35 THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF THE CLASSROOM Reflections about past, present, and future Elisha Babad Social psychology of the classroom as an independent domain I was honored that the title of my 2009 book The Social Psychology of the Classroom was adopted as the general theme for the 2013 Social Psychology of the Classroom International Conference in New Zealand I share the vision of the conference organizers and book co-editors that the social psychology of the classroom should be recognized as an independent domain in educational psychology In fact, I have been a social psychologist of the classroom throughout my professional career of more than four decades On a personal note, I am sorry that I was not able to attend the conference in person I have never been an avid conference-goer, even when events were held much closer than half a globe away from Jerusalem In a broad definition, the social psychology of the classroom can cover a wide array of topics and phenomena This is clearly indicated by the range of topics in the 2013 conference program and the table of contents of this book But in my mind, the definition of the social psychology of the classroom is narrower and more focused, dealing more exclusively with teachers and students, with the interactions between teachers and students and the interactions among students The social psychology of the classroom should be focused directly on classroom processes, their antecedents, and their outcomes With regard to the major criterion outcome of the social psychology of the classroom, however, I have one issue with the book editors In the introductory chapter, they quote Hattie’s (2009) book, which reports a synthesis of more than 800 meta-analyses examining contributions to students’ learning, as a second stimulus for the 2013 conference and the current book.To quote from the introductory chapter, ‘a major thrust is to dedicate a book to providing evidence for the importance of caring for students, to interacting positively with them, and to the corresponding benefits for their learning that result’ The issue of ‘caring for students’ and ‘interacting positively with them’ is discussed later in this chapter However, in principle, I consider that learning achievements should constitute a lesser criterion of social psychological forces in the classroom Numerous background variables, students’ attributes and abilities, teaching methods, and the quality of teaching contribute to learning, but the social psychology of the classroom also contributes to social outcomes such as 385 well-being, satisfaction, motivation, and a positive climate (and the point the editors make is that these factors may, in turn, contribute to learning benefits as well) I believe that teaching and learning specialists should be concerned about learning outcomes and achievements, whereas social psychologists should be concerned about social outputs and outcomes In the field of students’ evaluation of teachers in higher education (the focus of my current research), there was a widespread illusion that scholastic achievements constitute the relevant outcomes of effective teaching We know today that assessing student satisfaction rather than learning outcomes is a more effective measure of course quality – satisfaction serving as a ‘conceptual proxy’ for achievement Social psychology within educational psychology: Past and present My objective in this chapter is to make meaning of the social psychology of the classroom from a historical perspective, analyzing the past, the present, and the projected future in educational psychology and in social psychology I will next examine social psychological phenomena within the wider perspective of educational psychology, to trace changes and turns that took place in the past decades.Topics and phenomena that disappeared or changed considerably over the years can provide clues for deciphering the underlying zeitgeist that can explain the present status, and the future of the social psychology of the classroom The following list presents a subjective account of social psychology within educational psychology as I have known and experienced the field since the 1960s, and emphasizes the turns and changes that occurred over the decades: Behaviorism and behavior modification played a central role in educational psychology and in teacher training in the 1960s and 1970s It was presented both as a theoretical perspective and as a collection of applied techniques for dealing with a variety of educational problems, and even as a major approach to teaching.The behavioral approach disappeared almost completely from textbooks in educational psychology, following a paradigm shift (Freiburg 1999) Today, its practical replacement – classroom management – is based on an approach that emphasizes more affective (perhaps ‘softer’) teacher–student relationships The human relations movement bloomed in the 1960s and 1970s (see Babad 2009) It promoted psychological change through experiential group methods for emotional self-inquiry Educational applications of this approach included several editions of the popular book Group Processes in the Classroom by Schmuck and Schmuck (1975), and numerous applications for teachers and students such as ‘the magic circle’ This approach disappeared from educational psychology over the years Its current replacement perhaps includes self-reflection and metacognition, based on a different set of assumptions about psychological change In earlier decades, textbooks in educational psychology used to include chapters covering an array of social psychological intergroup phenomena such as stereotyping, prejudice, authoritarianism, dogmatism, cultural inter-group conflict, segregation, underprivileged groups, and so on Such chapters changed considerably over the years, replaced by softer discourse about multiculturalism, containment of those who are different, and so on In the earlier years, motivation was discussed in personal, social, and emotional terms Today, achievement goal theory is more dominant (see Harackiewicz et al 2002; Butler 2007), focusing on more cognitive elements influencing students’ learning The social psychology of the classroom and the characterization of the classroom society were measured by sociometric measurement 40 years ago, and this type of measurement evoked great 386 enthusiasm among teachers and educators Sociometric measurement disappeared over the decades, and today measurement of classroom climate is dominant (see Babad 2009) Past coverage of the measurement of intelligence in educational psychology textbooks was heavily laden with bitter social and sociological disputes and controversies, despite the purely cognitive and intellectual nature of intelligence.The entire domain is quite out of focus today in educational psychology Computer technologies sparked an eternal and ongoing revolution in all aspects of education Early on in my career, the major concern was how to develop and implement programmed instruction and how to develop computer literacy.Today, teachers can learn computer literacy from their young students, and the revolution has affected education in numerous dramatic ways Great and amazing advances, most of them yet unimaginable, lie ahead for the entire field of education In terms of social psychological aspects in and out of the classroom, I think that we are yet unable to deal with the utilization of technological advances by students and with social networks and their immense influence on students, on the world of children, and on the classroom and school societies Finally, the Pygmalion research, teacher expectations, and teachers’ differential behavior in the classroom constitute what I consider as the core and essence of the social psychology of the classroom, and here the historical changes are dramatic The publication of Pygmalion in the Classroom (Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968) was clearly a dramatic breakthrough in research in educational psychology.The book (which followed earlier Rosenthal research on effects of experimenters’ expectations), has caused immense controversies since its publication (see e.g.Wineburg 1987) and served as an impetus for hundreds of studies and numerous meta-analyses (e.g Harris and Rosenthal 1985) The Pygmalion research demonstrated that (fabricated) expectations in teachers’ minds about hidden potential of particular students could lead to improvement in these students’ intellectual performance Rich subsequent lines of research investigated over two decades the formation of teacher expectations; the transmission of differential teacher expectations to students in subtle verbal and nonverbal ways; student perceptions of teachers’ expectations and their evaluations of the teachers; and the social outcomes of teacher differential behavior on individual students and on whole classrooms (Babad et al 1982; Babad 1995; Babad et al 2003) Additional studies examined personality attributes of teachers susceptible to biasing information (Babad 1979) and a whole set of related phenomena such as the teachers’ pet phenomenon (Babad 1995) Pygmalion and teacher expectations became hot issues in the social psychology of the classroom and in educational psychology in general in the 1970s and 1980s, and self-fulfilling prophecy (no less than Pygmalion) became a household term and a widely known cultural phenomenon I have spent much of my research career investigating various aspects and phenomena within this domain in school and in college classrooms (see Babad 2009), and later also in the public media, by examining how differential nonverbal behavior of a television interviewer can influence viewers’ impressions of the interviewed politician (Babad 2005) Three years ago I decided to check how current textbooks in educational psychology presented Pygmalion and teacher expectation phenomena to teachers in training In my scrutiny of numerous educational psychology and general psychology introductory textbooks, I was dumbfounded to discover that Robert Rosenthal, Pygmalion, teacher expectations, and teacher differential behavior had disappeared almost completely, and the few existing citations were scanty and superficial (Some new expectation research is included in a few introductory texts, see later discussion.) If the collection of current textbooks in educational psychology represents the body of educational psychology transmitted to future teachers, then the sad conclusion must 387 be that prospective teachers are taught very little about teacher expectation phenomena and how to deal with these phenomena in the classroom Another salient and illuminating example of this trend to ignore teacher expectation phenomena emerged out of the scrutiny of the influential Handbook of Classroom Management: Research, Practice, and Contemporary Issues, published in 2006 by Carolyn Evertson and Carol Weinstein.This voluminous book (1,346 pages) included 47 chapters by 91 authors, including a chapter on ‘Classroom management and relationships between children and teachers’ by Robert Pianta, and a chapter on ‘History of research on classroom management’ by the late Jere Brophy I assume that nobody could or would claim that, within its broad definition, classroom management should not include phenomena focused on teacher–student interaction, teachers’ self-fulfilling prophecies, expectation-based teacher differential behavior in the classroom, or the ‘teacher’s pet’ phenomenon And yet, none of these phenomena are mentioned at all in the 2006 handbook, which was claimed to be the authoritative statement on contemporary classroom management Robert Rosenthal was cited only once in this book, and this citation did not refer to Pygmalion but to earlier work on the experimenter effect Brophy’s chapter on the history of classroom management made no reference at all to Pygmalion and teacher expectation phenomena, although Brophy himself was one of the most salient and productive researchers of teacher expectations in the 1970s and the 1980s, and published numerous influential articles (e.g Brophy 1983, 1985), review chapters, and even edited a book on expectations in the classroom (Brophy 1998) In this 2006 history chapter, Brophy even omitted any reference to his own work on teacher expectations I must admit that I found this trend surprising, and as a long-time researcher of teachers, students and their classroom interaction, even somewhat insulting Even if contemporary writers thought that the multitude of studies and findings on teacher expectations were invalid, they should not ignore a research body with hundreds of studies, and should at least have acknowledged it and discussed the relevant issues in current books To make sense of the trends described above and to understand the zeitgeist in educational psychology, I propose next a well-known conceptual historical framework that can explain the disappearance of Pygmalion and teacher expectations from educational psychology introductory textbooks and from the classroom management literature The conceptualization relates to the global history of psychology, and particularly to clinical psychology, and its application to educational psychology can explain quite clearly the current status of the social psychology of the classroom and its projected future Positive psychology versus corrective psychology: A long historical struggle It is commonly held that the roots of modern psychology stem from Freud’s work on psychoanalysis as a theory of personality and as a method of psychotherapy Freud was criticized incessantly over decades for a variety of issues and aspects In the past 70 years, one of the major challenges to Freudian psychology came from humanistic psychology (with figures such as Maslow and Rogers) and in later decades from positive psychology (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi 2000) This became a cultural struggle between two movements, or basic philosophies, in the practice of psychology – positive psychology and corrective psychology (I use the term ‘corrective’ for lack of an agreed-upon title, and ‘negative’ as opposed to ‘positive’ is a bit too negative!) Freudian psychodynamic theory viewed the internal psyche as a constant battleground between strong dynamic forces, some of which are negative and destructive ‘The imagination 388 of a man’s heart is evil from his youth’ (Genesis 8:21), and it is better that the person would remain unconscious of many ideas and wishes lying deep inside In contrast, positive psychology is optimistic, focusing on internal powers and resources that lead people to prosper in the face of adversity The old psychology deals with inherent neuroticism and sickness and seeks the means for overcoming these forces (hence the title ‘corrective’), whereas positive psychology seeks to enhance the healthy resources The common overall objective of both psychologies is to reach the best possible outcomes of mental health, sanity, well-being, and self-efficacy Perhaps they are similar to each other and the difference is only in the framing of the main ideas – but it seems that the difference between the two views is more critical and substantive to the practice of psychology In corrective psychology, the person must learn in the healing process to overcome the inner conflicts and the pathologies, and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association 2013) is the symbolic banner of this perspective In positive psychology, the goal is to develop the healthy and positive inner forces through humanistic, positive, and encouraging education and training Movements in neighboring nonclinical domains reflected the same ideas as positive psychology.The human relations movement originated in the birth of the sensitivity training group with Kurt Lewin in the late 1940s and eventually led to the development of organizational psychology Some of its known slogans were personal growth, a spirit of inquiry, and collaborative relations and conduct; its banner book was The Planning of Change (Bennis et al 1985), which appeared in several editions over three decades I believe that early behavior therapy of half a century ago also represented a certain aspect of positive psychology as opposed to the Freudian model, because it was practical and direct in its approach to behavior modification and change, without dealing with deep psychodynamic constructs and inherent psychopathology But the behavioral approach was too mechanistic to be considered humanistic, and I believe that its acceptance of punishment as being as effective as positive reinforcement made it non-kosher for believers of positive psychology Probably the most dramatic shift from a negative perspective to a positive perspective – a shift in which the very same researchers were involved in both stages, and the same experimental studies were reinterpreted – occurred in a rigorously experimental cognitive domain, focused on information processing, bias, and decision making Kahneman and Tversky (Kahneman et al 1982) led a strong area of research on human information processing, and presented a set of heuristics (or biases), which were common mistaken ways of thinking that led people to deviate from rational thinking I was Kahneman’s undergraduate student, and later his junior colleague Every researcher of bias made use of Kahneman and Tversky’s ideas For 20–25 years, the image of man in that approach was negative – people are biased, wrong, and can almost never process information correctly Instead of thinking logically and rationally, they use intuitive shortcuts (heuristics) that lead to biased solutions This is what I taught my students for decades, when I was involved in the investigation of teachers’ biases and self-fulfilling prophecies and voters’ wishful thinking in predicting election results And then, in the last 20 years, the conception of information processing flipped and shifted dramatically to a positive psychological perspective, while still maintaining the strict experimental methodology (and Kahneman received the Nobel Prize in 2002; Tversky unfortunately died of cancer earlier) The revised approach dominates the fields of decision making and economic psychology as strongly today as the previous perspective did before The same two systems of information processing are posited – the fast, intuitive and emotional System 1, and the slower, more deliberate and more logical System – but now Kahneman exalts the extraordinary capabilities of 389 fast thinking, praises the pervasive influence of intuition, and encourages people to trust their intuition (Kahneman 2011) In recent years he wrote about well-being (Kahneman and Diener 2003) and about ‘happiness by design’ (Dolan and Kahneman 2014) The field is flourishing with experimental research, and salient books such as those by Dan Ariely (2008, 2010) praise the intuitive and the irrational Intuition had been a liability in the early years, and now it has become a virtue I think that this is the most extreme example of the shift from corrective psychology to positive psychology, led by the same person with the same kind of experimental studies, and the new perspective was worthy of the Nobel prize! Paradigm shift in the social psychology of the classroom The current state of the social psychology of the classroom can be explained in relation to the background of the struggle between positive psychology and corrective psychology, and of the shifts and changes that took place in theory and research in clinical psychology and in experimental psychology The two pivots in this examination of the social psychology of the classroom are the area of teacher expectations and the field of classroom management The Pygmalion experiment emerged from a background of negative, corrective psychology, despite the fact that it examined the effect of positive expectations only Rosenthal’s previous research on experimenters’ effects and the influence of their expectations on experimental results exposed a deeply rooted bias phenomenon which implied that the results of controlled laboratory experiments should be suspected and could not be counted upon Pygmalion in the Classroom was born out of those previous studies when Lenore Jacobson, a Californian school principal, urged Rosenthal to apply his expectation research ideas in education, within the classroom The study (Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968) examined the effects of planting in teachers’ minds expectations about hidden, yet unrealized, intellectual potential of certain (randomly selected) students in the classroom And indeed self-fulfilling prophecy effects were recorded for some late blooming students in some classrooms Despite the barrage of sharp criticisms over the years, the probability of finding self-fulfilling prophecy effects was established following numerous replication studies and meta-analyses The debates and controversies lasted from the 1960s to the 1980s – some were focused on experimenter effects (e.g Barber and Silver 1968); some dealt exclusively with Pygmalion (e.g Elashoff and Snow 1971); and numerous others dealt with expectation effects in all domains (e.g Rosenthal and Rubin’s article in The Behavioral and Brain Sciences journal in 1978, followed by 29 open peer commentaries) At the same time, the issue of teacher expectations evoked a tremendous interest among researchers, and hundreds of expectation studies were published in the two decades following the publication of Pygmalion For obvious ethical reasons, the Pygmalion study examined only the influence of positive expectations and avoided the manipulation of negative expectations (Effects of negative expectations can be examined in a non-experimental method by asking the investigated teachers to nominate high expectation and low expectation students in their classrooms, and subsequently observe the teachers’ behaviors towards those students.) But the untested implications about negative effects of teachers’ low expectations always dominated in the debate over the Pygmalion effect, and strongly affected critics’ views If fabricated positive expectations can improve students’ intellectual performance following an implicit and complex process of mediation, it stands to reason that teachers’ real negative expectations may well hinder the performance of students viewed by teachers as having low potential Such negative effects would constitute a grave threat to the reputation of school teachers, as they would be blamed for being responsible for school failure (see Wineburg 1987) In those decades, school failure was one of the most salient and painful issues in American education Rosenthal argues until this day that his main objective in 390 the Pygmalion research was to investigate the potential contributions of teachers’ positive expectations (personal communication 2012) The central topic in the numerous teacher expectation studies in the 1970s and 1980s was teachers’ differential behavior towards high and low expectation students in the classroom Teacher differential behavior is the main link in the behavioral mediation of expectations, from information in the teacher’s head in the first stage all the way to student’s actual performance The early mediation studies were based on actual behavioral observations in the classroom In later studies, researchers used a variety of methods, from students’ reports of teacher behavior to the analysis of teachers’ nonverbal behaviors in thin slices of videotaped clips Because it was not possible (for ethical reasons) to manipulate negative expectations in teachers’ minds, the evidence of harmful consequences of teachers’ negative expectations emerged from studies of teacher differential behavior (Babad 1993) And indeed substantial documentation delineating teachers’ conduct toward their low expectation students was published (e.g Brophy 1983, 1985; Harris and Rosenthal 1985) In 1982, we published the study ‘Pygmalion, Galatea, and the Golem’ (Babad et al 1982) that demonstrated clearly that biased teachers (as contrasted with unbiased teachers) behaved negatively and hindered the performance of their low expectation students The negative effects were even more strongly demonstrated in the investigation of thin slices of videotaped teachers’ nonverbal behavior (Babad et al 2003), where teachers’ differentiality was correlated negatively with students’ morale and satisfaction My own research (alone and in collaboration with Rosenthal) until a decade ago indeed represented the perspective of corrective psychology, calling attention to negative outcomes of teacher expectations But many other researchers and authors tried – in the spirit of positive psychology – to protect teachers’ professional status and to minimize the implications of the negative findings.The overall growth of positive psychology was reflected in educational research and practice (e.g see Noble and McGrath 2008; Park and Peterson 2008) The growing field of contemporary classroom management was certainly based on principles of positive psychology – strengthening personal resources; empowering students and teachers; encouraging teachers’ positive emotionality; and fostering emotional relations with students – in addition to paying extra attention to the characterization and development of excellent teachers (see various authors in Evertson and Weinstein 2006; the review in Babad 2009) According to the above historical analysis presented in the last few paragraphs, contemporary classroom management was, and is, very likely to succeed and to gain many supporters among researchers, educational administrators, teachers, and book publishers The late Jere Brophy himself, in person, served as a salient demonstration of the paradigm shift in educational psychology Brophy and Good were among the most productive researchers of teacher expectations in the 1970s In his 1983 and 1985 publications, Brophy provided a list of teacher differential behaviors that summarized his own research and findings of other colleagues Many of the listed behaviors were negative in characterizing teacher behavior toward low expectation students But even then Brophy argued that such differential behaviors characterize only a small fraction of teachers and not reflect a global process He wrote several times that ‘teacher expectations are generally accurate, reality-based, and open to corrective feedback’ (Brophy 1985: 304) Over the years, Brophy became one of the leaders of the classroom management movement, and wrote the chapter on the history of research on classroom management in the Handbook of Classroom Management: Research, Practice, and Contemporary Issues (Brophy 2006) As stated earlier, there was no reference at all to teacher expectations in Brophy’s chapter, and he did not mention his past long-time involvement in that area We can only speculate about Brophy’s reasons(s) for such an omission (because he could not have thought that teacher expectations and teacher–student expectation-based interaction not constitute classroom management events) 391 Another party that has a critical influence on the shape of the field must be considered, and that is the group of book publishers Textbook publishers not exert much direct influence on the research in any field, but they sit in a critical junction, controlling the dissemination of psychological knowledge to the students and to the field They determine which books will be published and reach their prospected audiences, and which books will not! In the case of educational psychology, the largest readership consists of students in teacher training in almost all institutions of higher education, and who will be the teachers of the next generation Editors’ selection of authors and book plans determine the kind of psychology that will be learned by future teachers Book companies want to increase sales and to win over other companies in the market I presume that books that present a more positive outlook and are more encouraging of new teachers will have a higher chance of being adopted than books that emphasize negative phenomena and pitfalls of which teachers must beware Because the domain of teacher expectations and teacher differential behavior has negative implications and teachers are criticized indirectly through negative research results, this entire domain may well damage book sales Book editors may therefore prefer positive and optimistic psychology that is based on a solid rationale and supported by a wide body of research Such books may be preferable to both the instructors who adopt the books and to the students who learn from these books and subsequently evaluate their teachers Therefore, the disappearance of Pygmalion and teacher expectation research from textbooks, and the concurrent increase in the popularity of positive books presenting the contemporary philosophy of classroom management makes a lot of sense A final note: Positive social psychology of the classroom Despite the gloomy discussion in the previous pages, this reflective chapter can end on a positive note, because at least one subfield in expectation research represents the optimistic spirit of positive psychology Over 25 years ago, my good friend Dov Eden, an expectation researcher from Tel Aviv University, developed applications of the Pygmalion research and the self-fulfilling prophecy domain into organizational psychology and manager training Eden wrote a book entitled: Pygmalion in Management: Productivity as a Self-fulfilling Prophecy (1990), and spoke about “harnessing Pygmalion” (Eden 1992) and using the self-fulfilling prophecy as a management tool The idea was to foster a positive ideology and to train managers with an optimistic vision who would believe in (all) their workers and transmit positive expectations to them Eden’s conceptual shift was that instead of dealing with expectations as held differentially toward individuals, he defined positive expectations as an overall state of mind of successful managers, and developed training methods to foster this view and its relevant behavioral strategies Eden’s work fitted positive psychology perfectly, and was well in line with contemporary ideas about how psychology should be applied A similar trend is now being developed and tested within the framework of the social psychology of the classroom Christine Rubie-Davies, a relative newcomer to expectation research, has developed a conceptualization and training methods to foster teachers’ positive beliefs and expectations towards all students in the classroom, and has examined student outcomes in the classrooms of ‘Pygmalion teachers’ (Rubie-Davies 2014; Rubie-Davies et al in press) This promising direction is harmonious with the philosophy of positive psychology and fits with the framework of contemporary classroom management, and is therefore projected to be a promising feature of the social psychology of the classroom in the future Indeed, this volume alone attests to a bright future for the social psychology of the classroom It is pleasing to note the wide range of researchers who have contributed The area of the social 392 psychology of the classroom is clearly one that is active and vibrant It augurs well for the wellbeing, satisfaction, motivation, and resulting positive classroom climate that future generations of students are likely to enjoy References American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5, 5th edn, Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Ariely, D (2008) Predictably Irrational:The Hidden Forces that Shape Our Decisions, Toronto: HarperCollins Ariely, D (2010) The Upside of Irrationality: The Unexpected Benefits of Defying Logic at Work and at Home, Toronto: HarperCollins Babad, E (1979) ‘Personality correlates of susceptibility to biasing information’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37: 195–202 Babad, E (1993) ‘Teachers’ differential behavior’, Educational Psychology Review, 5: 347–376 Babad, E (1995) ‘The “teacher’s pet” phenomenon, teachers’ differential behavior, and students’ morale’, Journal of Educational Psychology, 87: 361–374 Babad, E (2005) ‘The psychological price of media bias’, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11: 245–255 Babad, E (2009) The Social Psychology of the Classroom, New York: Routledge Babad, E., Avni-Babad, D and Rosenthal, R (2003) ‘Teachers’ brief nonverbal behaviors can predict certain aspects of students’ evaluations’, Journal of Educational Psychology, 95: 553–562 Babad, E., Inbar, J and Rosenthal, R (1982) ‘Pygmalion, Galatea, and the Golem: investigations of biased and unbiased teachers’, Journal of Educational Psychology, 74: 459–474 Barber, T and Silver, M (1968) ‘Fact, fiction, and the experimenter bias effect’, Psychological Bulletin Monographs Supplement, 70: 1–29 Bennis, W.G., Benne, K D and Chin, R (1985) The Planning of Change, 4th edn, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Brophy, J (1983) ‘Research on the self-fulfilling prophecy and teacher expectations’, Journal of Educational Psychology, 75: 631–661 Brophy, J (1985) ‘Teacher–student interaction’, in J Dusek (ed.) Teacher Expectancies (pp 303–328), Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Brophy, J (1998) (ed.) Advances in Research on Teaching, Vol 7: Expectations in the Classroom, Greenwich, CO: JAI Press Brophy, J (2006) ‘History of research on classroom management’, in C Evertson and C Weinstein (eds) Handbook of Classroom Management: Research, Practice and Contemporary Issues (pp 17–43), Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Butler, R (2007) ‘Teachers’ achievement goal orientations and associations with teachers’ help-seeking: examination of a novel approach to teacher motivation’, Journal of Educational Psychology, 99: 241–252 Dolan, P and Kahneman, D (2014) ‘Happiness by Design: Change What You Do, Not How You Think’, Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Eden, D (1990) Pygmalion in Management: Productivity as a Self-fulfilling Prophecy, Lexington, MA: Lexington Books Eden, D (1992) ‘Self-fulfilling prophecy as a management tool: harnessing Pygmalion’, Academy of Management Review, 9: 64–73 Elashoff, J and Snow, R (eds) (1971) Pygmalion Reconsidered, Worthington, OH: Charles A Jones Evertson, C and Weinstein, C (eds) (2006) Handbook of Classroom Management: Research, Practice and Contemporary Issues, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Freiberg, H (ed.) (1999) Beyond Behaviorism: Changing the Classroom Management Paradigm, Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon Harackiewicz, J., Barron, K., Pintrich, P., Elliott, A and Thrash, T (2002) ‘Revision of achievement goal theory: necessary and illuminating’, Journal of Educational Psychology, 94: 638–645 Harris, M and Rosenthal, R (1985) ‘Mediation of interpersonal expectancy effects: 31 meta-analyses’, Psychological Bulletin, 97: 363–386 Hattie, J (2009) Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-analyses Relating to Achievement, London: Routledge Kahneman, D (2011) Thinking Fast and Slow, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux 393 Kahneman, D and Diener, E (eds) (2003) Well-being: Foundations of Hedonic Psychology, New York: Russell Sage Foundation Kahneman, D., Slovic, P and Tversky, A (eds) (1982) Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases, New York: Cambridge University Press Noble, T and McGrath, H (2008) ‘The positive educational practices framework: a tool for facilitating the work of educational psychologists in promoting pupil wellbeing’, Educational and Child Psychology, 25: 119–134 Park, N and Peterson, C (2008) ‘Positive psychology and character strengths: application to strengths-based school counseling’, Professional School Counseling, 12: 85–92 Pianta, R (2006) ‘Classroom management and relationships between children and teachers: implications for research and practice’, in C Evertson and C.Weinstein (eds.) Handbook of Classroom Management: Research, Practice and Contemporary Issues (pp 685–710), Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Rosenthal, R and Jacobson, L (1968) Pygmalion in the Classroom, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Rosenthal, R and Rubin, D (1978) ‘Interpersonal expectancy effect: the first 345 studies’, The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3: 377–415 Rubie-Davies, C.M (2014) Becoming a High Expectation Teacher: Raising the Bar, London: Routledge Rubie-Davies, C.M., Peterson, E.R., Sibley, C.G and Rosenthal, R (in press) ‘A teacher expectation intervention: modelling the practices of high expectation teachers’, Contemporary Educational Psychology doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.03.003 Schmuck, R and Schmuck, P (1975) Group Processes in the Classroom, 2nd edn, Dubuque, IA:Wm C Brown Seligman, M and Csikszentmihalyi, M (2000) ‘Positive psychology: an introduction’, American Psychologist, 55: 5–14 Wineburg, S (1987) ‘The self-fulfillment of the self-fulfilling prophecy’, Educational Researcher, 16: 28–44 394 INDEX Note: page numbers in bold refer to tables; those in italic refer to figures ability beliefs 9–10, 13–14, 54–6, 169, 308, 311, 353 see also expectancy-value theory; self-efficacy academic achievement 93, 143–4, 147, 243, 291, 352, 356, 357; and emotions 265, 339, 340; and mentoring 97–9; and status-based rejection sensitivity 95–6; and stereotype threat 93–5, 154, 156–7, 158, 159; and Teacher Education Project 322–3; and teacher expectation effects 316, 317, 318–19, 320, 323, 330; teacher judgment of 304, 305–6 308, 310–12; and teacher–student relationships 180–1, 182, 188; see also achievement gap; goals, achievement; race and ethnicity academic talk, classroom 142–3; research on 143–6; student 147–9 achievement gap 36, 83, 84, 86, 94–5, 98, 102–3, 125–6, 127, 134–6, 139, 154, 157, 203, 234, 318, 329 achievement goal orientation theory 9, 11–12, 386 achievement goals see goals, achievement attachment theory 170–1, 172, 178–9, 233 attitudes, student 46–7; and relationship to needs 47–50 authority, teacher 273–9 autonomy, student 49, 60, 233, 236, 237, 352; and high expectation teachers 320–1, 331; and high and low differentiating teachers 318–9; see also self-determination theory bias 198–9, 298, 389; confirmation 202–3; expectation 211, 317, 328, 387; fundamental attribution error 200–2; overcoming 203–5, 299; single rater measurement 182; stereotype 199–200, 299 biased and no-bias teachers 316, 318, 329, 391 built environment: influence on teaching and learning 252–60 burnout, teacher 191, 243, 339, 343, 344, 362, 363–4, 365, 367–8, 374, 378 class climate 172, 173, 190–3, 192, 267–70, 276–7, 291, 298, 305, 310, 317, 364–5, 365; and high and low expectation teachers 319, 320, 321, 331; measuring 193–5, 194, 232, 232–7 Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) 194–5, 231–2, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237 classroom management 232, 233–4, 242–9, 274, 277, 279, 356, 388, 391 cognitive acceleration 143–4 collective efficacy, teachers’ 341–2 cultural ecological theory 84–5, 86, 89 dialogic teaching 69, 75, 142, 143, 145–6, 147, 149 differential teacher behavior 306, 310; and discipline 275, 276; and expectations 202, 217, 291, 298, 307, 316–24, 387–8, 391–2; and stereotyping 200, 203, 299; see also differentiation, within-class; high and low differentiating teachers; high and low expectation teachers differentiation, within-class 296–7; and activity theory 300–1; and assessment 298; as deliberate practice 297–8; effective practices in 301–2; and group stereotypes 299; and sociocultural context 299–300; unintended 298–9 discrimination 200, 318; online vs face-to-face 112–120; see also bias; race and ethnicity; status-based rejection sensitivity 395 Scientific Literacy Project 68–77, 78 self-concept of ability see ability beliefs self-determination theory 42–3, 45, 53–4, 59, 179–80, 233, 377 self-efficacy 11, 12, 168, 350–1; interventions 15–16; and socialization 14; and teacher expectations 331; theory 10–11 self-efficacy, teacher 246, 248, 341, 343, 345, 350, 351–7; see also collective efficacy, teachers’ self-esteem 96, 103, 122–3, 353 self-fulfilling prophecy effects 122, 135, 202–3, 213, 285, 286–7, 306–7, 310–11, 312, 317, 327, 387, 388, 390, 392 social class 31–2, 34–5, 38–9, 299; and goals 31, 32–3, 35–8, 38–9 social cognitive theories 9, 10, 21, 32, 34–5, 38, 67–8, 350–1, 356 social equity theory 134–6, 139 social identity theory 103, 122–3 social identity: and exclusion 125, 126–7, 128; threat 23, 127, 154–5, 159; see also social identity theory; stereotype threat social status, classroom 133–4; differences 136–8, 139; interventions 138 socioeconomic status 32, 33, 36, 37, 38, 61, 94, 298, 317; see also social class status-based rejection sensitivity 95–6 stereotype lift 105, 158–9 stereotype threat 85–6, 89, 93–5, 105, 122, 134, 135, 136, 153–8, 159–61; related constructs 158–9 stereotypes/stereotyping 61, 104, 105–6, 135, 199–200, 203, 204, 278, 291, 299, 318, 343 student achievement see academic achievement student attitudes see attitudes, student student autonomy see autonomy, student student engagement see engagement, student academic System and System thinking 198–9, 202, 389–90 teacher emotions see emotions: teacher; motivation, teacher teacher expectation effects see differential teacher behavior; high and low differentiating teachers; high and low expectation teachers; Pygmalion experiment and effects; self-fulfilling prophecy effects Teacher Expectation Project 322–3, 324 two-factor theory 291 whole-class teaching 296–7, 320 withdrawal, social 209–10, 215, 217; effects 212–13; interventions 216–17; and social relationships 210–12; and teacher role 213–16 zone of proximal development 297, 299 397