Advisory Board Martin Alexander Ronald L Phillips Cornell University University of Minnesota Kenneth J Frey Larry P wilding Iowa State University Texas A&M University Prepared in cooperation with the American Society of Agronomy Monograpbs Committee Jon Bartels Jerry M Bigham Jerry L Hatfield David M Kral Diane E Stott, Chair Linda S Lee David M Miller Matthew J Mom Donald C Reicosky John H Rechcigl Wayne I? Robarge Dennis E Rolston Richard Shbles JeffreyJ Volenec Edited by Donald L Sparks Department of Plant and Soil Sciences University of Delaware Newark, Delaware ACADEMIC PRESS SanDiego London Boston NewYork Sydney Tokyo Toronto This book is printed on acid-free paper 63 Copyright 1999 by ACADEMIC PRESS All Rights Reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher The appearance of the code at the bottom of the first page of a chapter in this book indicates the Publisher’s consent that copies of the chapter may be made for personal or internal use of specific clients This consent is given on the condition, however, that the copier pay the stated per copy fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, Massachusetts 01923), for copying beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the U.S.Copyright Law This consent does not extend to other kinds of copying, such as copying for general distribution, for advertising or promotional purposes, for creating new collective works, or for resale Copy fees for pre-1999 chapters are as shown on the title pages If no fee code appears on the title page, the copy fee is the same as for current chapters 0065-2113/99 $30.00 Academic Press a division of Harcourt Brace & Company 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, California 92101-4495, USA http://www.apnet.com Academic Press 24-28 Oval Road, London NW17DX UK http://www.hbuk.co.uk/ap/ International Standard Book Number: 0- 12-000767-3 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 99 00 01 02 03 M B B Contents CONTRIBUTORS PREFACE vii ix ASPECTS OF PRECISION AGRICULTURE Francis J Pierce and Peter Nowak I Introduction II Overview of the Basic Components of Precison Farming III Conclusions References 65 67 SURFACE CHARGE AND SOLUTE INTERACTIONSINSOILS N S Bolan, R Naidu, J K Syers, and R W Tillman I Introduction II Types of Electrical Surface Charge III Development of Surface Charge N Components of Surface Charge V Solution-Surface Interface VI Concepts of Point of Zero Charge VII Measurement of Surface Charge W I Factors Affecting Surface Charge M Effect of Surface Charge on Soil Properties X Manipulation of Surface Charge to Control Solute Interactions XI Conclusions and Future Research Needs References 88 90 90 96 97 104 107 112 120 126 130 131 ALLELOPATHY: PRINCIPLES, PROCEDURES, PROCESSES, AND PROMISES FOR BIOLOGICAL CONTROL Inderjit and K Irwin Keating I Introduction 11 SomeConcerns III Allelopathy in Agroecosystems 142 145 148 vi CONTENTS W Factors Influencing Allelopathy v Secondary Metabolites with Allelopathic Potential VI Mechanisms of Action of Allelopathic Chemicals w Allelopathic Growth Stimulation vm Roles for Allelopathy in Biocontrol Programs Ix Additional Comments X Concluding Remarks References 166 181 184 189 190 195 206 207 TURFGRASS MOLECULAR GENETICIMPROVEMENT FOR ABIOTI~/EDAPHIC STRESS RESISTANCE R R Duncan and R N Carrow I Introduction TI Molecular Genetic Improvement III Enhancement Strategy for Multiple-Stress Resistance W Summary References INDEX 233 235 275 282 283 307 Contributors Numbers in p n t h e s z s indicate the pages on which the authors' conbibutions begin N S BOLAN (87), Department of Soil Science, Massq University, Palmerston North $301, New Zealand R N CARROW (233), Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, University of Georgia at Gnfin, &fin, Georgia 30223 R R DUNCAN (23 3), Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Universityof Georgia at &fin, &fin, Georgia 30223 INDERJIT (141),Department ofAgriCultzlra1Sciences (weed Science), The Royal Veterinury and Agricultral Univenity, DK-1871 Freabiksberg C., Copenhagen, Denmark K IRWIN KEATING (141),Department ofEnvironmenta1Science, Rutgers, The State University $New Jm-ey,New Brunswick, New 'jersey 08903 R NAIDU (87), CSIRO Land and Water, Glen Omond 5064, South Australia, Australia PETER NOWAK (l), Department of Rural Sociology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706 FRANCISJ PIERCE (I),Department of Crop and Soil Scimes, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824 J K SYERS (87), Department of Agrinrltzlral and Environmental Science, University of New Castle upon Tpe, New Castle upon Tpe NE1 7RU, United Kingdom R W TILLMAN (87), Department ofsoil Science, Massq University, Palmnston North 5301, New Zealand vii This Page Intentionally Left Blank Preface Volume 67 contains four comprehensiveand timely reviews of topics that should be of great interest to professionals and students in crop and soil sciences Chapter addresses one of the most active areas in agronomic research-precision agriculture All aspects of the topic, including technologies, management, and economic and environmental impacts, are discussed Chapter is a thoughtful review of surface charge and solute interactions in soils In addition to a theoretical treatment of the topic, practical applications,including surface charge effects on solute interactions and dispersiodflocculation and manipulation of surface charge by amendment additions, are included Chapter is a useful review of a topic of great interest to agronomists-allelopathy Principles, procedures, processes, and promises for biological control are discussed Chapter thoroughly covers advances in the use of molecular genetics to enhance abioticledaphic stress resistance in turfgrass Many thanks to the authors for their first-rate reviews DONALD L SPARKS ix 08 INDEX Allelopathy (continued) statistical analysis and, 205-206 target plant density and, 166-167 of weed species, 148-158 Allophanic soils, point of zero salt effect and, 107 Ally1 isothiocyanates, 162 Aluminum anion-induced adsorption of, 122 toxicity, tolerance to, 255-256 Aluminum hydroxides, in cation exchange material, 129 Amaranth, allelopathic control of, 191 Amino acids, nonprotein, autotoxicity and, 201 Aminoacyl-tRNA-synthetase,201 Ammonium, cation exchange and, 129 Analysis of variance, applied to allelopathic studies, 206 Anion adsorption cation-induced, 123-1 24 effects of soil liming on, 127-128 point of zero salt effect and, 107 soil solution composition and, 115-116 soil solution ionic strength and, 114-1 15 soil solution pH and, 116 specific, 95, 118-120 Anion-induced adsorption, 122-1 23 Annual bluegrass, acid soil tolerance, 255 ANOVA, applied to allelopathic studies, 206 Antifreeze proteins, 247-248 Antioxidants, 242 Application control, 14-16.22 Arabinoxylans, 247 Arginine decarboxylase, 242 Asparagus, autoxicity of, 200 Asparagus bean, Pluchea allelopathy and, 156, 186, 187-188, 189 Atrazine, 166, 180 Autotoxicity, 158, 160-161, 199-201 B Bacteria, variable surface charges on, 94 Bahia grass, Polygonella allelopathy and, 152, 155(figure) Barnyard grass, 193, 194 Beans, quackgrass allelopathy and, 152, l53(figure), 154(figure) Bermuda grass antifreeze proteins in, 248 shade tolerance in, 262 Bioassays, demonstration of allelopathy and, 148,185,201-204 Biotechnology, see also Genetic engineering precision agriculture and, 64 Biotite, isomorphous substitution in, 93 Black walnut, allelopathy and, 169 BOA, 163, 174 Boltzmann equation, in diffuse double-layer theo'y 99 bor 1-1 gene, 25 Boron toxicity tolerance, 251 Brassicaceae, allelopathic activity of, 161-162 167 Brassica compestris, 167 Brassica napus, 161 162 Brassica oleracea var italica, 167 Broccoli, 167 Buckwheat, allelopathic activity of, 161 Buffer zones, precision agriculture and, 60 Butyric acid, allelopathy and, 181 C C, grasses iron-deficiency stress and, 256 shade tolerance in, 260-26 C, grasses iron-deficiency stress and, 256 shade tolerance in, 260-261 Cadmium adsorption anion-induced, 122-1 23 effects of organic ligands on, 116 effects of pH on, 116-1 18 Caffeoylquinnic acids, 174 Calcium anion-induced adsorption of, 122, 123 in cation-induced adsorption, 123-1 24 in freezing stress tolerance, 249 soil concentration of, effects on anion retention, 128 soil retention of, phosphate and, 129 in soil solution dynamics, 115, 116 Calcium-saturated soils, dispersion in, 126 Camelina sativa, 177 Canada thistle, crop allelopathy and, 161 Carbohydrate production, net, in turfgrass root management, 28 I Carboxylic group, variable surface charges and, 90.94 cas genes, 249 INDEX Cation adsorption anion-induced, 122-123 effects of soil liming on, 127-129 nonspecific, 120-1 22 soil solution pH and, 116 specific, 95, I18 Cation exchange, with Pinus radiara bark, 129 Cation exchange capacity (CEC), 95, 121-122 methods of increasing, 129-130 CEC, see Cation exchange capacity Celery root residues, allelopathic activity of, 192- 193 Cell elongation, allelopathic interference with, I85 Cerariola ericoides, I77 Ceratiolin, 177 Cesium adsorption method, 106 Chemigation, precision water management and, 51 Chitinase-like proteins, 248 Chloride in phosphate adsorption, 118 in soil solution, I15 Chloritic group, variable surface charges and, 91 Chlorophyll content, allelopathic interference with, 186 Cinchone, 200-201 Cinnamic acid, 188 Cirsiurn arvense, Cisrus ladanifer: 17 I , 179 Clay minerals, see also Silicate clays development of permanent surface charges in, 90.92-93 diffuse double-layer theory and, 99-101 Climate, effects on allelopathy, 170-171 Coffee, autoxicity, 200 Cold resistance, in turfgrass, 246-248 genetic engineering for, 244-246(table), 248-249 Colloids dispersion and flocculationin, 125-126 hydrophobic, diffuse double-layer model and, 103-104 solution-surface interface, 97-104 Compacted soils, turfgrass and, 259,279 Competition, allelopathy and, 146 Computers agriculture and, 6.8-9 geographic information systems and, microprocessor development and, 6-8 09 Condition maps, 18 issues of accuracy in, methods of generating, 19-22 Connectivity, Conradina canescens, 183 Constant charge surface, see Permanent surface charge Control technology, 14-16 Conyza canadensis, 193 COR genes, 244(table),245(table), 248 Corn allelopathy and, 162, 164, 169, 181 precision nitrogen management and, 35 variable planting geometry and, 49,50 variable seeding rates and, 48 Corn pollen, allelopathy of, 164 Corn residues, allelopathic activity of, 162 Cotton, wheat straw allelopathy and, 163 Coumarins, 171, 185, 187, 188, 196(table) Counter ions, in diffuse double-layertheory, 99, 101 Cover crops, allelopathic weed management and, 190-194 Creeping bentgrass, acid soil tolerance and, 255 Crop residues allelopathic activity of, 162-163, 168, 174-175,180 allelopathic weed management and, 190, 191-193 soil erosion and, 191 Crop rotation, allelopathic weed management and, 193-194 Crops allelopathic activity of, 158-162, 190, 193-1 94 monitoring for nitrogen status, 34 pesticide use on, 40,4l(table) precision management of, 46-50 Crop yield, see also Yield maps forecasting, 13 precision nitrogen management and, 35-36, 31 soil and landscape effects, 19,36 water availability and, 36.50 Cruciferouscrops, allelopathic activity of, 193-194 Cultivars, variable management, 47-48 Cultivation,weed allelopathy and, 158, 169-170 310 INDEX Cyanobacteria allelopathic activity of, 144, 146-147 163-164,165(table) nitrogen fixation and, 163-164 Cynodon, 274 D Datura stramoniwn, 152 Defensive mutualism, grassendophyte, 274-275 Dehydrins, late embryogenesis abundant, 24 Delcosine, 184 DEMs, see Digital elevation models Deprotonation,variable surface charges and, 93-94 Desiccation tolerance, in turfgrass, 241 Detoxification,of allelopathic compounds, 189 DJBOA, 163,174 Differential global positioning systems (DGPS), 11-12 in application control, 15 Diffuse double layer, 97-101 in dispersion and flocculation 125-126 of variable-chargeminerals, 101-101 Diffuse layer surface charge density, 96,97, 102-1 03 Digital elevation models (DEMs), 53 Digital terrain models (DTMs),53 Dilution of precision, 12 Dispersion, 125-126 DMSP, 251 DNA metabolism, allelopathic interference with, 188 DPGS, see Differential global positioning systems Drainage, 54 precision management and, 18 Drought avoidance, 237 Drought resistance, in turfgrass as drought avoidance, 237 as drought tolerance, 237,240-241 evapotranspirationloss, 237,238-239(table) genetic engineering for, 241-242 Drought tolerance, 237,240-241 Dryland wheat, precision nitrogen management and, 35 DTMs, see Digital terrain models Ducksalad, 194 E Ecological chemistry, 184-185 Economics, of precision agriculture, 54-58 Effluents cation exchange and, 129 salt stress and, 250 Electrokinetic potential, 98.11 Electrometric titration, 108 Electroosmosis 111 Electrophoresis, 111 electrical double layer in, 97 Elytrigia repens, allelopathic activity of, 152, 153(figure), 154(figure) Endophytes, turfgrass and, 274-275 Environment, see also Genotype x environment interaction; Microenvironments effects of precision agriculture on, 58-61 in nitrogen management, 37 in pest management, 39,40,42-43 effects on application control, 16 nitrogen leaching and, 32 Environmental stress, effects on allelopathy, 178-1 80 Epilobium ciliaturn, 193 Equipment application control technology and, 14-16 effects on precision weed management, 44 Erosion, see Soil erosion Evapotranspiration loss, in turfgrass 237, 238-239(table) Evolution, allelopathic compounds and, 146 F fad gene, 249 Fagopymn sagirratum, allelopathic activity of, 161 Farmers, precision agriculture and, 54-58.6165.67 Fertility maps, 28.30 Fertilizer management, precision environmental effects, 58.59.60 nitrogen, 30-38,39(table) phosphorus, 27-30 potassium, 27-30 Fertilizers mixing on the go, issues in, 16 soil cation exchange capacity and, 129-130 Fertilizer spreaders, variable rate application, 15, 16 311 INDEX Ferulic acid, 171, 180, 187, 188, 197(tabIe) Fescues acid soil tolerance and, 255 shade tolerance breeding in, 263 Flavonoids in Cistus allelopathy, 170 in fluchea allelopathy, 170 W stress and, 179 Floculation, 125, 126 diffuse double-layer theory and, 100-101 Fluidized bed boiler ash, 129 Fluoride adsorption, 120 Forecasting, of crop yields, 12 Freezing stress resistance genetic engineering for, 244-246(table), 248-249 in turfgrass, 246-248 Functional groups, variable surface charges and, 90.94 Fungi, see also Soil fungi pathogenic, allelopathy and, 180 Fungicides, use of, by selected crops, 40.41 (table) G Gene mapping, in turfgrass, 273-274 Genetic diversity, stress-resistance enhancement strategies and, 236,275-276 Genetic engineering, see also Biotechnology in strategies for plant enhancement, 236 275-276 in turfgrass, 234-235.236 acid soil tolerance, 256,257(table) drought resistance, 240(table), 241242 endophyte enhancement, 275 high-temperaturetolerance, 243, 244(table) low soil oxygen tolerance, 260 low-temperaturetolerance, 244-246(table), 248-249 nitrogen efficiency, 264-267 phosphorus efficiency,268-269 potassium efficiency,270-271 salt tolerance, 250-25 shade tolerance, 263 Genotype x environment interaction, precision crop management and, 46-47 Geographic information systems (GIS), 9-10, 15 CIS, see Geographic information systems Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS), 10-11 Global positioning systems (GPS), 10-12 GLONASS, see Global Navigation Satellite System ~-1.3-Glucanase-Iikeproteins, 248 Gl yceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, 268 Glycolytic enzymes turfgrass phosphorus efficiency and, 268 Glycosylation, in detoxification of allelopathic compounds, 189 Gossypiwn hirsutum, wheat straw allelopathy and, 163 Gouy-Chapman equation, 101 Gouy double layer model 97-98 GPS, see Global positioning systems Grain crops, soil acidity and, 26 Grain drills, application control technology and, 15, 16 Gramine, 184 Grand fir, monoterpenoids, 183 Grid sampling mapping soil water availability and, 53 in precision fertility management, 28-29 Growth, allelopathic stimulation, 189-190 H Habitat, effects on allelopathy, 169-170 Heat shock protein families, 243,244(table) Heat stress, see Temperature stress Heavy metals, cation exchange and, 129 Herbicide residues, 178 Herbicides allelopathic compounds as, 194-195, 196- 198(table) allelopathy and, 180, 194, 199 costs Of, 38-39 precision weed management and, 42-45 sorgoleone as, 186 use of, by selected crops, 40,4l(table) weed density and, 166 Heteranthea limosa, 194 Hieracium pilosella, 172 High-resolution sensing, 21-22 Hordenine, 184 Horseweed, 193 Humic acid, surface charges and, 112, 114(table) 312 INDEX Hydraulic conductivity, saturated, 125-126 Hydrocinnamic acid, 177 Hydrophobic colloids, diffuse double-layer model and, 103-104 Hydrous oxides diffuse double-layer model and, 103-104 point of zero charge concepts and, 104-107 surface charges of, 112, 113-114(table) Hydroxamic acids, 191 Hydroxybenzoic acid, 171, 196(table) Hyoscyamine, 152,184 Hypoxia, turfgrass and, 259-260 I Ice crystals, in low-temperature stress, 247 Ice nucleation genes, 249 Information, economics of precision agriculture and, 54-55,56-57 Inner-sphere complex surface charge density, 96.97 Insecticides precision insect management and, 45-46 use of, by selected crops, 40,4l(table) Insect management, precision, 45-46 Integrated pest management (TPM), 46 Internet remote sensing tutorial, 14 sites on global positioning systems, 12 Intrinsic surface charge density, 96, 103 Invertase, 269 Ion(s) nonspecific adsorption and, 120-122 toxicity, in soil acidity problems, 254-255 uptake, allelopathic interference with, 187 Ion retention technique, 106, 110-111 IPM, see Integrated pest management Iron-deficiency response, 256-258 Iron hydroxides, in cation exchange material, 129 Irrigation with nonpotable water, salt stress and, 250 precision management of, 36.51-52.60 Isoelectric point, 105, 111 Isomorphous substitution, 90,9 1,92-93 Isoprene, 243 J Juglone, 142-143, 177 185, 197(table) K Kochia, 200 KORC channels, 270 L Landsat program, 14 Landscape, see also Soil-landscape water management crop yield variability and, 19.36 Late embryogenesis abundant dehydrins, 241 Laruca sariva, rye allelopathy and, 163 Leachates, using to demonstrate allelopathy, 201-202 (see also Bioassays) Leaching, see also Nitrogen leaching effects of precision agriculture on, 59.60 Leaf area, in turfgrass root management, 28 Leaf chlorophyll content, in turfgrass root management, 28 Legume crops, liming and, 26 Lettuce, rye allelopathy and, 163 Liming effects on anion and cation retention, 127 precision management of, 24-27 Lolium, 274 M Manganese toxicity tolerance, 255-256 Mannitol, 242 Manure, 1,32 Maps, see Precision management maps; Yield maps Medicago sativa, allelopathic activity of, 158, 160-1 Mesophyll cells, freezing tolerance and, 247-248 Mesquite, autoxicity and, 200 Metal oxides, surface charges of, 112, 113-1 lytable) Methionine, allelopathy and, 188 S-Methylmethionine, 25 Mica, isomorphous substitution in, 93 Microenvironments, precision agriculture and, 64-65 Microprocessors, 6-8 Microsynteny, turfgrass genomes and, 274 Mineral addition technique, 110 Mineral ion uptake, allelopathic interference with, 187 INDEX Mineralization rates, see Nitrogen mineralization rates Mobile computing systems, Molybdenum cofactor, 264 Monoterpenoids 183 Moore, George, Moore’s law, 6, Mucondialdehyde, 195 Mucuna pruriens var utilis, 191 Mugeneic acid, 256, 258 Muscovite, isomorphous substitution in, 93 Mycorrhizae, turfgrass and, 266,267 Myoinositol 0-methyltransferase,242 N 313 environmental problems and, 32 precision management of, 31-38.39 (table) Nitrogen fixation cyanobacteria and, 163-164 turfgrass and, 266-267 Nitrogen leaching effects of precision agriculture on, 59.60 environmental effects, 32 precision nitrogen management and, 36, 37 Nitrogen mineralization rates in nitrogen dynamics, precision nitrogen management and, 36 Nitrogen use efficiency precision nitrogen management and, 37 in turfgrass, 264, 266 Nonallophanic soils, point of zero salt effect and, 107 Nonselective outward-rectifying channels (NORC), 270 Nonspecific adsorption, 120-122 outer-sphere complex surface charge density and, 97 Non-steady-state crop-nitrogen model, 38, 39(table) NORC channels, 270 No-tillage, development of, Nozzles application control technology and, 16 effects on precision weed management, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, remote sensing tutorial, 14 National Cooperative Soil Survey, 19, 20 National differential global positioning system, 11-12 National Resource Council, on precision agriculture, 4.6 Natural selection, allelopathic compounds and, 146 Navigation System with Time and Ranging, 10, 12 Nernst equation, Gouy double layer model and, 97-98 Net carbohydrate production, in turfgrass root management, 281 Net proton surface charge, 108 44 Net proton surface charge density, 96-97, 105 Nucleic acid metabolism, allelopathic interferNet surface charge density, 100 ence with, 188 Nicoriunu lubucum, rye residue allelopathy and, Nutrient deficiency, in soil acidity problems, 163 254-255 nifgenes, 266 Nutrient stress, effects on allelopathy, 174, Nitrate adsorption, soil solution ionic strength 179-180 and, 115 Nutrient uptake Nitrate assimilation, in turfgrass, 264,266 nitrate, 266 Nitrate reductase, 264, 266 phosphate, 267-268 Nitrification, allelopathic inhibition of, potassium, 270 144-145 174-175 Nitrite reductase, 264, 266 Nitrogen excess, problems of, 31, 32 Oat straw, allelopathic activity of, 168 precision management of, 31-38.39 (table) Organic matter Nitrogen deficiency, problems of, 1-32 cation exchange, 129 Nitrogen fertilizers surface charges of, 112, 114 (table) current use of, I Ornathine decarboxylase 242 14 INDEX Osmolytes in turfgrass drought resistance, 24 Osmoprotectants,in engineering freezing stress tolerance, 248-249 Osmosensorsystems, 272 Osmotic stress, see also Salt stress in multiple stress interactions, 272 Outer-spherecomplex charges, 96,97 Overliming, consequences of, 26 Oxides diffuse double-layer model and, 103-104 point of zero charge concepts and, 104-107 P Parthenium hysterophorus allelopathic activity of, 164, 169 Paspalum, shade tolerance in, 262 Paspalum notatum, Polygonella allelopathy and, 152, 155(figure) Patch spraying, 60,see also Pest management, precision Pathogenic fungi, allelopathy and, 180 Patua soils effects of liming on, 127(table) point of zero salt effect and, 107 PDIs, see Potential determining ions Peach residues, allelopathic activity of, 162-163 Peat moss, in allelopathy bioassays, 203 Performance maps, 19 Permanent surface charges developmentof, 90.9 I , 92-93.95 diffusedouble-layer theory and, 100-101, 104 Pesticides COStS Of, 38-39,40 precision management and, 45-46 use of, by selected crops, 40,4l(table) Pest management, precision, 38-46 pH, see also Soil pH effects on anion and cation retention, 128 effects on dispersion and flocculation, 125-126 in ion-retentiontechniques, 11 nonspecific adsorption and, 121-122 point of zero charge concepts and, 104-107 in potentiometrictitration 108-1 10 Phaseolus vulgaris, quackgrass allelopathy and, 152.153(figure), l54(figure) pH electrodes, in potentiometric titration, 109 Phelewn pratense, 164 166 Phenolics, see also Allelopathic compounds activity ranges of, 195 allelopathic inhibition of nitrification and, 144-145 in allelopathic rice, 194 in cyanobacterial allelopathy, 164 detoxification of, I89 effects on soil microorganisms, 174-175 extracting from soil, 204 nutrient stress and, 174 overview of, 181-183 in Pluchea allelopathy, 156, 157, 170, 171 in rye residues, 163 soil chemical characteristics and, 175-176 Phenyl acetic acid, in corn pollen allelopathy, 164 Phosphate in soil, effects of phenolics on, 176 soil cation exchange capacity and, 129-130 in soil solution dynamics, 115, 116 Phosphate adsorption, 120 in anion-induced cation adsorption, 122-123 cation-induced, 123-124 effects of silicate on, 129 effects of soil liming on, 128 point of zero salt effect and, 107 soil solution ionic strength and, 114, I15 specific, 95, 118-119 Phosphate translocator genes, 269 Phosphate uptake, 267-268 Phosphoglycerate, 268 Phosphoglyceromutase,268 Phosphorus, precision management of, 27-30, 60 Phosphorus efficiency genetic engineering for, 268-269 in turfgrass, 267-268 Photons, in remote sensing, 13-14 Photosynthesis allelopathic interference with, 185-186 high-temperature stress and, 242 pH stress, see Soil acidity stress Phyllosilicates nonspecific adsorption, 121 surface charges of, 112, 113(table) Physiological ecology, 185 Phytotoxins, see Allelopathic compounds INDEX Pinus radiara bark, 129 Plant breeding, in turfgrass high-temperature tolerance, 243 phosphorus efficiency, 268 potassium efficiency, 270 root system improvements, 277 shade tolerance, 262-263 Plant density allelopathy effects and, 166-167 precision crop management and, 48,49-50 Planting geometry, precision crop management and, 48.49-50 Plant life cycle, allelopathic activity and, 167-1 68 Plowing, weed allelopathy and, 158, 169-170 Pluchea lanceolata allelopathy, 156-158, 169-170, 171, 180, 186,187-188, 189, 202 Poa annua, acid soil tolerance and, 255 Poaceae, comparative mapping in, 273-274 Point of zero charge (PZC) concepts of, 104-107 described, 89 diffuse double-layer model and, 102, 103-104 measurement with ion retention, 111 measurement with potentiometric titration, 108-109, 110 Point of zero net charge (PZNC), 102, 105, 111, 126 Point of zero net pristine charge (PZNPC), 105-106 Point of zero salt effect (PZSE),105, 106-107, 109,110,115 Point sampling, 20-21 Pollen allelopathy, 164, 166 Pollution, reducing, precision agriculture and, 59,60 Polyacetylenes, 184 Polygonella myriphyllu allelopathic activity of, 152, 155(figure) Polypogon monspeliensis, 167 Potassium cation exchange and, 129 precision management of, 27-30 Potassium adsorption effects of soil liming on, 128 nonspecific, 120-121 Potassium channels, 270 Potassium efficiency, in turfgrass, 270-271 315 Potatoes, precision nitrogen management and, 35 Potential determining ions (PDIs) in diffuse double-layer model, 103, 104 in Gouy double layer model, 97 Potentiometric titration, 106, 108-1 10 Precision concepts of, 4-5 dilution of, 12 Precision agriculture basic steps in, 16-17 definition of, 3-5 enabling technologies, 3-16 application control and, 14-16 computers, 6-9 geographic information systems, 9-10 global positioning systems, 10-12 sensors, 12-14,66 evaluations, 67 economic, 54-58 environmental, 58-61 technology transfer perspective, 61-65 intuitive appeal of, issues in, 64-67 on-farm research and, 66-67 real-time management, 18 space-time variables and, 2-3 17.22.65 variability assessments, 17-22, 66 high-resolution sensing, 21-22 modeling, 22 point sampling, 20-21 surveys, 19-20 variability management, 22-54.66-67 crops, 46-50 lime, 24-27 nitrogen, 31-38,39(table) pests, 38-46 phosphorus, 27-30 potassium, 27-30 soil fertility, 23 water, 50-54 Precision management maps, 18-19 fertilizer management, 28,30 issues of accuracy in, 21.28 lime management, 25-26 methods of generating, 19-22 nitrogen management, 33-34 water management, 53 weed control, 43 Prescription maps, I9 16 INDEX Presidedressed soil nitrogen test (PSNT), 33, 35 Primary metabolites, as allelopathic compounds, 181 Private sector effects on strategic farming decisions, 63 National Cooperative Soil Survey and, 20 Profit, precision agriculture and, 54-58 Profit maps, 19 Proline autotoxicity and, 201 in engineering freezing stress tolerance, 248 Proline betaine, 248 Propionic acid, allelopathy and, 181 Pmsopis julifora, 200 Protein metabolism, allelopathic interference with, 188 Protonation, variable surface charges and, 93-94 Prunus persica allelopathic residues of 162-163 Pseudomonas putida, I 77 PSNT, see Presidedressed soil nitrogen test Public sector effects on strategic farming decisions, 63 National Cooperative Soil Survey and, 20 Purple nutsedge, 179 Putrescine-generatingenzymes, 242 PZC,see Point of zero charge PZNC, see Point of zero net charge PZNPC, see Point of zero net pristine charge PZSE, see Point of zero salt effect Q Quackgrass,allelopathic activity of, 152, 153(figure),154(figure) Quantitative trait loci (QTL) leaf rolling, 240.241 osmotic tolerance, 240.24 phosphorusefficiency, 268 salt tolerance, 25 Quercetin, 170 Quercitrin, 170 Quinones, activity ranges of, 195 R Rainfall, effects on allelopathic activity 171 Real-time precision management, 18 Refugia, precision agriculture and, 46, 59, 60 Remote sensing, 13-14,22 Repetitive DNA, in turfgrass, 274 Residual nitrogen, precision nitrogen management and, 33-34,35,37,38.60 Residues, see Crop residues; Herbicide residues Respiration, allelopathic interference with, 187 Rhizosphere, allelopathic activity and, 169, 171, 204-205 Rice allelopathic activity of, 194 allelopathic activity of cyanobacteria and, 164 cyanobacterial inoculum and, 144 164 Root depth, in turfgrass, 277 Root exudates, allelopathic activity of, 187-1 88 Root management, in turfgrass, 280-282 Root plasticity, in turfgrass, 277, 279 Root residues, in allelopathic weed rnanagement, 191, 192-193 Roots of turfgrass acid soil stress and, 25 1,254 genetic potential of, 277, 279 low oxygen tolerance and, 260 management for, 280-282 potassium uptake and, 270 primary stresses on, 277,278(table), 280-28 salt stress and, 250 significance to comprehensive plant enhancement, 277 soil compaction and, 259 uptake of allelopathic compounds, 188-189 Rorippa sylvestris, 155 Row spacings, variable, 49-50 Runoff, reduction, precision agriculture and, 60 Russia, GLONASS system, 10-11 Rye, allelopathic activity of, 163, 174, 193 S Salinity, see Salt tolerance Salt stress, in turfgrass, 249-250 Salt tolerance genetic engineering for, 250-25 in turfgrass, 250-25 I , 252-253(table) Sample design, 21 Sample units, 21 Sampling processes, precision agriculture and, 20-2 I, 46 INDEX Saponins in alfalfa allelopathy, 158, 171 Sasa cemua 155 Satellites, see also Global positioning systems remote-sensing, 14 Saturated hydraulic conductivity, 125-126 Scopolamine, 152, 184 Secondary metabolites, as allelopathic compounds, 181-184 (see also Alkaloids; Phenolics; Terpenoids) Seed germination allelopathic interference with, 185 in allelopathy bioassays, 203 Seeding rates, variable, 48-50 Seedling growth, allelopathic interference with, 185 Seeds, autotoxic compounds and, 200-20 Selenite, in soil solution dynamics, 115-1 16 Sensors, precision agriculture and, 12-14, 21-22 Sesquiterpenoids 183 Setariafaberi, 169 Shade tolerance, in turfgrass, 260-263 Shoots, in turfgrass, salt stress and, 250 Signal transduction, in multiple stress interactions, 272 Silicate clays, see also Clay minerals; Phyllosilicates soil cation exchange capacity and, 129 surface charges and, 90.92-93, 112, 13 (table) Sinapic acid 17 Site-specific weed control, 43-45 Slacked lime, in cation exchange material, I29 Smectites, nonspecific adsorption, 121 Snapbean, quackgrass allelopathy and, 152, 153(figure) 154(figure) Sodium-saturated soils, dispersion in, 126 Software geographic information systems and, 9, 10 precision agriculture and, Soil compacted, turfgrass and, 259,279 concepts of, 88 effects on allelopathy, 171-178 extraction of allelopathic compounds from, 203-204 fluchea allelopathy and, 157 158 in turfgrass root management, 282 Soil acidity stress, in turfgrass, 251,254-255 317 Soil acidity tolerance genetic engineering for, 256,257(table) in turfgrass, 255-256 Soil alkalinity, plant iron-deficiency responses and, 256-258 Soil bulk density, turfgrass and, 259,279 Soil components, surface charges of, 112, 113-1 14(table) Soil erosion crop residues and, 191 precision agriculture and, 59.60 Soil fertility management, 23 buildup maintenance concept, 29 lime, 24-27 nitrogen, 31-38, 39(table) phosphorus, 27-30 potassium, 27-30 sufficiency concept, 29 Soil fungi, allelopathic compounds and, 176, 177-178 Soil-landscape water management, 52-53 Soil microorganisms allelopathic compounds and, 174-175, 176-178 wheat straw amendments and, 172, 174 Soil nitrification, effects of phenolics on, 174-175 Soil organic matter allelopathic compounds and, 176 point of zero net pristine charge and, 106 surface charge and, 94, 112, Il4(table) Soil oxygen, turfgrass and, 259-260 Soil particles, see also Soil surface charges colloidal behavior, 89 dispersion and flocculation in, 125-126 solution-surface interface, 97-104 Soil pH, see also pH diffuse double-layer model and, 102 effects on allelopathy, 172 effects on anion and cation retention, 128 effects on dispersion and flocculation, 125-126 effects on surface charge, 110-1 18 nonspecific adsorption and, I2 1-1 22 precision lime management and, 24-27 spatial dependence of, 24 variable surface charges and, 90-91, 93-94 Soil solutes, surface charges and, 89, 120-122, 127-130 318 INDEX Soil solution qualities affecting surface charge composition, 115-116 ionic strength, 112, 114-115 pH, 116-118 solution-surface interactions,97-104 Soil strength, see Soil bulk density Soil surface charges components of, 96-97 development of, 90-96 effects on soil properties dispersion and flocculation, 125-126 induced adsorption, 122-124 solute interactions, 120-122 factors affecting soil components, 112, 113-114(table) soil solution composition, 115-1 16 soil solution ionic strength, 112, 114-115 soil solution pH, 116-118 specific adsorption, 95, 118-120 measurement of, 107-1 11 overview of, 88-89, 130-131 point of zero charge concepts and, 89, 104-107 solute interactions and, methods of controlling, 127-130 in solution-surfaceinteractions, 97-104 types of, 90 Soil surveys, precision agriculture and, 19-20, 43,53 Soil testing, in precision fertility management, 27-30 Soil texture, effects on allelopathy, 172, 173(table) Solutes, see Soil solutes Sorgoleone, 186 Soybeans, variable seeding rates and planting geometry,49-50 Specific adsorption, see also Adsorption; Phosphate adsorption; Sulfate adsorption compared to nonspecific adsorption, 120, 12l(table) described, 95,118-120 in induced-adsorptiondynamics, 122-124 inner-spherecomplex surface charge density and, 97 Spray aircraft, wind conditions and, 16 Sprinkler-irrigation precision nitrogen management and, 36 precision water management and, 51 Statistics, applied to allelopathic studies, 205-206 Steady-state crop-nitrogen model, 38,39(table) Stem double layer model, 98, 101 Stem layer, 98.99-100 Stem layer surface charge density, 96, 103 Stem potential, 98 Straw allelopathic activity of, 163, 167, 168 soil microorganisms and, 172, 174 Streaming potential measurement, 11 I Stress-induced genes, in multiple stress interactions, 272-273 Stress resistance, see also individual stresses mechanisms of, 235-236 for multiple stresses, enhancement strategies for, 275-276 Structural surface charge density 96 Sucrose phosphate synthase, 268 Sudex, 169 Sugar beets, precision nitrogen management and, 35 Sulfate, in soil solution dynamics, 115, I16 Sulfate adsorption, 119-120 in anion-induced cation adsorption, 122-123 cation-induced, 123-124 effects of soil liming on, 127-128 point of zero salt effect and, 107 soil solution ionic strength and, 114-115 Sunflower,phenolics and nutrient stress in, 174 Surface charge density, point of zero concepts and, 105 Surveys, 19-20 Synteny, turfgrass genomes and, 274 Syringic acid, 171 T Tall fescue allelopathic activity of, 170, 180 drought avoidance in, 237 shade tolerance breeding in, 263 Technology precision agriculture and, 3-4, 6-16,61-65 recent history of, 7(table) Technologytransfer, 61-65 Temperature stress, in turfgrass high-temperature, 242-243 low-temperature, 246-248 19 INDEX Temperaturetolerance, genetic engineering for, 243,244-246(table), 248-249 Terpenoids allelopathic inhibition of nitrificationand, 144, 145 in allelopathy, 183 Terrain modeling, in precision water management, 53 Thaumatin-like proteins, 248 Tillage in precision weed management and, 42 weed allelopathy and, 158, 169-170 Tobacco rye residue allelopathy and, 163 Tokomaru soils effects of liming on, 127(table) point of zero salt effect and, 107 Tracheids, freezing tolerance and, 247 Transition time, in application control, 15, 16 Trehalose, 243 Triangulation, 10 Turfgrass acid soil stress in, 251,254-255 acid soil tolerance in, 255-256 comparative mapping in, 273-274 drought resistance in, 237-241 endophytes and, 274-275 genetic engineering in, 234-235 acid soil tolerance, 256,257(table) comprehensive strategy for, 236, 275-276 drought resistance, 240(table), 241-242 high-temperaturetolerance, 243,244 (table) iron-deficiencyresponse, 258 low soil oxygen tolerance, 260 low-temperaturetolerance, 244-246(table), 248-249 nitrogen efficiency, 264-267 phosphorus efficiency,268-269 potassium efficiency,270-271 root plasticity, 279-280 salt tolerance, 250-251 shade tolerance, 263 high soil strength tolerance in, 259 high-temperature stress in, 242-243 iron-deficiency response in, 256-258 low soil oxygen stress in, 259-260 low soil oxygen tolerance in, 260 low-temperaturestress in, 246-248 multiple stress interactions and, 272-273 multiple stress resistance, enhancement strategy for, 275-282 nitrogen fixation and, 266-267 nitrogen use efficiency in, 264,266 phosphorus efficiency in, 267-268 potassium efficiency in, 270 root management in, 280-282 root system enhancement and, 276-280 salt stress in, 249-250 salt tolerance in, 250-251,252-253(table) shade tolerance in, 260-263 stress adaptation in, 235-236 stress and, 233-234 U Ultraviolet radiation stress, allelopathy and, 179 United States Coast Guard, beacon system, 11-12 W stress, see Ultraviolet radiation stress V Vanillic acid, 171, 187 188, 196(table) Variable rate application, see Soil fertility management Variable surface charges development of, 90,91,93-95,96 diffuse double-layer model of, 101-104 factors affecting, 112, 131 point of zero charge concepts and, 104-107 Vehicle control, 15 Velvet bean, 191 Kgna unguiculata var sesquipedalis, Plucka allelopathy and, 156 W Walnut trees allelopathy and, 169 juglone and, 177 Water crop yield and, 36,50 nonpotable, salt stress and, 250 precision managementof, 50-54 Waterlogged soil, see Hypoxia Water quality, effects of water management on, 50 Water stress effects on allelopathy, 179 320 INDEX Water stress (conrinued) in multiple stress interactions, 272 Weather, effects on application control, 16 Weed allelopathy, 148-158 from residues, 162 target plant density and, 166-167 weed life cycle and, 167-168 Weed density, herbicides and, 166 Weed management allelopathic, 190-195, 196-198(table) in precision agriculture, 42-45 Weed mapping, 43 Wheat precision nitrogen management and, 35 variable seeding rates and, 48-49 Wheat straw allelopathic activity of, 163, 168 soil microorganismsand, 172, 174 Wild mustard, 167 Wild oats, allelopathic activity of, 169 Willow herb, 193 Wind, effect on aircraft spray control, 16 Winter wheat, variable seeding rates and, 48-49 X Xylem freezing tolerance and, 247 root, potassium uptake and, 270 Y Yellow fieldcress, 155 Yield maps, 13 assessing poor drainage with, 54 high-resolution sensing and, 21-22 measures of temporal variability and, 17 in precision fertilizer management, 29 in precision nitrogen management, 35.37 in variable cultivar management,48 Yield monitoring systems, 13 Z Zero point of charge, 105; see also Point of zero charge Zeta potential, 98 Zinc anion-induced adsorption, 122 nonspecific adsorption, 122 soil retention of, phosphate and, 129 This Page Intentionally Left Blank ... Imaging Spectrometer) Yield mapping in Texas (Bae et al 1987) India launches earth resources satellite (IRS-IA) that gathers data in the visible and near IR with the Linear Imaging Self-scanning... farming operations not currently in use, including field operations at night when wind speeds are low and more suitable for spraying and the use of night tillage to reduce the light-induced germination... the growing interest in precision agriculture observed since its commercial introduction in 1992 (Stafford, 1996b) Prior to 1992, the focus was on VRT, which would not in itself have sustained precision