380 Specific surface area, 742–743, 1118 Specific throughput, 1119, 1192–1196, 1211 Specific UV absordance (SUVA), 56, 57, 586–587 Specific weight (water), 22 Spectrometry, 58 Spectrophotometer, 26 Sphaerotilus lepothrix, 1737 Spherical particles, 34, 758 by differential settling, 601 in linear flow field, 593–600 in nonlinear flow field, 602 and reactor design, 609–610 Sphericity, (φ), 1118, 1209 Spiral wound element, 1337 Spiral-wound membranes, 1371, 1386 Spiral-wound modules, 1346–1348 Split-flow lime treatment, 1530 Split recarbonation process, 1575 Split-treatment softening, 1576, 1578–1579 Spray aerators, 1051, 1100–1105 description of, 1101 design of, 1101–1105 example of, 1103–1105 Spray fountains, 1100–1101 Spray towers, 294, 1051, 1100–1101, 1105–1106 Spreading pressure, 1155 Square sedimentation tanks, 679 SS (stainless steel), 1706, 1741–1743 Stabilization, 192, 1567–1568 Stable particle suspension, 543 Stage (term), 1337 Stage Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule (Stage DBP), 185, 584, 1489, 1491–1494 Stage Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule (Stage DBP), 185, 1489, 1491–1494 Staged operation, 394 Stainless steel (SS), 1706, 1741–1743 Standards, 6, 167, 188–189 See also Water quality standards and regulations Standard for Precoat Filtering Media (ANSI/AWWA), 808 Standard-promulgation step (regulatory process), 173–174 Stanton number, 1212, 1215, 1216 Staphylococcus aureus, 93 State water quality standards and regulations, 188 Static mixers, 294, 378–380 Steady state: CMFR time to achieve, 314–316 PFR time to achieve, 317–318 phenomenological filtration models, 773–775 Steady-state analysis, 289 Steam regeneration, 1129 Steel, 1707, 1741–1743 Steel pipe, 1706 Sterilization, 905, 1628 Stern layer, 549–550 STLC (soluble threshold limit concentration), 1691 Stoichiometry, 227, 233–235, 252–254, 1579, 1582 Stokes–Einstein equation, 401–407 Stokes’ law, 643, 648 Stomach cancer, 107–108 Storage lagoons, 1628 Storage tanks, materials used for, 1708 Straining, 846–848 definition of, 729, 821 with membrane filtration, 846–849 rapid filtration, 758 Streaming potential, 550 Strings (particles), 34 Stripping See also Air stripping definition of, 394 mass balances for, 441–442 rate of mass transfer for, 443 Stripping factor (S), 1035, 1063–1066 Strong-acid cation (SAC) exchangers, 1270, 1275–1277, 1280, 1282–1288, 1291, 1302, 1309, 1317 Strong acid cation resin, 1265 Strong-base anion (SBA) exchange resin, 1265, 1275–1277, 1280, 1282–1283, 1285, 1291–1292, Index 1294, 1300, 1302, 1309, 1312, 1313, 1543 Strong-base anion (SBA) exchangers, 1270, 1272–1273 Strongyloides stercoralis, 144 Styrene–divinylbenzyl, 1276 Submerged configuration (membrane filtration), 832–834 Sulfamic acid, 1759 Sulfates, 194 Sulfate reducers, 81 Sulfides, 194, 498, 502, 504 Sulfonated coal exchangers, 1267 Sulfonic acid cation exchange resin, 1282 Sunol Valley Water Treatment Plant (California, United States), 1833–1841 performance data, 1841 setting, 1833–1834 treatment processes, 1834–1839 unique design features, 1840–1841 Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction, 1129 Supercritical oxidation, 459, 1420 Supernatant flow, 1628 Super Pulsator, 691, 692 Supersaturation, 1395 Surface area: adsorbent, 1131–1132, 1208 filter media, 742–743, 799 for mass transfer, 416–417 resins, 1324 Surface charge, 549–551, 839 Surface diffusion coefficient, 1220 Surface films, see Films Surface loading rate, 669–670 Surface renewal model (mass transfer at interfaces), 418–419, 428 Surface roughness, 839 Surface tension, 22, 1155 Surface-to-pore diffusion flux ratio (SPDFR), 1220 Surface wash systems, 790–791 Surface water, 13–14 constituents found in, 168 discharges, 1660, 1662 disposal of, 1666–1667 taste/odor in, 62, 461, 462 treatment of, 12, 204–208 Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR), 138, 182, 185, 732, 826, 979 Surface Water Treatment Rule Guidance Manual, 932 Surfactants, 1049 Survival rates, 930 Suspended materials, 168 Suspended particles: definition of, 643 surface loading rate and characteristics of, 680–682 Suspended solids, 19, 31, 34 SUVA, see Specific UV absordance Sv (Sievert), 67 ‘‘Sweep floc,’’ see Precipitate Swelling, 1282–1283 SWTR, see Surface Water Treatment Rule Synthetic ion exchange resins, 1268–1274 engineering properties of, 1275–1281 physical properties of, 1280–1285 strong-acid, 1270 strong-base, 1272–1273 structure of, 1268–1270 weak-acid, 1272 weak-base, 1273–1274 Synthetic organic coagulant, 543 Synthetic organic compounds (SOCs), 56 adsorption of, 1122, 1124 definition of, 19 pilot-scale vs RSSCT testing for removal of, 1248–1250 Synthetic organic polymers, 574–576 Synthetic organic resins, 1267 Synthetic phenol–formaldehyde exchangers, 1267 Synthetic resins, 1265, 1267 System boundary, 289, 296–297 Systems development for water treatment, 198–218 best available technology/treatment rules factor in, 201 factors in, 198–205 for groundwater treatment, 207, 210–211 of hydraulic sizing, 211, 213, 214–217 and pilot plant studies, 214–217 plant production/operational goals factor in, 200 removal efficiency, 217–218 required treated water quality factor in, 199 for residual management, 211–214 source water quality factor in, 198–199 for surface-water treatment, 204–208 for systems controlled by mass transfer, 430–433 1897 T t10 , 345, 939, 984–985 Tafel slope, 1701, 1717–1718 Tanks in series, 291, 301–304 Tank-in-series (TIS) models, 341–343, 345 completely mixed flow reactors, 312–313 performance of, 526–527 on reactive system, 353–355 Taste, 61–63 adsorption for control of, 1123 control of, 197 factors affecting, 1162–1163 in groundwater, 62–63 oxidation for control of, 461–462, 499, 504, 508 prevention/control of, 63 sources of, 62–63 in surface waters, 62 Taylor equation, 982 2,3,7,8-TCDD (dioxin), 59 TCE (trichloroethylene), 63, 1427–1430 TCF, see Temperature correction factor TCLP (toxicity characteristic leaching procedure), 1691–1694 TCR (Total Coliform Rule), 183, 185 TDS, see Total dissolved solids Technology, water treatment, 9–13, 174, 201, 1634 TE (Tufenkji and Elimelech) filtration model, 764–769 Temperature, 571, 1095 and biologically active filtration, 804 determination of change in activation energy with, 256–257 and disinfection kinetics, 928–929 free-energy change dependence on, 247–251 and Henry’s constants for, 1046–1048 and iron oxidation, 1551, 1552 and permeate flux, 852–854 and rate constants, 254–257 and sedimentation, 696–697 and solubility of calcium carbonate, 1777 of water, 42, 43 Temperature correction factor (TCF), 1363, 1364, 1366 Ten State Standards (Great Lakes Upper Mississippi River Board), 204 Terminal settling velocity, 646, 649–650 Terrorism, 115–118 1898 Index Tetrachloroethene, 1228, 1229 Thames Water, 720 Thermal activation (of carbons), 1125–1126 Thermodynamics, 243–251 free energy at equilibrium, 246–247 and free energy of formation, 245, 247 and free energy of reaction, 245–246 and Henry’s constant, 247 of metallic corrosion, 1708–1713 reference conditions for, 244 and temperature dependence of free-energy change, 247–251 Thickening, 213 area for, 662–664 DAF, 1674 flotation, 1674, 1675 gravity, 1672–1674 of membrane concentrate, 1663–1665 sludge management, 1672–1676 Thick scales, 1743–1744 Thin-film aerators, 1058–1059 Thin-film air-water contactors, 1050, 1054–1056 Thin-film composite, 1337 Thin-film composite RO membranes, 1349 Thin-film contactors, 1035 Thin scales, 1743–1744 THMs, see Trihalomethanes THMFP, see Trihalomethane formation potential Thorium-232, 1602 Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP), 104 Time factors: in blending, 370–375 for destruction of target compound, 1438–1440 Time-to-tumor-occurrence model, 172 Tin, 1715 TiO2 , 1421 TIS models, see Tank-in-series models Titanium dioxide, 1419, 1473–1477 TNP (total neutralizing power), 1692 TOC, see Total organic carbon TOC (total organic carbon) analysis, 60–61 Tolerance distribution model, 172 Tolerance limits, 178 Total chlorine residual, 905 Total Coliform Rule (TCR), 183, 185 Total dissolved solids (TDS), 14, 19, 51, 63, 193 Total exchange capacity, 1275 Total free energy, 244 Total ion exchange capacity, 1265 Total neutralizing power (TNP), 1692 Total organic carbon (TOC), 3, 55, 57 Total organic carbon (TOC) analysis, 60–61 Total organic halides (TOX), 1488 Total organic halogen, 19 Total sludge mass and volume, 1644–1647 Total threshold limit concentration (TTLC), 1691 Total transport efficiency, 763–764 Total viable count, 155 Tower height, 1073–1086 and cross-sectional area/pressure drop, 1076–1080 design equation for, 1068–1073 determining, 1070–1073, 1093–1095 mass transfer rate constant for, 1080–1086 properties needed to determine packed, 1073–1086 and stripping factor, 1070–1072 TOX (total organic halides), 1488 Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP), 1691–1694 Trace constituents: definition of, 19 inorganic, 44, 47–48 Trace organics, oxidation of, 465 Tracers, 289, 324–332 Tracer curves: for CMFRs in series, 301–304 for ideal reactors, 299–301 modeling performance with, 355–362 for nonideal reactors, 323–333 parameters used with, 328, 332–333 Tracer testing, 324 Track-etched membranes, 829 Traditional constituents, 1530–1531 Transfer efficiency, 1059 Translation, 234 Transmembrane pressure, 821 Transmittance, 28 definition of, 19, 905 of UV light, 997 of water, 1002 Transposons, 83 Transverse (dead-end) filtration, 835, 837 Treatment objective, 1119 Treatment trains, 189 See also specific processes definition of, 167 for groundwater, 207, 210–211 for surface water, 204–208 Trichloroethene, 1226–1227, 1229, 1230, 1425 Trichloroethylene (TCE), 63, 1427–1430 Trichuris trichiura, 144 Trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP), 19, 61, 1204–1205 Trihalomethanes (THMs), 6, 1486–1492 chemistry of formation, 1494–1498 estimating formation of, 1498–1499 formation control, 1500–1504 removal of, 1504 Trihalonitromethanes, 1491 Trimedia filters, 737 Trophozoites, 134–137 TTLC (total threshold limit concentration), 1691 TTP (thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura), 104 Tube clarifiers, 680–687 detention time, 682 process configuration, 682–685 process selection, 687 settling characteristics and surface loading rate, 680–682 solids removal, 682 Tubercles, 1701, 1768–1769 Tubular membranes, 829 Tufenkji and Elimelech (TE) filtration model, 764–769 Tularemia, 118 Turbidity, 29–30, 570 and biologically active filtration, 804 and color of water, 41–42 control of, 193, 206 definition of, 19 and hydrogen sulfide removal, 463 and rapid filtration, 781 Turbulence, 363–365 Two-film model (mass transfer), 439–447 Two-stage excess lime-soda treatment, 1530 Two-stage filtration, 736 Two-stage softening, 1576–1577 Two-tiered systems, 178 Type I particle settling, see Discrete particle settling Type II particle settling, see Flocculant settling Type III particle settling, see Hindered settling Index Type IV particle (compression) settling, 642, 645 Typhoid fever, 3, 5, 6, 84, 99–100 U UBWV (unit backwash volume), 780–782, 1651 UC, see Uniformity coefficient UF (ultrafiltration), 193, 1338 UFRV, see Unit filter run volume Ulcers, 107 Ultimate reuse and disposal, of semisolid residuals, 1689–1694 Ultrafiltration (UF), 193, 1338 Ultraoligotrophic lakes, 148 Ultrasonic irradiation, see Sonolysis Ultraviolet absorbance, 60 Ultraviolet light (UV), 509, 1419–1420 absorbance of, 56, 57, 512–513 absorption of, by compound in aqueous solution, 512–513 average intensity of, 27–28 and color of water, 463 definition of, 905, 991–993, 1416 for disinfection, 909 oxidation with, see Hydrogen peroxide/UV light oxidation process sources of, 993–995 transmission/absorption of, 1459–1463 Ultraviolet light (UV) disinfection, 357–360, 991–1017 action spectrum in, 998–999 and biodosimetry, 1005–1006 dose for, 1000 equipment configurations for, 995–997 mechanism of, 997–998 and reactivation, 998 U.S EPA validation process, 1015–1017 UV dose from collimated beam, 1006–1014 UV reactor hydraulics influence on, 1003–1014 validation testing of reactors, 1014–1015 water quality influence on, 1000–1003 Ultraviolet light (UV) oxidation, 192 Ultraviolet light (UV) reactor, 525, 1014–1015 Ultraviolet light (UV) reactor hydraulics influence: chemical actinometry, 1004–1005 computational fluid dynamics, 1004 UV disinfection, 1003–1014 Underdrains: definition of, 730 for drying beds, 1678 filter, 793–794 Underflows, 1628 Underflow baffle, 718 Undersoftening, 1575 Uniformity coefficient (UC), 730, 738–740, 1283 Unit backwash volume (UBWV), 780–782, 1651 U.S Environmental Protection Agency (U.S EPA), 8, 173–176, 1488, 1489 and arsenic in semisolid residuals, 1690 BAT list developed by, 201 creation of, 180 odor limit recommendations by, 61 standards development role of, 179–188 U.S Geological Survey (USGS), 59, 1579 U.S Public Health Service (PHS), 6, 152, 177–179, 825 Units of expression for chemical concentrations, 23–25 Unit filter run volume (UFRV), 200, 730, 782, 783, 798, 1651 Unit operations of reactors, 293–295 Unit processes, 189–198 application of, 192–197 definition of, 167 physicochemical, 166 for water treatment, 189–192 Universal gas law, 64 Unregulated contaminants, 185–187 UPCORE system, 1303–1304 Upflow (radial flow), 689 Upflow clarifiers, see Circular sedimentation tanks Upflow contactors, 1189 Upflow fluidized system, 1304 Upflow operation, 1301 Upflow sludge blanket (USB) reactor, 1599 Uranium: oxidation states of, 1602 removal of, 195, 1603 Uranium-234, 1602 Uranium-238, 1602 USB (upflow sludge blanket) reactor, 1599 1899 USGS (U.S Geological Survey), 59, 1579 UV, see Ultraviolet light V Vaccination, 121–122 Vacuum filtration, 1681–1682 Validation factor, 1014 Validation testing (UV reactors), 1014–1015 Van der Waals forces, 552–555, 1131, 1133–1134 Van Leeuwenhoek, Anton, 4, 80, 154 Vapor pressure: and Henry’s law constants, 1045 and Raoult’s law, 1038–1040 of water, 22 Variances, 175 VBNC (viable but nonculturable) bacteria, 154–155 Velocity gradients, 594 in boundary layer models, 419 Camp–Stein root-mean-square, 365–367 definition of, 289 for flocculation, 364 Venturi reactors, 294 Versailles, 1703 Vertical paddle flocculator, 622 Vertical turbine flocculators, 611–621 Veterinary medications, Viable but nonculturable (VBNC) bacteria, 154–155 Vibratory shear-enhanced process (VSEP), 1402 Vibrio cholerae, 5, 84, 95, 96, 98–99, 115, 155 Vibrio vulnificus, 155 Vinyl chloride, 409–410 Violations, 175 Virulence (pathogens), 75, 84–85 Viruses, 6, 118–130 adenoviruses, 129–130 astroviruses, 128–129 characteristics of, 78, 120 fecal–oral disease transmission, 130 gastroenteritis causing, 124–130 hepatitis, 122–124 human caliciviruses, 127–128 membrane filtration of, 849–850 nongastrointestinal, 120–124 poliovirus, 120–122 removal of, 196, 849–850 rotaviruses, 125–126 UV dose for inactivation, 1013 Viscosity, 22, 1859 1900 Index Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): adsorption of, 1157–1159 Henry’s law constants for, 1043–1044 removal of, 195 Volatility, of organic substances, 53, 88 Volatizes, 229 Voltometer, 1716 Volume: of gas for flotation, 707 PFR vs CMFR, 318–321 regeneration, 1327 of residuals, 1633 of resins, 1324 of sludge, 1636–1638 unit backwash, 780–782, 1651 unit filter run, 200, 730, 782, 783, 1651 Volvox, 80 Vortexing, 617–618 VSA system, 976 VSEP (vibratory shear-enhanced process), 1402 W WAC exchangers, see Weak-acid cation exchangers Wash troughs, 794, 795 Waste extraction test (WET), 1691 Waste washwater, 1651–1653 definition of, 1628 estimating quantities of, 1651–1652 management of, 1656–1658, 1669–1670 physicochemical properties of, 1652 Wastewater: collection system for, 1667 municipal discharges of, 59 organic contaminants of, 185 recycled, 1341–1342 Water, 17–67 absorbance and transmittance, 1002 boiling point of, 21 conductivity of, 21 density of, 21 dielectric constant of, 21 dipole moment of, 21 engineering properties of, 21–22 enthalpy of formation of, 22 enthalpy of fusion of, 22 enthalpy of vaporization of, 22 fundamental properties of, 20–22 gases in, 63–65 heat capacity of, 22 hydrogen bonding in, 20 inorganic chemical constituents in, see Inorganic chemical constituents melting point of, 22 molecular weight of, 22 organic chemical constituents in, see Organic chemical constituents physical properties of, 25–43, 1861–1862 radionuclides in, 65–67 surface tension of, 22 taste/odor of, 61–63 viscosity of, 22 Waterborne disease, 84–87 classic bacterial-caused, 95–101 discovery of, 84 emerging bacterial-caused, 109–115 enteric, 84–85 mild or asymptomatic, 85, 86 modern bacterial-caused, 102–109 prevention of, WaterCarb Acticarb, 1164 Water conduits, 1701–1792 brass, 1765–1767 cast/ductile iron, 1703–1704, 1706–1707 cement-based, 1778–1783 consumer, 1707 contaminant release in, 1767–1772 copper tubing, 1760–1763 corrosion-control treatment of, 1783–1788 corrosion of, see Corrosion films/scales on, 1736–1746 galvanized pipe, 1754–1760 gun-metal, 1765–1767 iron-pipe, 1752–1754 and lead solder, 1763–1765 lead tubing, 1763 materials used for, 1703–1708 metal, 1752–1767 plastic, 1702, 1707 and reservoir materials, 1708 scale formation in, 1772–1778 Water feed recovery, 1611 Water flux, 1360–1363, 1387 Water permeating hollow-fiber membranes, 828 Water Pollution Control Act, 170, 1634 Water quality See also Microorganisms; Physical characteristics of water classification of characteristics, 23 criteria for, 170–173 early publications dealing with, 170 and gases, 63–65 and health, inorganic indicators of, 44, 48–51 organic chemical constituents, 51–61 and properties of water, 20–22 and radionuclides, 65–67 taste and odor, 61–63 terminology for, 18–19 units of expression for, 23–25 and UV disinfection, 1000–1003 Water Quality and Treatment (AWWA), 204 Water Quality Criteria, 170 Water quality management, 167–219 multiple-barrier approach to, 218–219 objectives of, 167–168 regulatory process for, 168–176 standards regulations for, see Water quality standards and regulations systems development in, see Systems development for water treatment terminology related to, 166–167 treatment methods used in, 189–198 Water quality standards and regulations, 176–189 EPA role in, 179–188 future, 188–189 historical development of, 176–179 international, 188 major laws, 180 PHS role in, 177–178 state, 188 two-tiered system of, 178 Water reuse, 1341–1342 Water sampling, see Samples/sampling Water source, 13–15 Water supplier goals, 176 Water supplies: contamination of, quality of, 198–199 Water treatment: by-products from, see By-products of water treatment chemical reactions used in, 267–279 constituents, removal of, see Constituent removal emerging concerns for, 8–9 evolution of technology for, 9–13 health/environmental concerns with, 3, 6–8 Index historical development of, 3–6 new technologies for, 11, 13 objectives of, 167–168 oxidation in, 459–465 and pathogens, 87 photolysis in, 523–532 range of problems and uses in, recycle waste streams, 1659–1661 selection of, 13–15 systems development for, see Systems development for water treatment Water treatment methods, 10, 189–198 application of, 192–198 classification of, 189–192 unit processes, 190–192 Watson, Herbert, 913–916 Watson, J D., 82 Wavelength, lowest energy titanium dioxide, 1475–1476 WBA exchangers, see Weak-base anion exchangers Weak-acid cation (WAC) exchangers, 1272, 1277, 1280, 1282, 1291, 1366–1368 Weak-base anion (WBA) exchangers, 1270, 1273–1274, 1277, 1280, 1282, 1285, 1291 Weight loss methods, 1789–1790 WET (waste extraction test), 1691 Wet oxidation, 459 Whipworm, 144 WHO, see World Health Organization Wilke–Lee correlation, 412–415 Wind effects, 334, 699 Woese, Carl, 76 World Health Organization (WHO), 121, 179, 188, 1534 Worm infections, 143, 144 WPL Calgon, 1164 1901 Y Yao filtration model, 760–766 Yersinia enterocolitica, 103, 108–109 Yersinia pestis, 108 Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, 108 Z Zeiss, Carl, 5, 80 Zeolites, 1122, 1267 Zero liquid discharge (ZLD), 1402 Zero point of charge (ZPC), 548 Zeta potential, 543, 549, 551–552 Zinc, 1711, 1715, 1721, 1730, 1732–1734, 1738, 1744 Zinc chloride, 1787 ZLD (zero liquid discharge), 1402 Zone settling, see Hindered settling (Type III) Zoonotic diseases, 87 ZPC (zero point of charge), 548 ... 174 SDI (silt density index) , 1374–1376, 1395 SDWA, see Safe Drinking Water Act Seawater: blending freshwater with, 1400 desalination, 1339–1341 small VBNC bacteria in, 155 Index Second-order hydroxyl... (table), 1863–1866 Atrazine, 59, 1165–1166, 1171–1172 Attachment efficiency (rapid filtration), 769–770 Index Augustus, Emperor, 99 Australia, 13 Autochthonous bacteria, 94 Autotrophs, 74 AWWA, see American... and crystallizers, 1402 Bromamine, 1518–1519 Bromate, 475, 1450, 1486, 1512–1515, 1519–1520 1872 Index Bromide, 475, 1426, 1496–1498, 1518–1519 Brominated by-products, 1426 Bromodichloromethane