This page is intentionally left blank Practical Research Planning and Design Eleventh Edition Paul D Leedy Late of American University and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod University of Northern Colorado (Emerita) Boston  Columbus  Indianapolis  New York  San Francisco  Hoboken Amsterdam  Cape Town  Dubai  London  Madrid  Milan  Munich  Paris  Montréal  Toronto Delhi  Mexico City  São Paulo  Sydney  Hong Kong  Seoul  Singapore  Taipei  Tokyo # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No i Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e A01_ORMR1322_11_SE_FM.indd K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:57 AM Vice President and Editorial Director: Jeffery W Johnston Vice President and Publisher: Kevin Davis Editorial Assistant: Caitlin Griscom Development Editor: Gail Gottfried Executive Field Marketing Manager: Krista Clark Vice President, Director of Marketing: Margaret Waples Senior Product Marketing Manager: Christopher Barry Project Manager: Lauren Carlson Procurement Specialist: Carol Melville Senior Art Director: Diane Lorenzo Cover Designer: Jennifer Hart Full-Service Project Management: Mary Tindle, S4Carlisle Publishing Services Composition: S4Carlisle Publishing Services Printer/Binder: Courier Kendallville Cover Printer: Courier Kendallville Text Font: Garamond LT Std Credits and acknowledgments for materials borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within text Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book However, the Internet and information posted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internet addresses listed in this textbook will change Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc or its affiliates All Rights Reserved Manufactured in the United States of America This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise For information regarding permissions, request forms, and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions PEARSON and ALWAYS LEARNING are exclusive trademarks in the U.S and/or other countries owned by Pearson Education, Inc or its affiliates Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Leedy, Paul D   Practical research: planning and design/Paul D Leedy, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod, University of Northern    Colorado (Emerita).—Eleventh edition   pages cm   Includes bibliographical references and index   ISBN-13: 978-0-13-374132-2   ISBN-10: 0-13-374132-X  1. Research—Methodology.  I. Ormrod, Jeanne Ellis.  II. Title   Q180.55.M4L43 2015  001.4—dc23 2014023060 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 10:    0-13-374132-X ISBN 13: 978-0-13-374132-2 # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No ii Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e A01_ORMR1322_11_SE_FM.indd K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:57 AM Preface New to the Eleventh Edition Every year brings exciting new strategies in research methodologies, making any updated edition of Practical Research a joy to write With this eleventh edition, the book has been revised in numerous ways As always, every page has been revisited—every word, in fact—and many minor changes have been made to tighten the prose or enhance its clarity Also, discussions of technology-based strategies have been updated to reflect not only new software options but also the increasing technological sophistication of most of our readers Probably the two most noteworthy changes in this edition are the addition of a new chapter and a reorganization of some of the other chapters In response to reviewers’ requests, the tenth edition’s chapter “Qualitative Research” has been expanded into two chapters, “Qualitative Research Methods” and “Analyzing Qualitative Data.” Discussions of quantitative research methods now precede (rather than follow) discussions of qualitative methodologies, and the chapter on analyzing quantitative data now immediately follows the two chapters on quantitative methodologies Other significant changes in the eleventh edition are these: ■ Chapter Revision of Figure 1.1 and accompanying text to include seven (rather than six) steps in order to better align with discussions that follow in the chapter; new section on philosophical underpinnings of various methodologies; new discussion of quantitative vs qualitative vs mixed-methods research (moved from its previous location in Chapter 4); discussion of the iterative nature of research; expansion of Table 1.1; revision of the guidelines for using word processing software to focus on features that readers may not routinely use in their day-to-day writing ■ Chapter Introduction of the idea of a priori hypotheses (to distinguish them from hypotheses that researchers might form midway through a study); new discussion about identifying the limitations (as well as delimitations) of a proposed study ■ Chapter Elimination of outdated sections “Using Indexes and Abstracts” and “Locating Relevant Government Documents,” with electronically based strategies in those sections being incorporated into the sections “Using Online Databases” and “Surfing the Internet”; relocation of the discussion of database creation to the Practical Application “Planning a Literature Search.” ■ Chapter Better balance between discussions of quantitative and qualitative approaches; addition of design-based research to what is now Table 4.2 (previously Table 4.5) ■ Chapter (formerly Chapter 8) New discussion of rubrics; omission of a random numbers table (because such tables are widely available on the Internet); expanded discussion of possible biases in descriptive research; new Guidelines feature (“Identifying Possible Sampling Bias in Questionnaire Research”); new Checklist feature (“Identifying Potential Sources of Bias in a Descriptive Study”) iii # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No iii Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e A01_ORMR1322_11_SE_FM.indd K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:57 AM iv P re fa c e ■ Chapter (formerly Chapter 9) New section on possible biases in quantitative re- search; new Checklist (“Identifying Potential Sources of Bias and Potential Threats to External Validity in an Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, or Ex Post Facto Study”) ■ Chapter (formerly Chapter 11) New example (regarding a cancer prognosis) as an illustration of the limitations of a median as a predictor; addition of the five-number summary as a possible indicator of variability in ordinal data ■ Chapter (formerly Chapter 6) Focus now on general design, planning, and data collection in qualitative research, with data analysis being moved to the new Chapter 11; new section on validity and reliability; expanded discussion of how cultural differences can influence interviews; relocation of the extensive example in international relations (formerly in the chapter “Descriptive Research”) to this chapter, where it is more appropriately placed ■ Chapter 10 (formerly Chapter 7) Expanded discussion of possible biases in primary and secondary sources; updated and expanded list of online databases ■ Chapter 11 (new chapter) Greatly expanded discussion of qualitative data analysis; new Checklist (“Pinning Down the Data Analysis in a Qualitative Study”); new Sample Dissertation (by Society for Research in Child Development award winner Christy Leung) ■ Chapter 12 (formerly Chapter 10) Expanded discussion of mixed-methods designs, with a new fifth category, multiphase iterative designs; new Conceptual Analysis Exercise (“Identifying Mixed-Methods Research Designs”); new section on sampling; expanded discussion of data analysis strategies; new Practical Application section discussing helpful software for analyzing mixed-methods data; new section on systematic reviews ■ Chapter 13 (formerly Chapter 12) Better balance between quantitative and qualitative research reports; reorganization and revision of the section “Essential Elements of a Research Report” (formerly titled “Planning a Research Report”); updated discussion of APA style for electronic resources; new Guidelines feature (“Writing a Clear, Coherent Report”) The Purpose of This Book Practical Research: Planning and Design is a broad-spectrum, cross-disciplinary book suitable for a wide variety of courses in basic research methodology Many basic concepts and strategies in research transcend the boundaries of specific academic areas, and such concepts and strategies are at the heart of this book To some degree, certainly, research methods vary from one subject area to another: A biologist might gather data by looking through a microscope, a historian by examining written documents from an earlier time period, and a psychologist by administering certain tests or systematically observing people’s behavior Otherwise, the basic approach to research is the same Regardless of the discipline, the researcher identifies a question in need of an answer, collects data potentially relevant to the answer, analyzes and interprets the data, and draws conclusions that the data seem to warrant Students in the social sciences, the natural sciences, education, medicine, business administration, landscape architecture, and other academic disciplines have used this text as a guide to the successful completion of their research projects Practical Research guides students from problem selection to completed research report with many concrete examples and practical, how-to suggestions Students come to understand that research needs planning and design, and they discover how they can effectively and professionally conduct their own research projects Essentially, this is a do-it-yourself, understand-it-yourself manual From that standpoint, it can be a guide for students who are left largely to their own resources in carrying out their research projects The book, supplemented by occasional counseling by an academic advisor, can guide the student to the completion of a successful research project # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No iv Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e A01_ORMR1322_11_SE_FM.indd K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:57 AM v P re fa c e Learning About the Research Process Is an Essential Component of Academic Training All too often, students mistakenly believe that conducting research involves nothing more than amassing a large number of facts and incorporating them into a lengthy, footnoted paper They reach the threshold of a master’s thesis or doctoral dissertation only to learn that simply assembling previously known information is insufficient and unacceptable Instead, they must something radically different: They must answer a question that has never been answered before and, in the process, must discover something that no one else has ever discovered Something has gone tragically wrong in the education of students who have, for so many years of their schooling, entirely misunderstood the true nature of research Research has one end: the discovery of some sort of “truth.” Its purpose is to learn what has never before been known; to ask a significant question for which no conclusive answer has previously been found; and, by collecting and interpreting relevant data, to find an answer to that question Learning about and doing research are of value far beyond that of merely satisfying a program requirement Research methods and their application to real-world problems are skills that will serve you for the rest of your life The world is full of problems that beg for solutions; consequently, it is full of research activity! The media continually bring us news of previously unknown biological and physical phenomena, life-saving medical interventions, and groundbreaking technological innovations—all the outcomes of research Research is not an academic banality; it is a vital and dynamic force that is indispensable to the health and well-being of Planet Earth and its human and nonhuman inhabitants More immediate, however, is the need to apply research methodology to those lesser daily problems that nonetheless demand a thoughtful resolution Those who have learned how to analyze problems systematically and dispassionately will live with greater confidence and success than those who have shortsightedly dismissed research as nothing more than a necessary hurdle on the way to a degree Given the advantages that a researcher’s viewpoint provides, considering an academic research requirement as annoying and irrelevant to one’s education is simply an untenable position Many students have found Practical Research quite helpful in their efforts both to understand the nature of the research process and to complete their research projects Its simplification of research concepts and its readability make it especially suitable for those undergraduate and graduate students who are introduced, perhaps for the first time, to genuine research methodology We hope we have convinced you that a course on research methodology is not a temporary hurdle on the way to a degree but, instead, an unparalleled opportunity to learn how you might better tackle any problem for which you not have a ready solution In a few years you will undoubtedly look back on your research methods course as one of the most rewarding and practical courses in your entire educational experience # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No v Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e A01_ORMR1322_11_SE_FM.indd K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:57 AM Acknowledgments No man is an iland, entire of it selfe; every man is a peece of the Continent, a part of the maine So wrote John Donne, the great dean of St Paul’s Cathedral in the 17th century And so we authors write in the 21st century Those who have had a part in the making of this book, known and unknown, friends and colleagues, gentle critics and able editors—all—are far too many to salute individually Those of you who have written in journals and textbooks about research methods and strategies, the generations of graduate and undergraduate students whom we authors have taught and who have also taught us, the kindly letters and e-mail messages that so many of you have written to describe how this book has helped you in your own research endeavors—to all of you, I extend my acknowledgment and appreciation wherever you may be You have had the greater part in bringing this book through its previous ten editions I am especially grateful to the reviewers of the eleventh edition, who recently offered many good suggestions for strengthening the book so that it can better assist novice researchers in the 21st century: Brian Belland, Utah State University; Robert Hayden, Michigan State University; Walter Nekrosius, Wright State University; Lloyd Rieber, University of Georgia; and Susan Twombly, University of Kansas I am also indebted to the students whose research proposals, doctoral dissertations, and master’s theses have enabled me to illustrate some of the research and writing strategies described in the book In particular, I extend my gratitude to Rosenna Bakari, Arthur Benton, Jennifer Chandler, Kay Corbett, Dinah Jackson, Ginny Kinnick, Laura Lara-Brady, Peter Leavenworth, Christy Leung, Matthew McKenzie, Kimberly Mitchell, Richard Ormrod, Luis Ramirez, Janie Shaklee, Nancy Thrailkill, and Debby Zambo Pete Leavenworth and Matt McKenzie gave me their time as well as their research reports, and their recommendations for the chapter on historical research were superb Equally important is to say “Thank you, thank you, thank you” to many folks at Pearson and S4Carlisle who have been key players in bringing this book to fruition In particular, I extend my deepest gratitude to Gail Gottfried, who has lined up helpful multimedia supplements to the book and, in general, has been a regular and reliable sounding board and source of support throughout my writing endeavors in recent years Thanks also to Lauren Carlson and Mary Tindle, both of whom have expertly coordinated what has become an ever-evolving and increasingly complex textbook-production process in the electronic age A shout-out to Chris Feldman, whose close attention to nitty-gritty details during copy edits has consistently warmed the cockles of my obsessive-compulsive heart And several people have worked diligently outside my range of sight to make the whole project come together; hearty thanks to Kate Wadsworth for the interactive quizzes and end-of-chapter activities, as well as to Carrie Mollette, Caroline Fenton, and Caitlin Griscom for the many behind-the-scenes contributions I can only begin to fathom Finally, I must thank our editor, Kevin Davis, for his guidance throughout this and preceding editions Throughout its many editions, Kevin has shared Paul’s and my vision for the book and struck the ever-so-important balance between providing guidance to help us improve it while also trusting our instincts about how best to explain and illustrate the complex, multifaceted nature of research planning and design No author is an island, entire of itself Paul and I have had many hands guiding our pens and many minds adding richness and depth to our thoughts All of you have been exceedingly helpful, all of you have been “a peece of the Continent, a part of the maine.” For that, I offer my humble and hearty thanks Jeanne Ellis Ormrod vi # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No vi Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e A01_ORMR1322_11_SE_FM.indd K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:57 AM Brief Contents Preface iii Acknowledgments vi PART I The Fundamentals CHAPTER PART II PART III PART Iv The Nature and Tools of Research Focusing Your Research Efforts CHAPTER The Problem: The Heart of the Research Process 27 CHAPTER Review of the Related Literature 52 CHAPTER Planning Your Research Project 74 CHAPTER Writing the Research Proposal 116 Quantitative Research CHAPTER Descriptive Research 136 CHAPTER Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, and Ex Post Facto Designs 178 CHAPTER Analyzing Quantitative Data 211 Qualitative Research CHAPTER Qualitative Research Methods 251 CHAPTER 10 Historical Research 278 CHAPTER 11 Analyzing Qualitative Data 291 PART V Mixed-Methods Research CHAPTER 12 Mixed-Methods Designs 311 PART VI Research Reports CHAPTER 13 Planning and Preparing a Final Research Report 329 Appendices Appendix A  Using a Spreadsheet: Microsoft Excel 354 Appendix B  Using SPSS 361 Glossary 367 References 373 Index 378 vii # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No vii Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e A01_ORMR1322_11_SE_FM.indd K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:57 AM Contents Preface iii Acknowledgments vi PART I The Fundamentals Chapter The Nature and Tools of Research USING TECHNOLOGY USING TECHNOLOGY USING TECHNOLOGY What Research Is Not  What Research Is   Philosophical Assumptions Underlying Research Methodologies  Tools of Research  The Library and Its Resources  Computer Technology  Measurement 9 Statistics 11 Language 11 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Communicating Effectively Through Writing  13 G uidelines : Writing to Communicate  14 G uidelines : Using the Tools in Word Processing Software  15 The Human Mind  17 Critical Thinking  17 Deductive Logic  18 Inductive Reasoning  19 Scientific Method  20 Theory Building  21 Collaboration with Other Minds  22 Reflections on Noteworthy Research  22 Exploring Research in Your Field  24 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Identifying Important Tools in Your Discipline  24 C hecklist : Interviewing an Expert Researcher  25 For Further Reading  25 viii # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No viii Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e A01_ORMR1322_11_SE_FM.indd K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:57 AM www.downloadslide.net 375 R e fe re n ce s Kim-Cohen, J., Moffitt, T E., Caspi, A., & Taylor, A (2004) Genetic and environmental processes in young children’s resilience and vulnerability to socioeconomic deprivation Child Development, 75, 651–668 Kime, N (2008) Children’s eating behaviours: The importance of the family setting Area, 40, 315–322 Kinnick, V (1989) Learning fetal monitoring under three conditions of concept teaching Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado, Boulder Kontos, S (1999) Preschool teachers’ talk, roles, and activity settings during free play Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 14(3), 363–382 Kozinets, R V (2010) Netnography: Doing ethnographic research online London: Sage Krathwohl, D R (1993) Methods of educational and social science research: An integrated approach White Plains, NY: Longman Kraut, R., Olson, J., Banaji, M., Bruckman, A., Cohen, J., & Couper, M (2004) Psychological research online: Report of Board of Scientific Affairs’ Advisory Group on the Conduct of Research on the Internet American Psychologist, 59, 105–117 Krueger, R A., & Casey, M A (2009) Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (4th ed.) 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How to write a research proposal Retrieved from http://www.meaning.ca/archives/ archive/art_how_to_write_P_Wong.htm Zambo, D (2003) Uncovering the conceptual representations of students with reading disabilities Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University, Tempe K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 27/08/14 9:06 PM www.downloadslide.net Index Abduction, 20 Abraham, E P., 22, 338 Abrams, E., 150 Abscissa, 138 Abstracts, 28, 34, 336, 337 Academic disciplines codes of ethics, 106–107 conference presentations, 348–350 identifying tools in, 24–25 interdisciplinary nature of, 53 mixed-method designs and, 251 prose style and, 343–344 questionnaires and, 148–152 reference lists and, 337–340 research in, 24, 76 styles in research reports, 329–330, 342–343 Academic integrity, 335–336 Academic Search Premier, 64 Accidental sampling, 164 Acknowledgments section, in research report, 337 Action research, 27, 84 Active voice, 343 Advance organizers, 13, 68, 332 Ahlborg, G., 256 Airasian, P., 166 Allen, E M., 129 Alpha error (Type I error), 238, 239, 240, 240n Alpha (α), 237, 238 Alternating-treatments design, 191, 199 Altheide, D L., 269 American Psychological Association (APA) Publications Manual, 330, 338, 343 formatting headlines and, 119–120 reference list sample, 338–339 style guidelines, 329–330, 338, 339, 343 American Psychological Association APA Style Guide to Electronic References, 330, 338 Analogies, 333 Analysis See also Data analysis computers and, ethnography and, 254, 255 Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), 184, 204, 241 Analysis of variance (ANOVA), 204, 241 Anderson, C A., 87, 170 Anderson, E E., 170 Animal research review boards, 106 APA See American Psychological Association (APA) Publications Manual Appendices, 124, 333, 340 Applied research, basic research versus, 27, 87–88 a priori hypotheses, 39, 40, 46 Argument analysis, 17 Arithmetic mean, 224 Artifacts, ethnography and, 255 Asher, J W., 251 Assumptions definition of, historical research and, 284 proposal writing and, 46 questionnaires and, 149 stating, 44 ATLAS.ti, 300 Attachments, 21 Attrition rates, 336 for online studies, 204 Audience appropriate style for, 343 professional conferences, 350 Audiovisual materials, qualitative research and, 255, 259 Aunola, K., 231 Authors, in reference lists, 338 Authorship, sharing, 351 Average deviation (AD), 228, 229 Axial coding, in grounded theory studies, 298 Bakari, R., 131 Bandura, A., 41 Bartholomew, D J., 89n Baseline data, 190, 191 Basic research, applied research versus, 27, 87–88 Bazeley, P., 320, 321 Beck, C T., 346 Becker, H S., 262 Bell curve, 220, 221, 222, 224 Bender, G., 254 Benton, A., 61, 128 Bergman, M M., 258 Bernardi, J D., 299 Best, J., 169 Beta error (Type II error), 238, 239 Beyer, B K., 17 Bias acknowledging presence of, 88 coding and, 295 confirmation bias, 23, 40, 261 in descriptive research, 170–172 in experimental research, 204–205 historical research and, 281, 282 instrumentation bias, 169–170 qualitative research and, 301–302 researcher bias, 7–8, 170 in research report, 335, 344 response bias, 170 in samples, 158, 169, 235 sampling bias, 168–169 BiblioExpress, 62 Bibliographic software, 62, 63, 338 Biblioscape, 62 Bing, 55, 59, 106, 330 Bochner, S., 266 Borg, W R., 147, 269 Bracketing, 256 BrainStorm, 39 Brainstorming software, 39, 60 Bransford, J D., 20 Breaching experiments, 255 Breisach, E., 284 Brettschneider, W.-D., 231 Brinkmann, S., 267 Brown, A L., 20 Bryman, A., 312 Bukowski, W M., 231 Bulleted lists, 127–128, 349 Bulletin boards, electronic, 269 Bushman, B J., 87 Calderon, C N., 170 Call for papers, 349 Call numbers, 54, 55, 62, 63 Campbell, D T., 85, 98, 180, 181, 184 Campbell, S B., 201 Capitalization, in reference lists, 338 Captions, in research reports, 333 Caracelli, V J., 312 Case studies, 84, 252, 253–254, 292 distinguishing characteristics of, 258 multiple or collective, 253 Casey, M A., 269 Caspi, A., 42 378 # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No 378 Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e Z05_ORMR1322_11_SE_IDX.indd 378 K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:32 AM www.downloadslide.net 379 I n d ex Causal-comparative designs, 194n See also Ex post facto designs Causation, correlation distinguished from, 23, 139, 234, 296, 334 Cause-and-effect relationships, 203, 364 assumptions and, correlational studies and, 140 experimental design and, 178, 180 in research reports, 334, 336 variables and, 40–42 Central limit theorem, 235n Central tendency, measures of See Measures of central tendency Cepeda, N J., 203, 204, 205 Chain, Ernest B., 22, 23 Chandler, J., 262 Charmaz, K., 256, 297, 299 Charts, 349 Chat rooms, 269 Chatterjee, B B., 92 Checklists computerizing observations and, 146 for confounding variables, 201–202 for critiquing final research report, 346–348 for data analysis in qualitative study, 302–303 in descriptive research, 143–146, 148 for evaluating early draft of research proposal, 130 for evaluating proposed research project, 47–48 for evaluating qualitative study, 304–305 for evaluating research article, 65–66 for evaluating research problem, 35–36 for identifying bias and threats to external validity in experimental, quasiexperimental, and ex post facto study, 205 for identifying potential sources of bias in descriptive study, 171–172 for interviewing an expert researcher, 25 for judging feasibility of research project, 108–110 for methodology of qualitative study, 271–272 for mixed-methods design feasibility, 321–322 for planning ethical research study, 107–108 for population analysis, 167–168 for statistical procedures, 245–246 Chicago Manual of Style, guidelines of, 329, 330 Children, ethical issues and, 102, 102n Chipman, S F., 151 Chi-square (X2) tests in Excel, 360 goodness-of-fit test, 241 Christian, L., nominal scales and, 93, 168 Circular definitions, avoiding, 43 Citations format for, 330 literature review and, 60, 69 reference list and, 128, 338, 339 Cizek, G J., 68 Clarity in interviews, 148 in proposal writing, 117–118 in research reports, 343 in stating research problem, 32, 34 in writing literature review, 67–70 Cluster sampling, 162, 163, 318 Cocking, R R., 20 Codes of ethics, 106–107 Coding axial coding, 298 documenting analysis procedures and, 301 open coding, 297–298 patterns and relationships in, 296 qualitative analysis and, 292–296 schemes for, 14 selective coding, 298 Coefficient of determination (R2), 232, 233 Coggle (coggle.it), 39 Coghill, R D., 22 Coherence, as qualitative research evaluation criterion, 270 Cohort-sequential studies, 141 Cole, D B., 161, 171 Collaboration with others, 21–22, 37 Collective case studies, 253 Collins, J., 191, 192 Collins, K M T., 318 Combined experimental and ex post facto designs, 196–197, 198–199 Combs, J P., 321 Comparative-historical research, 278 Complementarity, in mixed-methods designs, 312 Completeness mixed-methods designs and, 312 as qualitative research evaluation criterion, 270 Computers See also Internet; Software; Technology; Word processors for data organization and analysis, 300 interviewing process and, 148 observations and use of, 146–147 organizing collected information on, 62–63 for questionnaire administration, 152–153 as research tools, 8–9 Conceptual density, 256 Conceptual historical research, 285 Concrete examples, 13–14 Condensing data, mixed-methods designs and, 320 Conferences, professional, 31, 348–350 Confidence intervals, 236 Confidentiality, 335 Confirmability, 88 Confirmation bias, 23, 40, 261 Confirmatory analysis, 241 Confounding variables, 180–184, 201–202, 311, 314, 336 # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No 379 Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e Z05_ORMR1322_11_SE_IDX.indd 379 Consensus, as qualitative research evaluation criterion, 270 Consent See Informed consent Consistency internal consistency reliability, 99, 151, 333 in questionnaires, 150–151 research project and, 126 Constant comparative method, 252, 291 Constructivism, 8, 76 Construct validity, 97 Content analysis, 84, 252, 257–258, 292 distinguishing characteristics of, 258 planning for, 257 qualitative research and, 302 Content analysis study, data analysis in, 299 Content validity, 97 Contingency coefficient, 232 Continuous variables, discrete variables versus, 219 Contradictions, in data sets, 296 Contradictory evidence, 23 Control confounding variables and, 180–184, 201–202, 311, 314 experimental design and, 179–184 importance of, 179–180 Control groups, 186 confounding variables and, 180–184 definition of, 180 experimental designs and, 179–180 pre-experimental designs and, 185–186 quasi-experimental designs and, 189–194 true experimental designs and, 186–189 Control-group time-series design, 190, 199 Controversial questions, interviews and, 148 Convenience sampling, 164 Convergent designs, 313 Copyright dates, 54 Copyright Office, 336 Copyrights definition of, 336 endnotes and footnotes and, 337 permissions and, 69, 69n, 337 in preliminary pages, 336 Corbett, K., 70 Corbin, J., 256, 256n, 297, 298, 299 Core category, axial coding and, 298 Co-researchers, 21 Correlation causation distinguished from, 23, 139, 234, 296, 334 definition of, 231 measures of association and, 231–233 Correlational research, 84 characteristics of, 137–139 ex post facto designs contrasted with, 194 Correlation coefficients, 231 correlational research and, 139 t-test for, 241 validity and reliability affecting, 233–234 K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:32 AM www.downloadslide.net 380 I n d ex Credibility, 54, 59, 88, 318 Credit, in research report, 335 Creswell, J W., 88, 148, 254, 255, 259, 264, 269, 297, 298, 311, 313, 314, 318, 319, 320 Creswell’s data analysis spiral, 297, 298 Criteria for the admissibility of data, 79 Criterion validity, 97 Critical assumptions, research and, Critical thinking, 17 Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, 151n Cross-sectional studies, 139, 140, 141 CSE (Council of Science Editors), style and format, 330 Cuca, J M., 129 Cultural backgrounds, interview participants and, 264, 266 Culture, questionnaires and, 151 Cumming, G., 242n CyberTracker, 147 Dahlberg, B., 129 Data, 2, 23 admissibility of, 79 baseline, 190, 191 condensing, 320 in correlational research, 138–139 definition of, 76 dynamics within, 213 graphing, 213–214 importing, 300 location of, 78, 122 nature of, 219–223, 226, 233 obtaining, 78–79, 122 presentation in research report, 332–333 primary versus secondary data, 76–77, 278 recording and recoding in Excel, 356–357 reorganizing in Excel, 359 research methodology linked with, 79–82 self-report data, 170 statistics and, 10–11, 219–223 transient nature of, 76 Data analysis See also Statistics content analysis and, 299 documenting procedures, 301 in grounded theory studies, 256, 297–299 mixed-methods designs and, 319–321 planning for qualitative studies, 302–303 qualitative research and, 82, 291–297 quantitative research and, 81, 82 research methodology and, 4–5 in research report, 332–333 software and, 215–216 Data analysis spiral, 297, 298 Databases importing data and, 300 literature review and, 54, 317 online databases, 56–58, 63, 64 questionnaires and, 153 of related literature, 64 Data collection case studies and, 253 commercial websites for, 157 computerizing observations and, 146–147 descriptive research and, 143–146, 157–158 in grounded theory studies, 256 historical research and, 278–282 planning for, 77–79 qualitative research and, 81, 252, 259–260, 261, 291 quantitative research and, 81 research report and, 332–333 technology used for, 62, 157–158, 300 Data interpretation, correlational research and, 139 descriptive research and, 172–173 historical research and, 283–284 measurement and, 89 mixed-methods designs and, 319–321 qualitative research and, 291, 296–297 in research reports, 333–334 statistics and, 243–245 subproblems and, 37, 79 Data point, 4n Data sets correlation in, 231 creating in SPSS, 361–363 descriptive statistics and, 217 normalizing, 231 organization of, 211–213 Date of publication, in reference lists, 338 Datum, 4n Davitz, J R., 129 Davitz, L L., 129 Deaver, C M., 193 Decision making, 17 Deductive logic, 17–18, 23 Delimitations, 335 identifying, 44–45 proposal writing and, 46 Dellve, L., 256 Dependent-samples t-test, 241, 364n Dependent variables, 41, 42, 179, 184, 203 Description ethnography and, 254, 255 qualitative research and, 80, 81 thick description, 270, 311, 332 Descriptive research bias and, 168–172 checklists in, 143 correlational research, 137–139 data collection and, 143–146 data interpretation and, 172–173 developmental designs, 139–141 Internet and, 157–158, 203 interviews in, 147–148 observation studies, 136–137 planning and, 143 population analysis and, 167 questionnaires in, 148–157 # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No 380 Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e Z05_ORMR1322_11_SE_IDX.indd 380 samples and, 158–168 survey research, 141–142 Descriptive statistics See also Inferential statistics; Statistical techniques; Statistics function of, 10, 217, 223 measures of association and, 231–234 measures of central tendency and, 223–224, 226, 231 measures of variability and, 226–231 in Microsoft Excel, 360 mixed-methods designs and, 311 in SPSS, 363–364 Descriptive surveys, 141 Design-based research (or design experiments), 84, 314 Developmental designs, 139–141 Developmental research, 84 Deviation, 227 See also Standard deviation Dewey decimal (DD) classification system, 55, 56 Digital Object Identifier (DOI), 60, 339, 340 Dimock, M., 168 Direction, correlation coefficients for two variables, 231 Discrete variables, continuous variables versus, 219 Discriminant sampling, 262 Dissertation analysis data analysis, 305–309 data interpretation, 246–249 experimental designs, 206–209 historical research, 286–289 literature review, 71–73 mixed-methods designs, 324–328 qualitative research, 272–276 questionnaires and, 173–176 research proposal, 131–134 Distributions measures of variability and, 226–231 normal distributions, 220–222 polymodal distributions, 226 skewed, 221 Do, S L., 256 Documentary delivery service, online, 64 Double-blind experiments, 86 Dowson, M., 170 Drafts first, 70 multiple, 14, 49 Dragon Naturally Speaking, 148, 269 Dunn, E W., 139 Editing See also Writing revisions and, 125–128, 345–346 in statement of research problem, 34–35 in word processors, 15, 16 Editing marks, 125 Editorial review boards, 346 Effect size (ES), 242, 242n, 322n, 323 K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:32 AM www.downloadslide.net 381 I n d ex Eisenhardt, M., 269 Eisner, E W., 259, 264, 267, 269 Eklöf, M., 256 Electronic dropbox, 300 Electronic planners, 112 Electronic questionnaires, 153 Electronic spreadsheets, 215–216 See also Microsoft Excel Elliott, D., 351 e-mail, 153 Embedded designs, 313 Emergent theory, 256n See also Grounded theory studies Emergent design, 259, 316 Empirical research, 5n EndNote, 62, 338 Endnotes, 337 English, T., 139 Epoché, 256 Equivalent forms reliability, 99 Equivalent time-samples design, 184n ERIC, 64 Errors in grammar, punctuation, spelling, and formatting, 127 in measurements, 99 Ethical issues, 102–108 children and, 102, 102n, 267 experimental research and, 204 honesty with professional colleagues and, 105 informed consent and, 204, 255, 269, 319 internal review boards and, 106 Internet-based research studies and, 158, 204, 257n mixed-methods designs and, 319 online surveys and, 158 permissions and, 69, 69n, 117, 267, 319, 337 placebos and, 182 professional codes of ethics, 106–107 protection from harm and, 102–103, 204 qualitative research and, 260 right to privacy and, 105, 204, 319, 335 shared authorship and, 351 unobtrusive measures and, 86, 105 voluntary and informed participation and, 103–105, 126n Ethnograph, 300 Ethnography, 84, 252, 332 characteristics of, 254, 258 site-based fieldwork and, 254–255 EthnoNotes, 300, 321 Evaluation, qualitative research and, 80, 304–305 Excel See Microsoft Excel Exceptions in data sets, 296 qualitative research and, 261 Experimental designs cause-and-effect relationships and, 178, 180 combined experimental and ex post facto design, 196–197 control and, 179–180 ex post facto designs and, 194 hypotheses and, 204 identifying bias in, 205 internal validity and, 87, 179, 180 meta-analysis and, 203 pre-experimental designs, 185–186 quasi-experimental designs, 189–194 summary of, 198–199 true experimental designs, 186–189 Experimental groups, 180, 186 Experimental research, 84 bias in, 204–205 hypotheses and, 40 Internet and, 203 Experts checklist for interviewing, 25 judgment by panel of, 98 seeking advice of, 30–31 Explanatory designs, 313, 319 Explicitness of assumptions and biases, as qualitative research evaluation criterion, 270 Exploratory designs, 313, 319 Ex post facto designs, 184 characteristics of, 194 combined experimental and ex post facto design, 196–199 hypotheses and, 204 identifying bias in, 205 simple ex post facto design, 195 summary of, 198–199 Ex post facto research, 84, 285 External evidence, in historical research, 283 External validity, 85–87, 158, 180, 205, 318 Face-to-face interviews, 142 Face validity, 97 Factor analysis, 241 Factorial designs, 184, 195–197 FastTrack Schedule, 112 Faust, K., 92 Federal Digital System (FDsys), 58 Feedback for journal articles, 351–352 literature review and, 70 proposal writing and, 128 research report writing and, 345 validity and, 88 Ferguson, D L., 200, 214, 215 Ferrari, M., 232 Fidler, F., 242n Fields, bibliographic software, 62 Fieldwork, 254–255 # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No 381 Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e Z05_ORMR1322_11_SE_IDX.indd 381 Figures list of, 336 in research reports, 14, 333, 333n Fisher’s exact test, 241 Fiske, D W., 98 Five-number summary, 227, 229 Flanagan, D P., 232 Fleming, A., 22, 23, 190 Florey, H W., 22, 23 Flowcharts, in research reports, 333 Focus groups, 264, 268, 269 Folkman, S., 103 Footnotes, 330, 337, 344 Forbes, M L., 299 Formatting headings and subheadings, 119–120 for research reports, 344 in word processors, 15 Formulas for mean, 225 for spreadsheet function, 216, 357, 358 for standard deviation, 228 for standard error of the mean, 234, 235 Fraud, 105 Free Day Planner, 112 Freeman, L C., 92 Free recall tasks, 179 Freeware, 62 Front matter, of research reports, 336–337 Furnham, A., 266 Gall, J P., 147, 269 Gall, M D., 147, 148, 269 Gallo, J J., 129 Gallop, R., 254 Gatekeeper, 254 Gatti, G G., 231 Gay, L R., 166 Genealogical research, 285 Geometric mean, 225 Gerlach, E., 231 Geva, D., 201 GIS Cloud Mobile Data Collection, 147 Glaser, B G., 256, 257, 269, 297, 299 Goals articulation of research goal, 2–3 writing schedule and, 345 Good, R., 304 Google, 55, 59, 106, 330 Google Books, 58, 59, 64 Google Scholar, 28, 58, 59 Gosling, S D., 157, 158 Gould, S J., 227, 227n Graham, W F., 312 Grammar checkers, 17, 127 Grant funding, 116 Graphics qualitative research and, 261, 297 in statistical programs, 243 word processors and, 15 K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:32 AM www.downloadslide.net 382 I n d ex Graphs and graphing data, 213–214 mixed-methods designs and, 320 in research reports, 333 as spreadsheet function, 216 Greene, J C., 312 Grounded theory studies, 4, 84, 252, 256–257, 297–299, 332, 340 description of, 256 distinguishing characteristics of, 258 Growth, as function of geometric progression, 225 Growth curve, 225 Guba, E G., 88 Hallström, I., 257 Halpern, D F., 17 Handouts, for presentations, 350 Harden, A., 322, 323 Harwell, M R., 231 Haskins, L., 280 Hawthorne effect, 86, 86n, 181 Headings, 68, 119–120 Heather, P., 281 Heck, A., 191, 192 Heine, S J., 266 Hesse-Biber, S N., 257, 315, 319 Historical research, 84 characteristics of, 84 data collection and, 278–282 data interpretation and, 283–284 data sources in, 278–283 psychological or conceptual, 285 purpose of, 278 research reports and, 285–286 Holmbeck, G N., 42 Holmes, C J., 58 Homonyms, 127, 344 Howe, K., 269 Huberman, A M., 314 Human mind See also Open-mindedness as research tool, 11, 16–21 Hyper Qual, 300 HyperRESEARCH, 300 HyperTRANSCRIBE, 269 Hypotheses correlational research and, 139 data interpretation and, 244 definition of, experimental designs and, 204 ex post facto designs and, 196, 204 formulating, 23 ground theory studies and, 257 inferential statistics and, 237–240 mixed-methods designs and, 311, 312, 316–317 null hypotheses, 40, 237, 238, 240 proposal writing and, 46, 118 research hypotheses, 3–4, 7, 40, 237, 238, 240 research problem and, 3–4, 34, 46 in research reports, 331, 332, 334, 336 stating, 39–40 statistical hypotheses, 237, 240 testing of, 17, 237–240 IACUC (institutional animal care and use committee), 106, 110, 116, 319 Idiographic research See Case studies Imagery, 68 Independent-samples t-test, 241, 364n Independent variables, 41, 42, 179, 184, 195, 197, 203 Indexes, 36, 63 Inductive reasoning, 18–19, 82, 291 Inferential statistics See also Descriptive statistics; Statistical techniques; Statistics estimating population parameters and, 234–237 examples of procedures, 241 function of, 10, 218, 234 mixed-methods designs and, 311 probabilities and, 237, 238, 239, 334 in SPSS, 364–366 testing hypotheses and, 237–240 Informed consent, 124 data collection and, 124 ethical issues and, 103–105, 204, 269 ethnography and, 255 interviews and, 148 mixed-methods design and, 319 placebos and, 182 Inspiration software, 39, 61, 333 Institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC), 106, 110, 116, 319 Instrumentation bias, 169–170 Insubstantial phenomena, 89, 89n, 90–92, 97, 143 Interlibrary loan, 36, 64 Internal consistency reliability, 99, 151, 333 Internal evidence, in historical research, 283–284 Internal review boards (IRBs), 106, 110, 116, 131, 182, 260, 264, 319 Internal validity, 85–87, 179, 185, 186, 201, 204, 318 Internet See also Technology bibliographic software and, 338 communicating and collaborating with others via, 22 conducting experiments on, 203–204 content analysis and, 257n data collection for descriptive research and, 157–158 literature resources and, 354, 355 literature review and, 53, 55, 58, 59–60 referencing sources obtained on, 339–340 right to privacy and, 105, 269 # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No 382 Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e Z05_ORMR1322_11_SE_IDX.indd 382 scheduling software and, 112 spreadsheet software and, 216 storage mechanisms, 300 writing assistance, 330 Interpersonal dynamics, measuring, 90–92 Interpretation See also Data interpretation correlational research and, 138–139 ethnography and, 255 historical research and, 283–284 as purpose of qualitative research, 80 Interpretive rigor, 88 Interquartile range, 227, 228, 229 Interrater reliability, 99, 137, 295, 300 Interval data, 145, 220 Interval estimates, point estimates versus, 236–237 Interval scales, 93–94, 95, 151 Intervening variables, 41, 140 Interviews example in international relations, 268–269 of expert researchers, 25 face-to-face interviews, 142 guidelines for conducting, 147–148, 264, 266–268 historical research and, 279 mixed-methods designs and, 311, 320 phenomenological study and, 255–256 qualitative research and, 252, 259, 261, 263–264, 292 research questions aligned with interview questions, 265–266 survey research and, 141–142 technology and, 269 telephone interviews, 142 Jaccard, J., 11, 20, 256n, 257 Jackson, D L., 13, 14, 18, 200, 299, 340, 361 Jacoby, J., 11, 20, 256n, 257 Jeffrey, K., 280 Jernigan, T L., 58 John, O P., 157 Johnson, B., 194n Johnson, J M., 269 Journal articles, publishing, 350–351 Journals, as literature resources, 8, 24, 53, 63, 64, 338, 354, 355 JSTOR, 58, 64 Juried journals, 54 Juried research reports, 24 Kahn, P G K., 213 Kearns, K C., 279 Keeter, S., 168 Kellogg, R T., 12 Kendall coefficient of concordance, 232 Kendall’s tau correlation, 232 Kennedy, C., 168 Key informants, 255 K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:32 AM www.downloadslide.net 383 I n d ex Keywords, 53, 54, 56, 59, 60, 63, 106, 242 Kim-Cohen, J., 42 Kime, N., 256 Kinnick, V., 206 Koch, R S., 22 Kontos, S., 137 Kozinets, R V., 254 Krantz, J., 157, 203n Krathwohl, D R., 243 Kraut, R., 157, 158, 254n, 257n Krueger, R A., 269 Kruskal-Wallis test, 241 Kuder-Richardson Formula 20, 151n Kuhn, D., 140n, 338 Kurtosis, 221 Kushlev, K., 139 Kvale, S., 267 Kwalitan, 300 Labistre, A M., 170 Laboratory studies, 86, 87, 87n Language questionnaires and, 149 as research tool, 11–12 Lara-Brady, L G., 324, 328, 338 Latent variables, 89n Lauer, J M., 251 Laursen, B., 231 Leavenworth, P S., 31, 279, 280, 281 Leptokurtic distribution, 221, 222, 223 Letter of inquiry, for questionnaires, 155 Leung, C Y Y., 45, 46, 267, 293, 295, 296, 305, 309 Liberman, N., 149 Libraries guidelines for efficient use of, 62–65 as research tools, 8, 24 Library catalogs, for literature reviews, 53–56 Library of Congress, 282 Library of Congress (LC) classification system, 24, 55, 56 LibreOffice, 216 Likert scales, 143n, 144 Limitations, 335 identifying, 44–45 proposal writing and, 47 Lincoln, Y S., 88 Lindsay, J J., 87 Line of regression, 138, 241 Lippa, R A., 29 Lipsey, M W., 239n List server, 21 Literature reviews, 354 computers and, conducting, 62–65 dissertation analysis, 71–73 evaluating others’ research, 65 fine-tuning research problem and, 48 knowing when to quit, 66 mixed-methods designs and, 317 planning for, 60–62 preliminary, 66 role of, 52–53 sample, 70 strategies for, 53–60 writing, 67–70 Loftus, A., 151 Loftus, E F., 200 Logic, deductive, 17–18 Longitudinal studies, 140, 140n, 141, 169, 332, 335 Lowes, J L., 80, 285 Lüdtke, O., 231 Lundeberg, M., 151 Lundqvist, A., 257 Luong, A., 153, 156, 169, 171 Lyubomirsky, S., 139 Malthus, T R., 225 Manifest variables, 89n Mann-Whitney U, 241 Manymoon, 112 Marius, R., 279, 284, 285 Marsh, H W., 231 Masland, R., 19 Matched pairs, 183 Maurois, A., 22, 23 MAXQDA, 300, 321 McCallin, R C., 103, 104, 196, 316 McCaslin, M., 170 McCloskey, M., 20 McCrea, S M., 149 McGee, M A., 233 McGibbon, E., 254 McGraw, K O., 158 McGrew, K S., 232 McGue, M., 68, 351 McInerny, D M., 170 McKenzie, M G., 279, 280, 284, 286, 289, 333 McLoughlin, W J., 129 Means curves and determination of, 224–226 formulas for, 224–225 interval scales and, 93 measures of variability and, 227 population means, 234, 235–236 post hoc comparison of, 241 statistics and, 230 Measurement defining, 89–90 identifying instruments for, 88–96 identifying scales of, 95–96 insubstantial phenomena and, 89, 89n, 90–92, 97 reliability of, 81, 96, 98–102, 239 as research tool, 9–10 substantial phenomena and, 89, 89n types of scales, 92–95 validity of, 81, 96–98, 99–102, 239 Measures of association, 231–234 # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No 383 Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e Z05_ORMR1322_11_SE_IDX.indd 383 Measures of central tendency curves determine means, 224–226 descriptive statistics and, 223–224, 226, 231 in perspective, 231 population parameters and, 234 as predictors, 226 summary of, 226 Measures of variability, 224 depiction of, 224 descriptive statistics and, 226–231 dispersion and deviation, 226–231 in perspective, 231 population parameters and, 235–236 spread and, 227–229 standard scores and, 229–231 statistics appropriate for, 218 Medawar, P., 29 Median, 223, 224, 227 Mediating variables, 41, 42, 140, 241 Mehan, H., 254, 255 Memos, 259, 260, 263 Merge function, in word processors, 153 Merten, D E., 254 Meta-analyses, 203, 240, 242, 322 Meta-inferences, mixed-methods designs and, 321 Metaphors, 296, 333 Methodology, research See also Qualitative research; Quantitative research case studies, 253–254 common types of, 84 data linked with, 79–82 deciding on approach with, 82–84 definition of, functions of, 4–5 grounded theory studies and, 256–257 mixed-method design, 82 phenomenological study and, 255–256 planning versus, 75–76 in research reports, 332, 334 research tools confused with, 7–8 validity in, 85–88 weaknesses in, 335 Microfiche, 54, 63 Microfilm, 54, 63 Microforms, 54, 63 Microgenetic studies, 140n Microsoft Excel data analysis and, 215, 216, 300 data recording and recoding in, 356–357 formula tool in, 358 function feature of, 359 literature resources and, 354–355 reorganizing data in, 359 simple statistical analyses in, 359–360 sort tool in, 359 tables and figures created in, 333 Microsoft PowerPoint, 349, 350 Microsoft Word, 333 Middleton, M., 150, 356 Milch-Reich, S., 201 K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:32 AM www.downloadslide.net 384 I n d ex Miles, M B., 296, 304, 314, 320 Milestones, 112 Miller, S M., 83 Mills, G E., 166 Miltenberger, R G., 193 Mind, human See also Open-mindedness as research tool, 11, 16–21 MindJet, 39 Mind mapping software, 39, 60, 61 Minitab, 243 Mitchell, G., 87 Mitchell, K J., 246 Mixed-method designs, 147, 251, 311 combined experimental and ex post facto design, 197 combining quantitative and qualitative designs, 82, 311, 312, 314–315, 318, 319–320 common symbolic notations for, 314–315 content analysis and, 257 data analysis and, 305–309, 319–321 data interpretation and, 319–321 decisions concerning, 311–312, 321 dissertation analysis, 324–328 ethical issues and, 319 identifying research questions and hypotheses, 315–316 literature review and, 317 planning and, 316–319 systematic reviews of, 322–323 types of, 312–314 useful and appropriate application of, 312 MLA (Modern Language Association) style, 62, 330 Mode, 223 Moderating variables, 41–42, 140 Modern Language Association (MLA) style manual, 330 Moffitt, T E., 42 Mohan, L., 151 Moon, J., 17 Moore, M T., 83 Morelli, G A., 266 Multi-group data, single-group data versus, 219 Multiphase iterative designs, 313–314, 319 Multiple-baseline designs, 191–192, 193, 194, 199, 214 Multiple case studies, 253 Multiple correlation, 232 Multiple linear regression, 241 Multistage sampling of areas, 165, 166 Multitrait-multimethod approach, 98, 152 Munter, M., 349 Murphy, K R., 239n My Daily Planner, 112 Myors, B., 239n Narrative research, 279 National Library of Medicine, 58 NCE score, 230n Negative case analysis, 311 Negative correlation, 231 Negatively skewed distribution, 221, 222 Nelson, M W., 83, 139 Neuman, W L., 30, 156, 264 New York Times Article Archive (online database), 58 Nicholls, M E R., 151 Nichols, J D., 21 Nicol, A A M., 349 Nominal data, 219, 229n Nominal scales, 92–93, 94, 95 Nonjuried research reports, 24 Nonparametric statistics, 222–223, 239, 241 Nonprobability sampling, forms of, 164–165 Nonrandomized control-group pretest-posttest design, 189–190, 198 Nonrefereed research reports, 24 Normal curve, 220 Normal distributions, 220–222, 224, 237 Normative surveys, 141 Norm group, 229 Norm-referenced scores, 229 Notational conventions, for mixed-methods designs, 314–315 Novelty effect, 86 Null hypotheses, 40, 237, 238, 240 Nurmi, J.-E., 231 Nussbaum, E M., 17 NVivo, 300, 321 Oakley Browne, M A., 233 Objectivity data interpretation and, 334 descriptive research and, 137 emotion and, 23 measurement and, 9–10 qualitative research and, 301 in research report, 344 Observations computerizing, 146–147 qualitative research and, 252, 253, 255, 259, 261, 262–263 simple time-series design and, 190 Observation studies, characteristics of, 84, 136–137 O’Cathain, A., 318 Odds ratio, 241 Ogive-curve nature, 225 Okubo, M., 151 One-group pretest-posttest designs, 185–186, 198 OneNote, 62 One-shot experimental case studies, 185, 198 Online databases, 59, 64 historical research and, 282–283 literature review and, 56–58, 63 Online document delivery services, 64 Online journals, 54, 56, 63 Online library catalogs, 55, 56 Online surveys, 157–158 Online writing catalogs, 330 Online Writing Lab (OWL), 330 # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No 384 Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e Z05_ORMR1322_11_SE_IDX.indd 384 Onwuegbuzie, A J., 320, 320n, 321 Open coding, in grounded theory studies, 297–298 OpenDataKit, 147 Open-ended questions, 149 Open-mindedness hypotheses and, 39 proposal writing and, 122 qualitative research and, 259, 270 in stating research problem, 34 Operational definition, 43 Oral history, 279 Ordinal data, 145, 219–220, 222, 224, 230 Ordinal scales, 93, 94, 95 Ordinate, 138 Ormrod, J E., 11, 13, 20, 23, 146, 150, 161, 171, 196, 299, 316 Ormrod, R K., 86, 196, 200, 282, 316 Orr, C A., 151 Outliers, in data sets, 296 Outlines, dissertations and, 340–342 Out-of-print books, 64 Paired samples t-test, 364n Pajares, F., 41 Palmer, J C., 200 Paper-and-pencil approach to data gathering, 62–63 questionnaires and, 152 to subproblems, 37–38 Papers, presentation of, 348, 349–350 Paradi, D., 349 Parallelism, careful attention to, 128 Parameters, 218 Parametric statistics, 222–223, 239, 241 Partial correlation, 184, 232 Participant observation, 255 Pashler, H., 203 Passive voice, 343 Path analysis, 241 Pdf (portable document format), 28 Pearson product moment correlation interval scales and, 93 measures of correlation and, 232, 233 Pelham, W E., Jr., 201 Percentile, 222, 227n Percentile ranks, 93, 222, 229, 230 Periodicals, 24, 54, 56 Permissions copyright and, 69, 69n, 337 ethical issues and, 69, 69n, 117, 267, 319, 337 qualitative research and, 267, 269 research proposal and, 117 Personal space in conducting interviews, 266 Persuasiveness, as qualitative research evaluation criterion, 270 Peter, E., 254 Peterson, C., 82 Peterson, L., 191, 192 Petticrew, M., 322 Pexman, P M., 349 K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:32 AM www.downloadslide.net 385 I n d ex Phenomenological studies, 84, 252, 255–256 bracketing or epoché in, 256 description of, 255 distinguishing characteristics of, 258 Phenomenology, definition of, 255 Phi coefficient, 232 Philosophical assumptions underlying research methodologies, 7–8 Pilot studies, 100, 110 Pilot tests, for questionnaires, 151 Placebos, 181–182, 244 Plagiarism, 68–69, 105, 335 Planners, electronic, 112 Planning computers and, content analysis and, 257 data analysis for qualitative study, 302–303 for data collection, 77–79 descriptive research and, 143 ethical issues and, 102, 107–108 interviews, 263–268 mixed-methods designs and, 316–319 qualitative research and, 252 research design and, 74–75 research methodology versus, 75–76 research projects and, 4–5 research proposals and, 116–117 scrutinizing overall plan, 108–112 structure of literature review, 68 word processors and, 15 Plano Clark, V L., 311, 318, 319 Platykurtic distribution, 221, 222, 223 Point biserial correlation, 232 Point estimates, interval estimates versus, 236–237 Points of central tendency, 223 See also Measures of central tendency Polkinghorne, D E., 256 Polymodal distribution, 226 Pompea, S M., 213 Population characteristics, analyzing, 167 Population means, estimating, 235–236 Population parameters inferential statistics and, 234–237 population analysis, 167–168 statistical notation for, 218 statistics as estimates of, 218 surveys of very large populations, 165 Portable document format (pdf), 28 Positive correlation, 231 Positively skewed distribution, 221, 222, 227n Positivism, Poster sessions, 348, 349–350 Post hoc comparison of means, 241 Postpositivism, 7, 76 Posttest-only control-group design, 187–188, 198 Pousette, A., 256 Power (in statistics), 239 Practical applications bias in descriptive research, 170–172 bias in experimental research, 204–205 cause-and-effect relationship determination, 201–202 checklists and rating scales, 143–146 choosing general research approach, 82–84 communicating through writing, 13–16 computer databases used to facilitate data organization and analysis, 300 computerizing observations, 146–147 computer software and mixed-methods data analysis, 321 constructing and administering questionnaire, 148–152 critiquing final research report, 346–348 data in quantitative study, 245–246 evaluating others’ research, 65–66 historical data and, 283 historical research writing, 285 identifying sufficient sample size, 166–167 Internet for data collection in descriptive study, 157–158 interviews in qualitative studies, 263–269 judging feasibility of research project, 108–110 literature review writing, 67–70 literature searches, 60–65 logistics of qualitative study, 270 observations in qualitative studies, 262–263 observing how experienced researchers have conducted qualitative research, 304 planning and conducting interviews, 147–148 planning ethical research study, 107–108 population analysis in descriptive study, 167 presenting your research at a professional conference, 349–350 reappraising proposed research problem, 48–49 research problem identification, 29–35 samples for qualitative studies, 261–262 strengthening research proposal, 129–130 tools in disciplines, 24–25 validity and reliability in qualitative data collection, 260–261 writing final report, 342–344 writing first sections of proposal, 46–48, 120–124 writing schedule development, 344–346 Practical significance, 244 Pragmatism, Predetermined sequence, 162–163 Predictions See also Hypotheses measures of central tendency as, 226 Pre-experimental designs, 184, 185–186 Preliminary pages, of research reports, 336–337 Premises, 17 Pretest-posttest control-group design, 186–187, 198 Pretests, 182–183 Primary data, 77, 278 Primary sources, 278–280, 281, 282 Privacy, right to, 105 Probabilistic reasoning, 17 # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No 385 Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e Z05_ORMR1322_11_SE_IDX.indd 385 Probability sampling, 318 cluster sampling, 162 population characteristics and, 164 proportional stratified sampling, 162 random selection and, 159–161 simple random sampling, 161 stratified random sampling, 161 systematic sampling, 162–164 Problems, research See also Subproblems choosing manageable ones, 31 context of, 121–122 data interpretation and, 123–124, 172, 296–297 delimiting, 44 discussing with others, 49 dividing into subproblems, 36–39 finding legitimate problems, 29–31 fine-tuning, 48–49 hypotheses and, 3–4, 34, 39–40, 46 identifying, 29–31 importance of study and, 45, 47 limiting, 45 mixed-methods design and, 312 overview, 27–28 qualitative research and, 252 questions and, 2, 30 relatedness of literature in literature review, 68 in research reports, 331–332 setting of the problem, 39 statement of, 31–35, 158 Program evaluation research, multiphase iterative designs and, 314 Project management software, 112 Proofreading, 16 Properties, in open coding, 297–298 Proportion, and population parameters, 234 Proportional stratified sampling, 162 Proposals, research See also Proposal writing characteristics of, 117–118 importance of the study and, 45, 47 organization of, 119–120, 319, 348–349 planning and, 116–117 sample, 131–134 strengthening, 129–130 typing, 47 weaknesses in, 129 writing first chapter or section of, 45–47 Proposal writing challenges of, 131 collaboration with others and, 116 first draft, 120–124 first sections, 46–47 format of, 119–120 revising, 125–128 strengthening proposal and, 129–130 ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 28, 64, 330, 336, 348 ProQuest Historical Newspapers, 58 Prose style, 343 Protection from harm, 102–103, 204 Pseudonyms, 335 K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:32 AM www.downloadslide.net 386 I n d ex Pseudo-subproblems, subproblems versus, 36–37 Psychological historical research, 285 “Psychological Research on the Net” website, 158 PsycINFO, 56, 58, 64 Publication information, in reference lists, 339 PubMed, 58, 59 Punctuation, 127 Purposefulness, as qualitative research evaluation criterion, 269 Purposive sampling, 165, 262 QDA Miner, 300, 321 Qualitative research See also Mixed-method designs content analysis and, 302 data analysis and, 81–82, 291–297 data collection and, 81, 259–261, 291 deciding on approach, 82–83, 261–262 definition of, 6, 251 distinguishing characteristics of, 80, 81 evaluating, criteria for, 269–270 flexible nature of, 258 logistics of, 270 meaning-making strategies in, 296–297 objectivity and, observations in, 262–263 observation studies in, 136 planning and, 252 planning and conducting interviews in, 263–269 potential advantages in, 253 process of, 81 proposal writing and, 119 purpose of, 80 quantitative research compared to, 80–83 reporting findings in, 82 researcher-as-instrument in, 301–302 research problems and methodology choice in, 252 research reports and, 332 samples and, 261–262 validity in, 86, 88 Qualitative research designs case studies, 253–254, 258 choosing, 259 content analysis, 257–258 distinguishing characteristics of, 258 ethnography, 254–255, 258 grounded theory studies, 256–257, 258 phenomenological studies, 255–256, 258 Qualitative research studies, systematic reviews of, 322–323 Qualrus, 300 Quantitative research, 88 See also Descriptive research; Experimental research; Mixed-method designs conducting interviews in, 147–148 data analysis and, 81–82 data collection and, 81 deciding on approach, 82–83 distinguishing characteristics of, 80, 81 observation studies in, 136–137 process of, 81 proposal writing and, 118–119 purpose of, 80 reporting findings in, 82 research hypotheses versus null hypotheses in, 40 research reports and, 333 Quantitative research designs, identifying, 200–201 Quasi-experimental designs, 183, 184, 189–194, 205, 214 Quasi-experimental research, 84 Quasi-mixed study, 312n Questionnaires bias and, 168, 171 correlational study, 173–176 guidelines for constructing, 148–152 return rates and, 142, 153–157 survey research and, 142 Quota sampling, 164–165 Quotations, 64, 69 Ramirez, I L., 173 Random selection experimental design and, 182 posttest-only control-group design and, 188 pretest-posttest control-group design and, 186 probability sampling and, 159–161 random numbers table and, 160, 161 Range, 217 measures of variability and, 227 statistics and, 229 Rank-order data, 93 Rapport, qualitative research and, 267 Rating scales, in descriptive research, 143–146 Ratio data, 220 Ratio scales, 94–95 Raw score, 222, 229 Reactivity, 86, 181 ReadCube, 62 Reading achievement test sores, 212, 213, 214 Real-life settings, 87 Realism, Reasoning inductive, 18–19, 82, 291 pitfalls of, 22, 23 probabilistic, 17 verbal, 17 Recoding, as spreadsheet function, 216 Refereed research reports, 24 Reference librarians, 24, 58–59 Reference lists, 60 bibliographic software and, 62 citations in text and, 128 creating computer database of, 62 literature review and, 60 in research reports, 337–340 URLs and, 60 Reflexivity, 260, 335 RefWorks, 62, 338 # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No 386 Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e Z05_ORMR1322_11_SE_IDX.indd 386 Regression analysis, 241 Rejection letters, 351 Relativity, theory of, 6, 20 Reliability in coding data, 293 correlation coefficients and, 233–234 equivalent forms, 99 forms of, 99 internal consistency, 99, 151, 333 interrater, 99, 137, 295, 300 of measurement, 96, 98–102, 239 mixed-methods designs and, 311 in qualitative data collection, 260 in report research, 336 test-retest, 99 Reliability coefficients, 151n Repeated-measures ANOVA, 241 Repeated-measures designs, 183, 188 Replication data admissibility and, 79 external validity and, 87 meta-analyses and, 203 as research criteria, 76 Reports, research, 322 academic integrity and, 335–336 appendices in, 340 conclusions in, 334 critiquing, 346–348 data and data analyses in, 332–333 data interpretation in, 333–334 description of methods, 332 elements of, 331 endnotes in, 337 feedback on, 345 figures and tables in, 14, 333, 333n footnotes in, 337 historical research and, 285–286 hypotheses and, 334, 336 identifying possible weaknesses in, 335 Internet writing assistance websites, 330 journal articles, 350–351 juried, 24 language use and, 12 nonjuried, 24 objectives of, 331 organization of, 340–342 planning, 331–336 preliminary pages, 336–337 preparation of, 330 presentations of, 348–350 prose style for, 343 published reports as models, 330 qualitative research and, 332 quantitative research and, 333 reference lists in, 337–340 research problems and, 331–332 results section, 332, 333 reviewers’ critiques, 351–352 revisions of, 345–346 sharing authorship, 351 styles for, 329, 330, 343 K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:32 AM www.downloadslide.net 387 I n d ex writing guidelines for, 329–330 writing schedule for, 342, 344–346 Representative samples, 87 Research in academic disciplines, 24 characteristics of, 2–7, 5n checklist of evaluating, 65–66 choosing approach to, 82–84 definition of, delimiting, 44–45 empirical, 5n exploring in your field, 24 fact documentation versus, fact transcription versus, limitations of, 245 meanings of, misconceptions about, 1–2 purpose of, 172 schedule for, 110–112 Research cycle, 6–7, 19 Research design, 74–75 See also Qualitative research designs; and other specific designs Researcher, as instrument in qualitative research, 301–302 Researcher bias, 170 Research hypotheses, 3–4, 7, 40, 46, 237, 238, 240 Research methodology See Methodology, research Research problems See Problems, research Research projects checklist for evaluating, 47–48 feasibility of, 108–109, 110, 128 finding, 27–29 general criteria for, 75–76 hypotheses in, 3–4 importance of, 122 planning and, 110–112 time management for, 49 Research proposals See Proposals, research Research questions, mixed-methods designs and, 316–317 Research reports See Reports, research Research tools, 8–12 computers as, 9–10 human mind as, 11, 16–21 identifying, 24–25 language as, 11–12 libraries as, 9, 24 measurement as, 9–10 mixed-methods designs and, 312 research methodology contrasted with, statistics as, 11 Respondent validation, 88, 154 Response bias, 170 Response cards, for questionnaires, 155 Response rates, questionnaires and, 169 Return rates, questionnaires and, 153–157 Reversal time-series designs, 184n, 190–191, 193, 199 Reviewers’ critiques, responding to, 351–352 Revisions multiple drafts and, 14, 49 proposal writing and, 125–128 research reports and, 345–346 Right to privacy, 105, 204, 269, 319, 335 Rigor, as qualitative research evaluation criterion, 270 Rigorous subjectivity, 301 Roberts, H., 322 Robustness (of statistical procedures), 223 Rogelberg, S G., 153, 156, 169, 171 Rohrer, D., 203 Rosales-Ruiz, J., 200, 214, 215 Rothbaum, F., 266 Rubrics, in descriptive research, 144–145, 146 Rules for argument, 286 Russo, M J., 98 Saldaña, J., 314 Sales, B D., 103 Samples bias in, 158, 168–169, 235 definition of, 158 descriptive research and, 158–168 mixed-methods designs and, 311, 317–318 qualitative research and, 261–262, 266 representative, 87 research proposals, 131–134 Sample size identifying sufficient, 166–167 population means and, 236 Sample statistics notation for, 218 population parameters and, 234, 235 Sampling bias in, 171 identifying sufficient sample size, 166–167 nonprobability sampling, 164–165 online surveys and, 157–158 probability sampling, 159–164, 318 purposive, 165 qualitative research and, 262 in surveys of very large populations, 165 SAS, 243 Saturated categories, 298 Saunders, M G., 19 Scales of measurement interval scales, 93–94, 95, 220 nominal scales, 92–93, 94, 95, 219 ordinal scales, 93, 94, 95, 219–220 ratio scales, 94–95, 220 types of, 92–95 Scatter plots, 138 Schallert, D L., 256 Schedule for interviewing, 268 for research, 110–112 Schram, T H., 256, 261 Schuman, H., 264, 266 Schunk, D H., 41 Schwab, R S., 19 # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No 387 Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e Z05_ORMR1322_11_SE_IDX.indd 387 Schwarz, N., 170 Scientific fraud, 105 Scientific method, 19–20 Scott, K M., 233 Scott-Jones, D., 102 Search-and-replace feature, in word processors, 15 Search engines, 59 Secondary data, 77, 278 Secondary sources, 279, 280–281 Second draft, proposal writing and, 128 Second law of motion, 23 Selective coding, in grounded theory studies, 298 Self-report data, 170 Semistructured interview, 142 Senders, V L., 94 Sentences simple and straightforward, 126 transitional, 68 Shaklee, J M., 145 Shanahan, T., 12 Shank, G D., 264, 267 Shavinina, L V., 232 Sheehan, K., 153 Sherman, S J., 149 Sieber, J E., 102 Sigma, 224 Significance level, 237, 238, 239 Silverman, D., 19, 263, 264 Simple ex post facto designs, 195, 199 Simple random sampling, 161 Simple Spreadsheet, 216 Simple time-series designs, 190 Simple time-series experiment, 199 Single-group data, multi-group data versus, 219 Single-group time-series study, 332 Single-subject studies, 193–194 Site-based fieldwork, in ethnography, 254–255 Skagert, K., 256 Skewed distributions, 221, 231 Smith, R M., 272 Social desirability effect, 170 Sociograms, 90–92 Sociometric matrix, 91 Software See also Microsoft Excel; SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences); Word processors bibliographic software, 338 brainstorming software, 39, 60 data analysis and, 215–216, 300 data collection, 146–147 freeware, 62 mind mapping, 61 mixed-methods data analysis and, 321 project management software, 112 transcription software, 269 Solomon four-group design, 187, 198 Sorting, as spreadsheet function, 216 Sources obtaining those not readily available, 64 tracking down, 63 K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:32 AM www.downloadslide.net 388 I n d ex Sowell, E R., 58 Spearman’s rank order correlation (Spearman’s rho), 93, 232 Spell checkers, 17, 127 Sphygmic Software Spreadsheet, 216 Spread 32, 216 Spread, and measures of variability, 227–228 Spreadsheets, 62, 147, 153, 215–216, 300, 354, 356, 359 See also Microsoft Excel SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), 243, 360 computing basic descriptive statistics in, 363–364 computing inferential statistics in, 364–366 creating data set in, 361–363 Srivastava, A K., 92 Srivastava, S., 157 Standard deviation, 217 calculating, 228 of distribution of sample means, 235 interval scales and, 93 measures of variability and, 228, 229 standard scores and, 230–231 Standard error of the mean, 235–236 Standard scores, 230–231 Standardization, 100 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, 143 Stanines, 230 Stanley, J C., 85, 180, 181, 184 Static group comparison, 186, 198 Statistica, 243 Statistical analyses, 214 historical research and, 280 Statistical hypotheses, 237, 240 Statistical regression, 181 Statistical significance, 237, 244 Statistical software packages, 242–243 Statistical techniques See also Data analysis; Descriptive statistics; Inferential statistics in Microsoft Excel, 359–360 rationale for, in research report, 332 for testing hypotheses, 240 weaknesses in, 334 Statistics See also Descriptive statistics; Inferential statistics choosing appropriate statistics, 217–218 correlational, 232 as estimates of population parameters, 218 functions of, 10, 217–218 measurement scales and, 93 nature of data and, 219–223 as research tool, 10–11 Steiner, E., 20 Stern, J E., 351 Stevens, S S., 92 Stratified populations, 161 Stratified random sampling, 161, 318 Strauss, A C., 256, 256n, 297, 298, 299 Strength, correlation coefficients for two variables, 231–232 Stricker, J M., 193 Structural equation modeling (SEM), 139, 140, 184, 241, 246 Structure, research report, 343 Structured interview, 142 Strunk, W., Jr., 352 Student’s t test, 241 Style manuals, 15 Style of prose, 343 Subcodes, 293 Subheadings, 68 attention to research problem, 331 formatting, 119–120 Subproblems characteristics of, 37 data interpretation and, 37, 79 descriptive research and, 172 dividing research problem into, 3, 36, 38 hypotheses and, 39 identifying, 37–38 literature review and, 52, 60, 61, 62, 68 mixed-methods designs and, 317 proposal writing and, 46, 124 pseudo-subproblems versus, 36–37 research proposals and, 117 in research reports, 331, 332 Substantial phenomena, 89, 89n, 143 Summaries in conclusions, 14, 344 in literature reviews, 69 SurveyMonkey, 157 Survey research, 84, 141–142 Survey Research Center of the University of Michigan’s Institute of Social Research, 169 Surveys, 332 rating scales and, 93 sampling in surveys of very large populations, 165 SVIB (Strong Vocational Interest Blank), 61, 128 Symbols for ordinal scales, 93 for statistics, 218, 238 SYSTAT, 243 Systematic reviews, of qualitative and mixedmethods studies, 322–323 Systematic sampling, 162–164 Table of contents, 336, 337 Table of random numbers, 159 Table of specifications, 98 Tables list of, 336 in research reports, 14, 333, 333n word processors and, 15 Tablet computers, # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No 388 Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e Z05_ORMR1322_11_SE_IDX.indd 388 Tashakkori, A., 312n, 318 Tashakkori, C., 88 Taylor, A., 42 Taylor, S L., 299 Technology See also Computers; Internet; Software brainstorming software and, 39, 60 collaboration and, 21–22 computer databases facilitating data organization, 300 computerizing observations, 146–147 conducting experiments on the Internet, 203–204 data analysis and, 215–216 database for related literature, 64 data collection and transcription, 157–158 data collection for descriptive research and, 157–158 for facilitating collection of interview data, 269 historical research and, 282, 283 interviews and, 269 literature resources and, 339–340 literature review and, 56–58 obtaining sources with, 64 online databases and, 56–58, 59–60 online library catalogs and, 56–58 for questionnaire administration, 152–153 referencing sources obtained on Internet, 339–340 research process and, 8, search engines and, 59 statistical software packages, 361–366 writing assistance, 330 Teddlie, C., 88, 312n, 318, 320, 320n Telephone interviews, 142 Template documents, 147 Terms, defining, 43 Tesch, R., 256 Test-retest reliability, 99 Tew, M D., 158 Theoretical sampling, 262 Theories, defined, 20 Theory-building process, 20–21 Theory development, 256 selective coding and, 298 Theses, writing guidelines, 329 Thick description, 311 qualitative research and, 270, 332 Thomas, J., 322, 323 Thompson, B., 233 Thompson, K R., 20 Thompson, P M., 58 Thrailkill, N J., 68, 69, 179, 183 Time management, research projects, 49 Time-series studies, 214 Title page, 336 ToDoList, 112 Toga, A W., 58 Toynbee, A., 80, 285 Track changes feature, in word processors, 15 K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:32 AM www.downloadslide.net 389 I n d ex Trahan, R G., 86, 144, 200 Transcription software, 269 Trautwein, U., 231 Treatment groups, 180 Treatments, 178, 182 Triangulation, 86, 88, 260, 301, 311, 312, 313 Triserial correlation, 232 Trope, Y., 149 True experimental designs, 184, 186–189 Trustworthiness, 88, 318 Truth academic integrity and, 335–336 data and, 78 objectivity and, 336 t-tests, 204 for a correlation coefficient, 241 in Excel, 360 forms of, 364n Tufts University, 106 2-by-2 factorial design, 332 Two-factor experimental design, 195–196, 199 Two-phase projects, 317 Type I error (alpha error), 238, 239, 240n Type II error (beta error), 238, 239, 240, 334, 334n Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), 60, 339, 340, 354 Universe (population), 218 Unobtrusive measures, 86, 105 U.S Copyright Office, 336 Usefulness, as qualitative research evaluation criterion, 270 U-shaped relationships, 233 Validity in coding, 295 correlation coefficients and, 233–234 determining, 98 external validity, 85–87, 158, 180, 205, 318 forms of, 97 historical research and, 283 internal validity, 85–87, 179, 180, 186, 201, 204, 318 of measurement, 96–98, 239 mixed-methods designs and, 311, 318–319 in qualitative data collection, 260 in qualitative research, 86, 88 of questionnaires, 152 in report research, 336 Values population parameters and, 218 variables and, 219 Vanderwood, M., 232 Variability See also Measures of variability distributions differing in, 227 population parameters and, 234 qualitative research and, 262 Variables confounding variables, 180–184, 311, 314, 336 continuous versus discrete variables, 219 correlational research and, 137–139 correlation coefficients for, 231–232 definition of, 40, 219 dependent variables, 41, 42, 179, 184, 203 experimental design and, 180 factorial design and, 195–197 identifying, 40–42, 42–43 independent variables, 41, 42, 179, 184, 195, 197, 203 manifest versus latent, 89n measures of association and, 231–234 mediating variables, 41, 42, 140 moderating variables, 41, 140 proposal writing and, 46 two-factor experimental design and, 195–196 Variance, 229, 233 Vazire, S., 157 Vega, R I., 170 Verbal reasoning, 17 Verb tenses, 343–344 Videotapes, ethnography and, 255 Visuals, for presentations, 349–350 Voluntary participation, 103–105, 126n, 319 Vul, E., 203 Wagner, E D., 196, 316 Walton, D N., 20 Ward, C., 266 Wasserman, S., 92 Web of Science, 58 Web pages, 21, 53, 157, 282, 330 Websites, 58, 59 qualitative research and, 259 Wells, J E., 233 Wennick, A., 257 “What ifs,” as spreadsheet function, 216 Wheelan, C., 170 # 153262   Cust: Pearson   Au: Ormrod  Pg No 389 Title: Practical Research: Planning and Design, 11e Z05_ORMR1322_11_SE_IDX.indd 389 White, E B., 352 Wikipedia, 59 Wilcoxon signed-rank test, 241 Williams, J E., 158 Within-subjects design, 183, 188–189, 198 Within-subjects variables, 183 Witt, E., 169 Wittink, M N., 129 Wixted, J T., 203 Wolach, A., 239n Wolcott, H F., 255, 301, 332, 344 Wood, H., 255 Word processors copy and paste function, 282–283 footnotes created in, 344 guidelines for using, 15–16 importing data and, 300 for proposal writing, 47, 121 questionnaires and, 153 saving documents, 15–16 search function, 15 tables and figures created in, 15 templates and, 300 WorldCat, 58 Writing See also Editing; Proposal writing; Reports, research abstracts, 336 assistance with, 330 communicating effectively through, 13–15 first drafts, 70 first section of proposal, 46–48 guidelines for, 13–15, 329–330, 343–344 importance of, 12 literature reviews, 67–70 qualitative research and, 84 schedule for, 344–346 styles for, 329, 330, 343 X2 (chi-square) goodness-of-fit test, 241 XMind, 39 Yahoo!, 55, 59, 106 Zambo, D., 14, 264, 265 Zeith, T Z., 232 Zero point, absolute, 94 Zoomerang, 157 Zotero, 62, 338 z-score, 230 K/PMS Short / Normal / Long DESIGN SERVICES OF S4carlisle Publishing Services 8/28/14 1:32 AM ... destination—your research goal Consider the title of this text: Practical Research: Planning and Design The last three words Planning and Design are especially important ones Researchers plan their overall research. .. multifaceted nature of research planning and design No author is an island, entire of itself Paul and I have had many hands guiding our pens and many minds adding richness and depth to our thoughts... Experimental Designs  186 Design 4: Pretest–Posttest Control-Group Design 186 Design 5: Solomon Four-Group Design 187 Design 6: Posttest-Only Control-Group Design 187 Design 7: Within-Subjects Design