gross richard PSYCHOLOGY The Science of Mind and Behaviour Seventh Edition 829734_GROSS_7e_TitlePG_V2.indd 9781471829734.indb 17/12/2014 14:31 04/05/15 9:39 AM Dedication To my beautiful daughters, T.N and J.G., in the hope that, given time, love will prevail Although every effort has been made to ensure that website addresses are correct at time of going to press, Hodder Education cannot be held responsible for the content of any website mentioned in this book It is sometimes possible to find a relocated web page by typing in the address of the home page for a website in the URL window of your browser Hachette UK’s policy is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products and made from wood grown in sustainable forests The logging and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin Orders: please contact Bookpoint Ltd, 130 Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4SB Telephone: (44) 01235 827720 Fax: (44) 01235 400454 Lines are open from 9.00–5.00, Monday to Saturday, with a 24hour message answering service You can also order through our website www.hoddereducation.com © Richard Gross 2015 First published in 2015 by Hodder Education An Hachette UK Company 338 Euston Road, London NW1 3BH Impression number Year 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 All rights reserved Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright law, no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or held within any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited Further details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS Illustrations by Peter Lubach, and Kate Nardoni/Cactus Design Typeset in 9/11 Bembo Std/55 Roman by Integra Software Services Pvt Ltd, Pondicherry, India Printed in Italy A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library ISBN: 978 1471 829734 9781471829734.indb 04/05/15 9:39 AM Contents Guided tour vi Prefaceviii PART 1: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY   What is this thing called Psychology?   Theoretical approaches to Psychology 13   Psychology as a science 37 PART 2: THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR AND EXPERIENCE   The nervous system 51   Sensory processes 74   Parapsychology 89   States of consciousness and bodily rhythms 105   Addictive behaviour 125   Motivation 143 10 Emotion 159 11 Learning and conditioning 175 12 Application: Health Psychology190 Part 3: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 13 Attention 217 14 Pattern recognition 234 15 Perception: Processes and theories 246 16 The development of perceptual abilities 264 17 Memory and forgetting 281 18 Language and thought 302 9781471829734.indb 04/05/15 9:39 AM 19 Language acquisition 314 20 Problem-solving, decision-making and artificial intelligence 329 21 Application: Cognition and the law345 PART 4: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 22 Social perception 363 23 Attribution 383 24 Attitudes and attitude change 394 25 Prejudice and discrimination 411 26 Conformity and group influence 431 27 Obedience 446 28 Interpersonal relationships 461 29 Aggression and antisocial behaviour 485 30 Altruism and prosocial behaviour 503 31 Application: The Social Psychology of sport519 PART 5: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 32 Early experience and social development 531 33 Development of the self-concept 554 34 Cognitive development 569 35 Moral development 589 36 Gender development 606 37 Adolescence 622 38 Adulthood 637 39 Old age 656 40 Application: Exceptional development672 9781471829734.indb 04/05/15 9:39 AM PART 6: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 41 Intelligence 689 42 Personality 713 43 Psychological abnormality: definitions and classification 736 44 Psychopathology 755 45 Treatments and therapies 779 46 Application: Criminological psychology804 PART 7: ISSUES AND DEBATES 47 Bias in psychological theory and research 824 48 Ethical issues in psychology 837 49 Free will and determinism, and reductionism 855 50 Nature and nurture 870 Acknowledgements884 References887 Index961 9781471829734.indb 04/05/15 9:39 AM GUIDED TOUR Critical Discussion 50.2 Helps you to analyse, evaluate and assess the validity of this scientific information — a crucial component of A level and undergraduate study Are shared environments really that unimportant? Scarr (1992) acknowledges the influence of the environment on behaviour but claims that, in reality, the environment is very similar for many individuals According to the ‘average [. . .] Research Update 42.1 Psychology is a research-driven field These updates let you see how scientific explanations change in light of new information, showing you ‘how science works’ Freud and neuroscience As we noted in Chapter 2, support for certain aspects of Freud’s theories has been provided by the relatively new sub-discipline of neuropsychoanalysis (NP), one of the many spin-offs [. . .] Cross-Cultural Study 35.1 Understanding the cultural context of scientific findings helps you to explain and evaluate a variety of methods and results from different psychological studies With some key questions in mind (if not always answers!) you will more easily understand the major studies and theories Trobriand Island boys and their fathers (Malinowski, 1929) ● Among the Trobriand Islanders of Papua New Guinea, boys were traditionally disciplined by their maternal uncle (their mother’s brother), rather than by their own [. . .] Ask Yourself ● Do you agree with Skinner’s claim that thoughts and other ‘covert behaviours’ don’t explain our behaviour (because they cannot determine what we do)? Case Study 4.1 It can be hard to link theories to real life Case studies give you concrete examples of people’s stories, and how they confirm or challenge psychological research The case of the phantom hand Tom Sorenson lost a hand in a car accident, after which his arm was amputated just above the elbow When his face was touched in various places, he experienced [. . .] vi 9781471829734.indb 04/05/15 9:39 AM Key study 4.1 This feature explains the methods, results and implications of some of the more iconic or innovative work in Psychology When the left brain literally doesn’t know what the left hand is doing (sperry, 1968) ● Participants sit in front of a screen, their hands free to handle objects that are behind the screen but which are obscured from sight Chapter summary There is a lot to take in for your exams and essays This feature will help you revise, build up your knowledge of the key points and how they fit together Helps you evaluate a particular theory or piece of research by understanding its connections with others ● Biopsychology is the branch of neuroscience that studies the biological bases of behaviour Biopsychologists are only interested in biology for what it can tell them about behaviour and mental processes Links with other topics/Chapters Chapter 28 Babies’ sociability has its adult counterpart in the need for affiliation, the basis of interpersonal attraction MEET THE RESEARCHER Viv Burr Some of the top psychology researchers in the world talk in a more personal way about why they asked the questions they did The methods they used, and the stories behind their research, will help you explain and evaluate the impact of their own and others’ work in this continually developing science Constructions of the family in popular culture: the case of Buffy the Vampire Slayer Contrary to how it appears in many psychology books, I believe that the research psychologists (and other scientists) undertake often arises from a strong personal interest rather than a disinterested concern to build on previous research findings This is exactly how I began my recent research and writing on the TV show Buffy the Vampire Slayer (BtVS) To me, BtVS seemed to offer the opportunity to become drawn into an alternative world which nevertheless addressed real-life issues As a psychologist, my own and others’ interest in the programme was itself intriguing; much of what is interesting about people lies not in abnormal or unusual behaviour but in the experiences that make up our mundane lives Today, popular culture, especially television, is very much a part of this experience, and so I became interested in BtVS for my research upon measuring the effects of watching certain kinds of television, often violence But the constructionist perspective is doubtful about identifying ‘causes’ and ‘effects’ when trying to understand human behaviour; rather, it focuses on the social constructions that people build and share, and on how people engage with these constructions to understand their own lives of Huddersfield), and we decided to work on a joint publication After some discussion, we agreed that ‘constructions of the family’ would be an appropriate focus It is often the conventional, nuclear family that is portrayed on television, despite the fact that there is an increasing diversity of living arrangements in modern western societies Families and households today include single parents, step-families and unrelated people cohabiting Among other things, these changes indicate that people today not stay in unsatisfactory relationships as they often did a few decades ago Rather than performing family roles through obligation, people are giving their own personal needs for happiness and fulfilment higher priority, and are continually re-negotiating their relationship commitments; there is an increasing tendency in contemporary society to feel that relationships within the family should be based on mutual care, respect and equality, rather than obligation and obedience But it is not surprising that what people may think of as the ‘normal’ family is a construction that we regularly see portrayed positively in television shows; people who have rejected traditional relationship and family forms may be happier for doing so, but non-normative family forms can also be seen as problematic because of the difficulties they then create for the state in terms of housing shortages, childcare needs, care of the elderly and so on Questioning ‘common sense’ discourses For many years, my theoretical framework and epistemological perspective has been informed by Social Constructionism and Critical Psychology These argue that the phenomena of our social world are constructed through the language and images used by people in daily life (sometimes referred to as ‘discourses’), and that certain constructions or discourses become predominant; they become our ‘common sense’ But our common sense ways of thinking about the world sometimes need to be questioned We should be ‘critical’ of them because they can support practices that are oppressive For example, a few decades ago, it was commonplace for gay people to be constructed as ‘sick’ or ‘evil’, and these constructions supported social practices limiting their freedom and opportunities So my approach to BtVS was intuitively a constructionist one: I was interested in the constructions of people and social phenomena it offered US reactions to the portrayal of nonnormative lifestyles in BtVS Of course, psychologists have been interested in television for a long time and there is a large body of research on ‘media effects’ This literature focuses 28 My approach to this research in fact bore more similarity to recent trends in the fields of cultural studies and media studies Here, audiences are seen not as passive recipients of ‘messages’ or ‘influences’ present in popular culture but as actively engaged in making sense of media texts, reflecting upon their content and making their own ‘reading’ of the text This was significant because BtVS had been heavily criticised, particularly in the USA, for its violent content and for its positive portrayal of nonnormative sexuality But my constructionist and critical perspective led me to view these criticisms as driven less by worries that viewers may unthinkingly imitate dangerous behaviour and more by the fact that viewers may conclude that non-normative lifestyles can be a defensible personal choice The focus for the research was influenced by a chance meeting with a colleague, also a fan of BtVS, who worked in the School of Education (part of the University How common is it to see non-normative families represented in popular culture? It seemed to us that BtVS offered constructions of family life that were not limited to the conventional nuclear family (and that were indeed critical of it) and so were more likely to reflect the experiences of many young people today In addition, we felt that its representation of non-normative family forms offered its audience the opportunity to reflect upon the advantages and disadvantages of different family arrangements, and we saw this as potentially beneficial rather than problematic So we set about analysing and documenting the various portrayals of families as they occur throughout the series (at the time this research was carried out, BtVS was in its sixth, penultimate, season on terrestrial TV in the UK) Identifying family forms in BtVS Through our analysis, we identified representations of three different family forms: the ‘feudal’ family structure of vampires; the conventional ‘nuclear’ family; and the alternative ‘chosen’ family of friends However, these were not necessarily portrayed as wholly good or bad The vampire ‘families’ were constructed as unhealthy; they offered their members a strong sense of belonging, but appeared feudal in their emphasis upon obedience, servitude and punishment for pursuing individual desires By contrast, the values of the conventional nuclear family were often endorsed: care, strong emotional bonds and tolerance of individual differences However, BtVS also portrays the conventional family as often failing to live up to its ideal: parents leave or are emotionally distant or violent; potential step-parents can fail to relate to their acquired offspring; parents may fail to understand their children’s problems or try to exert too much control over their choices The alternative presented in BtVS is the ‘chosen’ family, the friendship group BtVS explores how a family can function without traditional compulsions and expectations, where belonging is based on choice and free will Together, Buffy and her friends care for the child of this ‘family’ – Buffy’s sister, Dawn Belonging to this family is based on voluntary choice and commitment But this too is shown to bring dangers as people leave unexpectedly when their own needs become pressing; the family provides love and care, but inconsistently and unpredictably However, the benefits for Dawn are also shown: she is involved in decision-making; she is exposed to multiple perspectives on matters; and there is (usually) someone there who can help her The viewer is given the opportunity of weighing up the advantages of this more ‘democratic’ family style against its potential dangers Conclusions Popular culture may be a very ordinary aspect of our daily lives, but I see it as a rich source of ‘constructions’ of the social world that deserve psychologists’ attention My research on BtVS also includes constructions of sexuality, and I am currently looking at how individuals engage with this ‘text’ by analysing interviews with a sample of viewers Dr Viv Burr is a Reader in Psychology at the University of Huddersfield, UK She has published over 35 peer-reviewed articles and is author of Social Constructionism, 2nd edn Routledge, London, 2003 29 vii 9781471829734.indb 04/05/15 9:39 AM PREFACE By the time this 7th edition of Psychology:The Science of Mind and Behaviour is published, it will be 28 years since the first edition appeared (and 30 years since the contract for that first edition was signed!) Needless to say, much has changed within Psychology in that time, and yet some of the basic questions that researchers have been exploring – and philosophers before them – are still being asked Despite the advent of e-books and the evolution of electronic media in general, the task of the textbook author has remained essentially the same Something that you, as a student having to write essays, seminar papers, and dissertations, and I, as a textbook author, have in common, is the challenge of deciding what is best to include and exclude within what are always finite resources – time, money, words, and so on Users of this book are (mainly) students new to Psychology, who need to know something of its past in order to appreciate where it is now – and where it might be going in the future In order to make room for discussion of recent developments, I have continued what was started in the 6th edition, namely, to reduce the amount of detail when describing the older (but never redundant) material Also, I’ve sometimes sign-posted the reader to alternative sources of material, rather than providing a cursory summary of a particular study or theory One of the features new to the 6th edition, and which has been retained in the 7th, is the ‘Meet the Researcher’ feature While these haven’t been updated, in all cases their original contributions remain as relevant and informative as they were when they first appeared As well as providing additional material to what’s covered in the main body of the textbook, what their contributions show is that there’s always a ‘story’ behind a theory or chosen research project Research doesn’t appear out of nowhere and what particular Psychologists investigate isn’t a random event So, every time you read about a particular study, psychological concept or construct, or full-blown theory, remember that behind it are one or more human beings, each with their ‘story’ of how they came to be researching that topic rather than some other area of Psychology For the first time in this book, I’ve chosen to refer to the discipline of Psychology (and subdisciplines) with an upper case ‘P’ This applies also ‘Psychologists’ When used as an adjective (‘psychological’), or when referring to what Psychologists actually study (various aspects of human and non-human psychology), a lower case ‘p’ is used This isn’t just a matter of stylistic preference; distinguishing between ‘Psychology’ as a scientific discipline and ‘human psychology’ as what Psychologists investigate highlights the unique nature of Psychology: it’s where people study themselves as people, using the same human abilities that they (often) are investigating Even more importantly, what Psychologists tell us about ourselves may actually change us, i.e our psychology Part of the appeal of previous editions was that they catered for the needs of students on a wide range of courses, without being written specifically or exclusively for any one group I hope – and trust – that the same can be said of this 7th edition As before, please let me know what you think of my efforts (via the publisher) – it’s not just students who need feedback! Richard Gross viii 9781471829734.indb 04/05/15 9:39 AM CHAPteR WHAt Is tHIs tHInG CALLeD PsYCHoLoGY? A brief history Classifying the work of Psychologists IntRoDUCtIon and oVeRVIeW Ask Yourself ● If you’re completely new to Psychology, what you expect it to consist of? ● If you’ve studied it before, how would you define it and what’s the range of topics/ subjects it covers? ● How does it differ from other disciplines, such as physiology, sociology and anthropology? The opening chapter in any textbook is intended to ‘set the scene’ for what follows, and this normally involves defining the subject or discipline In the case of Psychology, this isn’t as straightforward as you might expect Definitions of Psychology have changed frequently during its relatively short history as a separate field of study; this reflects different, and sometimes conflicting, theoretical views regarding the nature of human beings and the most appropriate methods for investigating them (see Chapter 2) These theoretical differences partly reflect the complexity of the subject-matter Perhaps more importantly, there’s a very real sense in which we are all ‘Psychologists’ in our everyday lives: Psychologists as scientists/researchers use fundamental cognitive processes in order to investigate those same processes (such as perception and memory); hence, Psychologists (with an upper-case ‘P’) study human psychology (with a lower-case ‘p’), making the relationship between the discipline and the subject matter unique However, there are important differences between the Psychologist-as-investigator and the person-as-‘Psychologist’ Also, the boundaries between Psychology and other subject disciplines aren’t clearly drawn, and what this chapter aims to is make them sufficiently clear to enable you, the reader, who may be ‘visiting’ Psychology for the first time, to find your way around this book – and the subject – relatively easily Figure 1.1 A BRIeF HIstoRY The word ‘psychology’ is derived from the Greek psyche (mind, soul or spirit) and logos (knowledge, discourse or study) Literally, then, Psychology is the ‘study of the mind’ The emergence of Psychology as a separate discipline is generally dated from 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany Wundt and his co-workers were attempting to investigate ‘the mind’ through introspection (observing and analysing the structure of their own conscious mental processes) Introspection’s aim was to analyse conscious thought into its basic elements and perception into its constituent sensations, much as chemists analyse compounds into elements This attempt to identify the structure of conscious thought is called structuralism Wundt and his co-workers measured and recorded the results of their introspections under controlled conditions, using the same physical surroundings, the same ‘stimulus’ (such as a clicking metronome), the same verbal instructions to each participant, and so on This emphasis on measurement and control marked the separation of the ‘new Psychology’ from its parent discipline of philosophy 9781471829734.indb 04/05/15 9:39 AM INDEX ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) 63, 720 Asperger’s syndrome 678–9 attachment 531–5 adult relationships, and 547–9, 552 divorce, and 540–1 intergenerational continuity 548–9 maternal deprivation 540–3 single-sex/multiple-parent families 550–1 Strange Situation test 536–8 theories 532–6, 540–3, 548–9 attention 217–18, 226 overload 524–5 studies 218, 219 switching 224–6 theories 217, 219–23, 228–9 types 63, 217–19, 224–30 attenuation model 217, 221 attitude change external influences 400–5 theories 394, 402, 406–9 attitudes 394–6 see also prejudice behaviour, and 398–400, 411 influences 400–5 measurement 396–8 attraction 461, 467, 528 familiarity and similarity 469–70 physical attractiveness 470–1, 474–6 same-sex attraction 476 theories 33, 474–8, 614 attribute-driven processing 427 attribution effect 171, 383 attribution theory causal attributions 386–90 configuration/covariation models 383, 388–9 correspondent inference 384–6 depression, of 764–5 emotion and motivation 389–90, 489 error and bias 389–91 processes 383–4 social desirability 385–7 audience effect 522 augmenting principle 389 authoritarian personality theory 413–15, 418–19 autism 55, 108, 672, 743 classification and diagnosis 678–81, 684 theories of 670, 675–6, 681–4 therapies 680, 794 autokinetic effect 255 automatic priming 491 automatic processing 229–30 automaticity model 229 autonomic nervous system (ANS) 52, 68, 166–7 autonomous morality 593–4, 598 availability heuristics 335–6, 366 average evoked potentials (AEPs) 57, 111 aversion therapy 792–3 babbling 316 balance theory 470 barbiturates 132 basal ganglia 52, 59, 63–4 base rate fallacy 336 battered women syndrome 808 BBC prison study 457 behaviour matching 379 behavioural intentions 193, 195, 198, 399–400 behavioural pharmacology 17 behavioural psychology 2, 11, 16–18, 39–40, 44 attachment theories 532–4 behaviour therapies 17, 20, 791–6, 852 behavioural analysis 790 cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) 23, 139, 214, 795–7 problem-solving, and 330–2 psychological disorder models 790–1 systematic desensitisation 20, 179, 791–2, 852 behavioural technology 790 belief modification therapy 798 bereavement cultural influences 668–9 grief stages 666–8 beta-blockers 784 bias actor-observer effect 390 attribution theory, in 337, 389–91 availability bias 335–6, 366 correspondence bias 390 cultural bias 391, 829–34 decision-making 335–8 ethnocentrism 26, 47, 824, 829–34 experimenter bias 46, 48, 100–1 gambler’s fallacy 336–7 gender bias 47, 824–9 hostile attributional bias 489 illusion of control 336–7 IQ tests 660, 700 just world hypothesis 390 negative memory bias 375–6 positivity bias 385–6 publication bias 98–100 randomness 337 representativeness 337 self-serving bias 390 sunk costs bias 337 Big Five model 723–4 binge eating 773–5 biofeedback 17, 214 biological clock 111–12 biomedical model of illness 14, 190–1 biopsychosocial model of health and illness 190–2 biosocial theory gender development 611–14 bipolar disorders 743, 755, 760–1 blindsight 81–2, 108 Bobo doll experiments 491–2, 602 bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence 695 bodily self 555, 563, 566 body image 60–1 body rhythms 106 bogus stranger paradigm 472 brain see also brain damage AI, and 341–2 body image 60–2 consciousness, and 108–10 foetal development 59 giftedness 675–6 plasticity 610–11 right vs left lateralisation 15, 32–3, 65, 67–8, 675–6 scans 14–15, 57–9 split brains 56, 65–7 structure 59–64 waves 110–11 brain damage alcohol/substance abuse 58, 128, 133 clinical studies 56 978 9781471829734.indb 978 04/05/15 9:51 AM Chartered Psychologists 9–10 chemical castration 821 chemotherapy, psychotheraputic 780–5 child prodigies see giftedness childhood see also cognitive development; early experiences abuse, and psychosis development 768 childhood amnesia 729 gender identity development 618 linguistic development 309–12, 315–19, 323–4, 327 perceptual development 242, 264–5 psychosexual development 19, 590–3 chimpanzees language acquisition studies 314, 324–6 perception deprivation studies 267–8 self-awareness and self-recognition studies 563–4 Chinese room test 339–41 cholesterol 209 chronic stress 209–10, 212, 766 chronobiology 111 chunking 289 circadian rhythms 106, 111–12, 204–5 clairvoyance 90, 95 classical conditioning 148, 176–9, 184–5, 184–6 client-centred therapy (CCT) 22, 780, 799, 861 clinical psychology 5–7 clopazine 784 closed-loop control 231 closed skills 523 co-action effect 522 cocaine 132–4 codes of conduct 837–8 cognitive affective person system 717 cognitive architecture of mental processes 26 cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) 23, 139, 214, 795–7, 798 cognitive behaviourism 23, 152, 186–7 cognitive capacity 228 cognitive consistency 155–6, 365, 405 cognitive development 569 see also exceptional development assimilation 570 centration 572, 576 conservation 573–4, 577 cultural influences 578–9, 582, 585–6, 594–5 education, and 579, 584, 586 egocentrism 572–3, 576, 594 formal operational thinking 574–5, 577–8, 598 gender development 616–18 information-processing approach 586 intelligence, and 659–61 internalisation 582–4 modes of representation 585–6 moral development 593–601 object permanence 309, 318, 532, 563, 571, 575 stages 570–5 theories 569–79, 582–6 zone of proximal development 583–4 cognitive dissonance theory 394, 406–9 cognitive interviews 352–4 cognitive labelling theory 167–72 cognitive maps 186–7 cognitive neuropsychology 25–6 cognitive psychology 4, 23–6, 40–1, 44 see also decision-making; problem-solving cognitive response model 402 cognitive restructuring 214 cognitive revolution 40–1 cognitive science 2, 338 cohabitation 645 coherence principle 368 cohesiveness 527–8 coincidence experiences 91 collaborative learning 584 collective unconscious 730–2 colour blindness 84–6 colour constancy 85 colour perception 84–6, 251, 305–7 INDEX cognition, influences 25–6 consciousness 108–9 memory loss 289–90 phantom limb phenomenon 61–2 brief psychodynamic psychotherapy 781, 789–90 brightness constancy 251 British Ability scales 696 British Psychological Society animal research guidelines 846–8 codes of conduct 837–40, 844, 846 Broca’s area 56, 60 Brown-Peterson technique 283–4, 288 Bucharest Early Intervention Project 546–7 bulimia nervosa 773–5 bystander intervention 503, 516 apathy 505, 507–8 competence 506–8 diffusion of responsibility 156, 451–2, 506–8, 511, 515 models 504–12, 600–1 cannabis 129, 132, 136–7 Cannon-Bard theory of emotion 166–8 Capgras’ syndrome 242–3 carpentered world hypothesis 276–7 cataract patients 58, 265–7 catatonic schizophrenia 768 categorical self 566 category-driven processing 427 caucalgia 202 causal schemata 388 central capacity interference theory 217, 228 central nervous system (CNS) 52 see also brain central processing units (CPU) 25 centration 572–4, 576 cerebellum 52, 59, 63–4, 76 cerebral cortex 59, 62 cerebral hemispheres 52, 56, 59–60, 62–3, 66–8 change blindness 225–6, 230 channel capacity 24 979 9781471829734.indb 979 04/05/15 9:51 AM INDEX coma 108–9 common reward pathway 128 communicative intentionality 324 comorbidity 751, 765, 776 comparative psychology 4, 32–3 compensatory model, decisionmaking 335 competence motives 143, 153, 155 complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS) 608, 610, 612 computational theory of mind 339–42 computational theory of vision 261–2 computer processing analogy 15, 40–1 computerised axial tomography (CAT) 58 computers 2, 10, 338 computer games, aggression 498–9, 517 computer analogy 15, 40–1 online disinhibition effect 500 online relationships 465–6 concentration and distractibility 218, 225, 228–9 concrete operational stage, cognitive development 311, 570, 573–5, 578, 598 conditioned head rotation 271 conditioning aversion therapy 792 avoidance/escape learning 152, 183 backward 177 behaviour modification 793–4 blocking 186 classical 148, 176–9, 184–6 cognition, role of 185–7 conditioned reflexes 39 delayed/forward 177 higher-order 178 learned helplessness 155, 186 negative reinforcement 183–5 operant 18, 148, 176, 180–6, 319–20 phobias, and 179–80, 791 punishment 183–4, 186 reinforcement 181–4 respondent 148, 176–9, 184–6 simultaneous 177 theories of 2, 4, 17, 152, 176, 180–4, 319–20 trace 177 configural recognition 237, 240–2 configuration model 383, 386–9 conformity 4, 443–4 see also obedience independence 437, 444 influences on 434–40, 434–42, 456–7 studies 432–7 theories 439–40, 443 congenital adrenal hyperplasia 608 conjunctive strategy, decisionmaking 335 connectionism 342 consciousness 105–6, 644 see also sleep; unconscious thoughts brain function, and 108–9 neuroimaging 109–11 personality, and 730–2 states of 106–9 consensus 386–7 conspiratorial model, schizophrenia 771 construct validity 750 constructionist theory 713 constructivist theory, perception 255–8, 260–2 contact hypothesis 425–7 context-stripping 41 continuous reinforcement 182 contralateral control 60 controlled processing 229–30 conversion theory 442 corpus callosum 60, 63, 66–7 correspondent inference theory 384–6 corticospinal decussation 60 corticosteroids 56, 207 counselling psychology 5, 7–8, 22, 325 counter-transferance 781, 788 covariation model 383, 386–9 covert attention 223 crime prevention 817 criminal behaviour 5, see also forensic psychology crime prevention 817 criminality studies 804–6, 810, 812 gender, and 807–9 long-term offenders 805–9 neurodeterminism 14–15 offender profiling 814–16 paedophilia 820–1 punishment regimes 817, 820 reoffenders 817, 820 theories of 804, 809–14 criminological psychology see forensic psychology cross-race identification effect 350 cross-situational consistency 379, 716–17 crowded nest syndrome 649 cue-dose training 201 cues, perceptual 249–50 cultural difference 831 bias 391, 829–34 cognitive development, and 578–9, 582, 585–6, 594–5 cultural norms 26, 737 depression 765–6 eating disorders 773–6 eyewitness testimony 351 gender development 618–19 grief 668–9 health and illness 191–2 illusions 276–7 intelligence 700–1 moral development 594–5, 597–8 parental responsibility 651 psychological disorder diagnosis 746–9 rites of passage 628–30 stress concepts 211–12 theories of self 560 cultural ideal hypothesis 624–5 cultural psychology 832–4 cupboard love 532–4 cyberstalking 500 daily uplifts 206–7 dark adaptation 79 data reduction systems 75 day care 542–3, 843 deactivation 53 death 664–5, 667 see also bereavement debriefing 840 décalage 574 980 9781471829734.indb 980 04/05/15 9:51 AM developmental readiness hypothesis 625 deviancy hypothesis 625 DHT deficiency 608 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Mental Disorders see DSMIV-TR diathesis-stress model 775–6 dichotic listening 218 difference thresholds 76 differentiation hypothesis 375, 815 diffusion of responsibility 156, 451–2, 506–8, 511, 515 directive therapies 779, 801 discounting principle 389 discrimination see prejudice displacement 295–6, 728 disruptive and impulse-control disorders 743, 745 disruptive mood dysregulation disorder 743 dissociative disorders 744 distortions 251–2 distractibility 225, 228–9 distraction-conflict theory 524–5 distributive justice 597 diurnal rhythms 106 divorce 478–81, 540–1, 645–6, 648 DNA 16, 349, 708, 867, 873, 875, 881 dogmatism 98, 415 domestic responsibilities 651–3 door-in-the-face tactic 447 dopamine 54, 768–9 Down’s syndrome 680–1, 686 dreaming 91 dream interpretation 19, 727, 789 dream recall 118 personality, and 726–7 theories of 121–2 drive reduction theory 151–3 drive relation theory 146 drive theory 522–4 drugs 132–6 see also addiction personality influences 720–1 psychological threatment 780–5 types 129, 132–3 DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) 127, 151 autism 679 critique of 746–8, 751–2, 761, 765–6, 772, 774, 827, 881 homosexuality 738 masochistic personality 827 mental disorder categories 743–5, 755, 759 mental retardation 685 organic mental disorders 742 validity and reliability 748–50 dual process models 402, 439 dual-task performance 217–18, 226–9 dyslexia 67 early selection filter theory 219–21 eating control and suppression 148–50 hunger-eating relationship 146–7 eating disorders 5, 744, 772–5 cultural influences 773–6 diathesis-stress model 775–6 food addiction 150–1 echolalia 316, 319–20 ecstasy 129, 132 educational psychology 5–6, ego 589–92, 727–9 ego defence 19–20 ego identity 629, 640, 737 ego integrity 639, 665 ego psychology 19–20 egocentric illusion 573 elaboration-likelihood model 402 elderly persons see old age Electra complex 591–2 electric shock experiments 151, 153, 171, 181, 183–6, 221, 387–8, 452–3, 462, 490, 497 electrical self-stimulation of brain (ES-SB) 143, 152 electrochemical impulses 53–4 electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) 785–7 electroencephalagram (EEG) 57, 110–11, 113–14 electromagnetic spectrum 74–5 electromyogram (EMG) 57 electrooculogram (EOG) 57 INDEX decay theory of forgetting 295–6 deception cognitive and moral development 581, 595 research ethics 839–40, 842 decision-making 4, 334 strategies 335–8 decision model, bystander intervention 504–8 decontextualisation 26 decrement model 656 deep brain stimulation 785 defence mechanisms 213, 590, 726–9 dehumanisation 452 deindividuation 485, 496–7 delusional misidentification 242 delusions 766 dementia 108, 658, 675–6 denial 667–8, 726, 728–9 denigration 411, 500 depersonalisation 48, 135, 565, 630 depressants 129–30, 720–1 depression 5, 743, 755, 761–5 causes 627–8, 667, 762–5, 808 cultural influences 765–6 gender influences 761–2 learned helplessness 763–4 monoamine hypothesis 762–3 theories of 762–5, 795–7 deprivation 540–3 day care 542–3, 843 development pathways 545, 547 late adoption 544–6 long-term/short-term 540–1 privation 543–7 studies 545–7 desensitisation 20, 179, 791–2, 852 despair 541, 639, 665, 667–8 desynchronisation 106, 204–5 determinism 14–16, 21, 303, 863 biological 862 free will, and 855–6 linguistic 303–4 neurogenetic 14–15, 874–5 overdeterminism 860 psychic 859–60 soft 856, 859 developmental psychology 4–5 see also adolescence; adulthood; childhood; cognitive development 981 9781471829734.indb 981 04/05/15 9:51 AM INDEX emotion-focused coping 213 emotion 159–61, 164 animals, in 849 basic/primary 159–61 hormonal influences 69 physiological differences 166–8 prosocial behaviour, and 600–1 social construction 161 studies 162–3 theories 164–72, 389–90, 489 unconscious vs conscious 20 empathising-sytemising (E-S) theory 611, 675, 683 empathy-altruism hypothesis 512–13 empiricism 37–41, 264, 870–2 empty nest syndrome 649 endocrine system 68–70 endorphins 54–6, 135 engineering model, stress 203–4 enkephalins 54–6 entrapment 452, 454 environmental psychology 818–19 epilepsy 56, 66, 243, 289 episodic analgesia 202 episodic buffer 292–3 equal environment assumption 702, 704 equal status contact 425–6 escape learning 183 essentialism 26 esteem needs 21, 144–5 ethics 853 animals, protection of 846–50 benefit to society 844–6 codes of conduct 837–8 confidentiality 838 consent/informed consent 839, 842 deception 839–40, 842 protection from harm 841–4 socially sensitive research 843–4 ethnic backgrounds see cultural difference ethnocentrism 414 bias 26, 47, 824, 829–34 relationships, in 462–3 eugenics 16 evaluation apprehension model (EAM) 524 evaluative priming 397–8 evolutionary psychology (EP) 30–4 evolutionary theory see natural selection exceptional development see autism; giftedness; learning difficulties excitation transfer 489, 494–5 executive control 228 existential psychiatry 770–1 experimental control 48 experimental neurosis 178 experimenter bias 46, 100–1 exteroceptors 75, 775 extinction, conditioning 178, 180, 182, 184 extra-sensory perception (ESP) 89–90, 92–6 extroversion 719–20, 722, 731 eyewitness testimony cognitive interviews 353–4 face recognition 237, 242, 354–5 influences on 348–52 legal status 345, 349 limitations 237, 242 face blindness 241–2 face recognition 25, 94, 234, 237–44 babies’ perceptual abilities 271–3 configural recognition 237, 240–2 disorders 241–3 eyewitness testimony 237, 242, 354–5 inverted faces 240–1 models 238–9 whole-part effect 240 facial disfigurement 510, 556 facial electromygraphy 81 facial expressions 159–60, 163–5 factor analysis intelligence tests 690–1, 693 personality types and traits 717–24 factor S 113 false beliefs 358–60, 576–7, 682, 766 false feedback paradigm 165 falsifiability 101 family interaction model 771 family resemblance studies 701–4 fathers attachment 531, 535–6 domestic responsibilities 651–3 gay men as 550, 653 parental involvement 31 puberty, effect on 626 fear 30–1, 402–3, 664–5, 721 feature-detection theories 236–7 feature-integration theory 224 female circumcision 629–30 feminist psychology 606, 824–5 fight or flight response (FOFR) 207–9, 721 figuration 366–7 figure-ground perception 246–7 filter model, attention 217, 283 fixed interval/ratio reinforcement 182 flooding therapies 792 fluid intelligence 693 focal attention 107–8 focal colour perception 305–6 focal theory of adolescence 625, 634 foetal alcohol syndrome 686 foetal development 59, 117, 119, 607, 609, 686, 705 food see eating; eating disorders foot-in-the-door tactic 447 forebrain 52, 59 forensic psychology 5–6, criminal behaviour theories 804, 809–14 investigative psychology 814–16, 819 offender profiling 814–16 offender treatment 520, 816–17, 820 forgetting 281 amnesia 289–90, 356 false memories 345, 357–60 repression 355–7, 360–1 retrieval failure 296–7 theories of 17, 295–9 formal operational stage, cognitive development 574–5, 577–8, 598 fovea 77–8, 223 982 9781471829734.indb 982 04/05/15 9:51 AM foetal development 607, 609 parental influences 615–16 play behaviour 610–11, 615 puberty 623–5 self-socialisation 618 social learning theory 615–16 gender dysphoria 606, 745 gender roles 607 gender-schematic processing theory 618 gender splitting 645, 651–3 general adaptation syndrome (GAS) 207–9 general slowing hypothesis 660 generalised anxiety disorder 744, 797, 799 generation gap 630–1 generativity 638, 640 genes 31, 569, 681, 873–4 behaviour genetics 878–80 DNA mapping 16 gene-environment interactions 877–8 individual differences 13–14 intelligence, and 701–5, 707–9 molecular genetic research 874–5 neurogenetic determinism 875–6 genital stage, psychosexual development 591 genitalia, pre-natal development 607, 609 genius see giftedness; savants genocide 452 genotype 878 Genovese, Kitty 503–4, 506, 517 geon theory 235–6 Gestalt School 2, 20, 187, 217, 246–9, 330–2 giftedness interpretation 672–3 savant syndrome 672, 674–6 theories 675–8 glucostatic theory of hunger 147 gnostic neurons 236, 243 ‘good wife’ syndrome 827 Google effect 294 grammar components 314–15 linguistic development 317–19 transformational grammar 320–1 grandmother cells 236, 243 grief see bereavement group behaviour see also conformity deindividuation 496–7 group cohesion 527–8 group polarisation 431, 443–4 influences on 431, 526–9 membership influences 421–2 group performance 519, 526–9 group pressure 432, 456–7 group processes 442–3 habituation 63, 107, 129, 271 hallucinations 91, 766 hallucinogens 129, 136, 720–1 halo effect 369, 372 hassles scale 206–7 Hawthorne effect 199–200 health acculturation 191–2 control paradox 196–7 illness cognition 198–9 health behaviour patient adherence 199–201 perceived threat of disease 193 practitioner influences on 201 theories 192–295, 198–200 Health Belief Model (HBM) 192–5, 199 health psychology 4–5, 9, 190–3 hearing 76, 83, 220–1, 303, 316 hedonism 145 ‘Heinz’ dilemma 596–7 helping behaviour see altruism heredity see nature-nurture debate heriditarian fallacy 708 hermaphroditism 607–8 hermenutic strength 21 heroin 129, 132, 134–1 heteronomous moral orientation 594, 598 heuristic-systematic model 402 heuristics 332, 335–8, 366 hindbrain 52, 59, 64 hippocampus 63–4 holistic approach to health 21, 191 Holocaust survivors 356, 544–5 homeostasis 62, 68, 210 INDEX free association 19, 789 free-response ESP 95–6 free-riding 526 free will 21, 855–7, 868 behavioural therapy, and 861–2 determinism, and 855–6, 859–60 illusion of 860–1 frontal lobe 59–60, 63 frustration-aggression hypothesis 485, 487–9 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) 14–15, 58 fundamental attribution error (FAE) 389–90 fusiform face area 241, 243 GABA 54, 132, 151, 784 gambler’s fallacy 336–7 gambling 125–7, 745, 782–3 gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) 54 Ganzfield procedure 95–7 gay men aversion therapy 793 changing attitudes to 738 fatherhood and families 464–5, 550–1, 653 same-sex relationship studies 416–17, 476 gender 30–1, 603 see also discrimination; sexual identity altruism, and 511 criminal behaviour, and 807–9 depression 761–2 hermaphroditism 607–8 interpersonal relationships 465 intersex syndromes 608–10, 612, 614 IQ test base differences 699, 709 moral development 594, 597–9 research bias 47, 824–9 self-disclosure influences 380 sexual selection theory 33, 474–6, 614 stereotypes 607, 609, 617 suicide, and 762 gender development biological theories 609–11 biosocial theory 611–14 cognitive development 616–18 core gender identity 610 cultural influences 618–19 environmental influences 606, 614 983 9781471829734.indb 983 04/05/15 9:51 AM INDEX homeostatic drive theory 143–4, 146 homicide 491, 808, 815–16 homosexuality see gay men homunculus 60–1 hormones 54, 56, 609 hostile attributional style 498–9 Human Brain Project 59 human engineering Human Genome Project 16 humanistic psychology 21–3 motivation, and 143, 145 personality theories 21–2, 713–14, 725–6 hunger pangs theory 146–7 Huntington’s disease 54 hyper-/hypo-reactivity model 211–12 hyperphagia 149–50 hyperthymestic syndrome 299 hypnagogic period 115 hypnosis 91, 214 hypnotic drugs 781 hypothalmus 1, 52, 62–4, 63, 68 hypothesis, definition 10, 41, 43 hypothetico-deductive method 43, 575 ICD (International Classification of Diseases) 738, 742–3, 746–8, 751, 755, 765–6, 774, 811 id 589–92, 727–9 ideal self 22, 557–8 identity see also sexual identity development, gender differences 638–40 intimacy, and 637–40, 668 identity crisis adolescence 628–30, 632–3 mid-life 642–3 identity status model 633 idiographic approach 713–15, 724–5 idiographic-nomothetic debate 98 idiots savants 672, 675 illness see also disease biomedical model 14, 190–1 stress, and 192, 209–12 illusion of control bias 336–7 illusions 251–7, 260 imagination inflation 359 imitation 317–20 immune system, and stress 210 implementation intentions 199, 201 Implicit Association Test 20, 398 implicit personality theories 372 implosion therapy 792 impossible objects 251, 253 impression management 363, 377–9, 408, 555 imprinting 534 impulse control 601, 624 inattention blindness 224 incentive theory 407 independence, and conformity 437, 444 indigenous psychology 834 individual differences 5, 39, 48 complex processes, and 25 genetic influences 13–14 shared/non-shared environments 14, 876–8 individual psychology 18–19, 22 individualism 27 individuation 730–2 induced movement 255 inductive method 42–3 infanticide 808 infants see babies infibulation 629–30 information processing systems 24, 586 AI 338–42 algorithms and heuristics 332 computer analogy 25, 40–1 intelligence, and 693–4 problem-solving 329, 332–4 informed consent 839, 842 ingroup differentiation hypothesis 375 inner eye 110, 292 inner voice 292 inner working models 548–9 insight 331 insight learning 187 insomnia 113 instinct 145–6 institutionalised prejudice/racism 413 instrumental aggression 486 intelligence 5, 689–90, 694 adoption studies 704–5 cultural influences 700–1 early intervention studies 705–7 environmental influences 705–10 factor analysis 690–1, 693 genetic influences 701–5, 707–9 IQ stability 701 IQ testing 689, 697–700 multiple 694–5 racial differences 708–10 theories of 690–5 twin studies 701–4 intention-behaviour gap 198–9 intentionality 324, 564–5 interactionism 599, 717, 866, 868, 870–1 interference theory of forgetting 17, 297–9 intergenerational continuity 548–9 internalisation 437–9, 582–3 International Classification of Diseases see ICD internet relationships 465–6 interneurons 52, 65 interoceptors 75, 775 interpersonal intelligence 695 interpersonal psychodynamic therapy 790 interpersonal relationships 4, 461 see also attraction; love; parenthood; relationship breakdown affiliation 461–2 attachment stages 467–8 cultural influences 462–4, 466–7 ethnocentrism in 462–3 gay and lesbian relationships 464–5 intimacy 478, 637–40, 668 marriage 463–4, 466, 602–3, 639 online relationships 465–6 sexual selection theory 33, 474–6, 614 studies 472–3 theories 461–2, 464, 468–9, 472–3, 477 types 462–5 intersex syndromes 608–10, 612, 614 intimacy, generativity theory 638, 640 intrapersonal intelligence 695 984 9781471829734.indb 984 04/05/15 9:51 AM colour perception and memory 305–8 grammatical variations 304–5, 308 language as cause 302–9 language as reflection 302, 309–10 linguistic relativity hypothesis 303–9 peripheralist approach 302––303 social constructionism 302–3 late selection filter model 221–2 latency stage, psychosexual development 591 lateral geniculate nucleus 62, 80 lateral thinking 330 lateralisation of brain functions 15, 32–3, 65, 67–8 lay therapy 22 leading questions 351–2 learned helplessness 155, 186, 763–4 learning 175–6, 186–7 see also conditioning cognitive behaviourism 23, 152, 186–7 education, and cognitive development 579, 584, 586 observational 20, 491–6, 602–3 peer tutoring 583–4 theories 17, 23, 186 types 17, 152, 183, 186–7, 494, 584 learning disabilities 8, 680, 684–6 diagnosis 67, 685–6 educational treatment 685 left vs right brain lateralisation 15, 32–3, 65, 67–8 legitimate authority, obedience 451–3 lesbian women parenthood and families 464–5, 550–1, 653 same-sex relationship studies 416–17, 476 levels of processing (LOP) model 293–4 lie scales 397, 719, 721 life change units (LCU) 205–6 life expectancy 657–8, 664, 680 limbic system 52, 59, 63–4 linear perspective 249–50, 256–7 linguistic relativity hypothesis 303–9 linguistics, definition 314 lipostatic theory of hunger 147 Little Albert study 41, 179–80, 791–2 Little Peter study 179, 791–2 location constancy 251 locus coeruleus 52, 113 locus of control 155, 211, 723 logical-mathematical intelligence 695 looking-glass self-theory 559 loss see bereavement love attachment process, as 547 cultural influences 466–7 intimacy, and 478 needs 21–2, 144–5, 461 types of 466–7 low-ball tactic 447 low prevalence effect 224 LSD 132 lucid dreaming 91, 97, 120 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 58 mainstream psychology 17, 41 major depressive disorder (MDD) 743, 755, 761–5 male brain theory 611, 683 manic depressive disorder 743, 755, 760–1 manic disorders 755, 760–1 manipulative drive 153–4 marijuana 129, 132, 136 marriage 463–4, 466, 602–3, 639, 645–6 masochistic personality 827 matching hypothesis 468, 477 matching to standard 527 maturation 870–2 mean length of utterence (MLU) 318 media influences see television and film medical model of illness 14, 190–1 meditation 214 medulla oblongata 52, 59, 63–4 INDEX introspectionism 1–2, 38, 44, 105 introversion 719–20, 722, 731 inverted faces recognition 240–1 inverted U theory 403, 523 investigative psychology 804, 814–16, 818–19 involuntary attention capture (IAC) 225 iodopsin 79 ions, positive and negative 53–4 IQ see intelligence James-Lange theory 164–6, 168 jet lag 204–5 just noticeable difference 76 just world hypothesis 390 ketamine 783 kin-selective altruism hypothesis 476 kinaesthetic senses 75–6 Klinefelter’s syndrome 608 Korsakoff ’s syndrome 58, 132 L-Dopa 768 laboratory experiments 5, 41, 47–8, 493, 884 language 4, 24, 314, 324, 582 see also language and thought adaptation, as 31, 34 animals, in 4, 314, 324–6 right vs left brain lateralisation 32, 65, 68 speech, types of 302, 311, 317–18 structure 309, 314–15, 321–2 transformational grammar 320–1 language acquisition approaches 314, 323–4 grammar 314–15, 317–19 imitation 319–20 influences on 314, 322 operant conditioning 319–20 phrase structure 320–1 stages 309–12, 315–19, 323–4, 327 theories 319–24 word functions 316–17 language acquisition device (LAD) 314, 320–2 language acquisition support system (LASS) 323–4 language and thought class/racial influences 302, 309 985 9781471829734.indb 985 04/05/15 9:51 AM INDEX melatonin 112–13 memory 17, 299 see also eyewitness testimony; forgetting amnesia 289–90, 356 blending 352 coding 281, 283–5, 288–9 colour perception, and 305–8 dual-memory model 15, 281, 283, 287–8 false memories 345, 357–60 flashbulb memories 290–1 language, and thought 305–8 levels of processing 293–4 long-term 282, 285 memory-span procedure 286–7 multi-store model 15, 281, 283, 287–8 negative memory bias 375–6 reconstructive 346–8 recovered 345, 357–60 registration 281, 283–5, 288–9 rehearsal 288, 293–4 repression 355–7, 360–1 retrieval 281, 286–7 schema theory 345–6 screen memories 357 semantic 285–92, 290–1 short-term 282–5 sleep, and 116, 122, 132, 296 stereotyping, and 375–6, 661 storage 281–5 types 228–9, 281–5, 290–3, 299, 760 memory loss see forgetting mental disorders see psychological abnormality mental processes see cognitive processes; thought meta-analysis 97, 99 methodological behaviourism 17 microelectrodes 56, 268 mid-life crisis 642–3 midbrain 52, 59, 63–4 Milwaukee Project 706–7 mind-body problem 864–8 mind-brain identity theory 866 mind-brain relationships 16, 862, 864–8 mindfulness 214 minimal groups 421–2 minority influences 440–2 mirror-image phenomenon 369–71, 425 mirror neurons 370–1 misapplied size constancy theory 256–7 misattribution effect 171 misinformation effect 358 MODE model 400 molecular genetic research (MGR) 874–5 monoanime hypothesis 762–3 monoanime neurotransmitters 54, 762–3, 781 monoanime oxidase inhibitors 763, 781 monogamy 463 monotropy 534, 540 mood affective disorders 755 moral accountability 858 moral development deception 581, 595 influences on 594–5, 597–9, 603 levels and stages 595–8 moral reasoning 598–601 theories 589–603 morphemes 315 morphine 129, 132, 134–5 motherese 318 motherhood 648–51 motion after-effects 255 motion parallax 250 motivated forgetting 295, 299 motivation 143–5 cognitive motives 155–6 competence motives 143, 153–5 hunger 146–51 instinct 145–6 latent learning 152, 187 needs vs drives 143–4, 146, 152–6 play 153–4 stimulation 153 studies 145–6 theories 143–4, 146, 151–3, 155, 389–90, 489 motor neurons 52–3, 65 Müller-Lyer illusion 252, 256–7, 276–7 multi-channel attention theory 217, 228–9 multi-store model (MSM) 15, 281, 283, 287–8 multi-trait theories 723 multiple intelligence theory 694–5 multiple selves 558–9 multitasking 217, 230, 322 musical intelligence 695 nativism 37, 264, 314, 870–2 natural selection 4, 13, 24, 30, 39, 322, 487, 513, 535, 862 naturalistic intelligence 695 nature-nurture debate 770, 873–6 behaviour genetics 878–80 nativism and empiricism 870–2 perceptual development, and 255, 264, 278–9 psychological theories, and 874 shared/non-shared environments 14, 876–7 twin studies 878, 880–1 near-death experiences 91 needs hierarchy of 21, 143–5 vs drives 143–4, 146, 152–6 negative after image 85–6 negative feedback loop 210 negative identity 626, 631 negative reinforcement 183–5 negative schemas 796–7 negative state relief model 512 nerves 52–3 nervous system 51–6, 68, 70, 720 neurocentrism 15 neurocognitive disorders 745, 747 neurodevelopmental disorders 743 neuroimaging 109–10 neuromodulators 54, 56 neuronal efficiency account theory 677 neuronal resource account theory 677 neurons 51–6, 65, 76, 370–1 neuropeptides 54–6 neuropsychoanalysis 20, 729 neuropsychology neuroscience 14–15, 370–1, 729 neuroticism 719–20, 722, 727 neurotransmitters 53–4, 56, 119 nicotine 132 986 9781471829734.indb 986 04/05/15 9:51 AM operant conditioning 18, 148, 176, 180–4, 186, 319–20 free will, and 860–1 language development 319–20 Operation Headstart 705–7 opiates 129, 132, 134–1 opioids 55 opponent process theory 85 optic nerve 76, 78, 80 oral stage, psychosexual development 591 organic mental disorders 742 organisational psychology orienting responses 106 out-of-body experiences 91–3 outgroup homogeneity 375, 424–5 output equity hypothesis 526–7 overjustification effect 409 oxytocin 70 paedophiles 820–1 pain 201–3 pain killers 54–5 Paleolithic environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EAA) 30 panic disorder 744, 756, 797 paradoxical figures 251, 253 parallel processing 217, 236–7, 342 paranoid schozophrenia 133, 768 paranormal beliefs 91–4 paraphilic disorders 745 parapsychology history 89–90, 94–6 paranormal beliefs 91–4 research challenges 96–102 parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) 52, 68–9, 77 parenthood asymmetrical relationships 648–9 childcare responsibilities 651–3 fatherhood 649, 651–3 gay and lesbian parenthood 464–5, 550–1, 653 motherhood and womanhood 648–51 Parkinson’s Disease 15–16, 54, 768 pattern recognition face recognition 25, 94, 234, 237–44, 271–3 feature-detection theories 235–7 template-matching hypothesis 234 PCP 769–70 peer tutoring 583–4 Penfield homunculus 56, 60–1 perception 74, 246, 329 see also perceptual abilities development; social perception consciousness, and 110 cues 249–50 depth perception 249, 274, 277 direct perception 258–62 external reality, of 22 face recognition 238–9 form perception 246–7 grouping 247–9 illusions 251–6 movement 255 people vs objects 363–4 perceptual constancy 249–51, 256–7 perceptual organisation principles 2, 246–51, 262 spatial 24 theories 255–8, 260–2, 271 top-down vs bottom-up 246, 255–6, 261–2 perceptual abilities development animal experiments 265, 267–8 babies’ visual perception 265, 270–6 cataract patients 58, 265–7 cross-cultural studies 265, 276–8 nature-nurture debate 255, 264–5, 278–9 study types/methods 264–5, 268–70 perceptual restructuring 331 peripheral attention 107–8 peripheral nervous system (PNS) 52–3 peripheral traits 368 peripheralism 302–3 person-centred therapy (PCT) 5, 22 personal construct theory 724–5, 818 personal growth model 656 personal unconscious 730–2 personality 5, 10, 713–14 Big Five model 723–4 INDEX NMDA transmitters 769–70 nomothetic approach 713–15 non-adversary problems 329–30 non-compensatory models 335 non-shared environments 14, 876–7 non-specific factors, therapy 800–1 non-verbal behaviour 323, 364, 379, 401, 611 noradrenaline 54, 69, 209, 784 NREM sleep 114 obedience 4, 431 compliance and conformity 446–7 influences on 451–544, 455, 458–9 studies 448–58, 841–2 obesity 150–1, 196–7 object permanence 309, 318, 532, 563, 571, 575 objectification 366 objective-consensus approach 442 objective reality 26 objectivity 37, 44–5 oblique factor analysis 717 observational learning 20, 491–6, 602–3 obsessive-compulsive disorders 744, 755–8 occital lobe 59–60, 63, 76, 80 occupational psychology 5–6, 8–9 Oedipus complex 19, 590–3, 727–8 oestrogen 70 offenders see criminal behaviour old age ageism 657–9 bereavement 666–9 cognitive/intelligence changes 659–61 social changes 661–6 stereotyping 656–7, 658–9, 661 theories 656, 659, 661–5 oligodendrocytes 55 online disinhibition effect 500 online relationships 465–6 ontogenesis 13 open-loop control 231 open skills 523 987 9781471829734.indb 987 04/05/15 9:51 AM INDEX biological basis 720 cognitive-affective person system 717 consciousness vs unconsciousness 730–2 consistency controversy 713, 715–16 criminal behaviour, and 809–14 development, influences on 21 drugs, influences of 720–1 hardiness 211–12 humanistic theories 21–2.713– 714, 725–6 introversion vs extroversion 719–20, 722, 731 locus of control theory 155, 211, 723 neuroticism 719–20, 722, 727 nomothetic vs idiographic theories 714–17 personal construct theory 724–5, 818 psychodynamic theories 2, 726–31 psychometric theories 713, 717–24 questionnaires 719–20 self-perception 731–3 self theory 726 situationism 716–17 stress, and 210–12 type and trait theories 713–24 personality disorders 745 personification 366 perspective-taking 576–7 persuasive communication 394, 400–1 pertinence model 217, 221–2 phallic stage, psychosexual development 591 phantom limb phenomenon 61–2, 202 pharmacology 17, 125 phasic alertness 106–7 phenomenological psychology 21–2, 364 phenotype 874–5, 878, 881 phenyllketonuria (PKU) 878 phi phenomenon 255 philosophy 1–2, 21, 37, 40, 589 phobias conditioned responses, as 179– 80, 185, 791 phobic disorders 755–7 therapies 20, 179, 792 phonemes 315 phonological loop 228, 292–3 phonology 315 phylogenesis 13 physiological model of stress 204 physiological needs 144–5 physiological pyschology pineal body/gland 70, 112 pituitary gland 62, 68 PKU 878 place learning theory 186 placebo effect 55, 800 play 153–4 gender development 610–11, 615 playfulness and humour 580–1 representational play 571 pleasure principle 145, 589 pluralistic ignorance 506 Poggendorf illusion 252 Pollyanna principle 386 polyamory/polyandry 463 polygamy 462 polysomnography 113 pons 52, 59, 63–4 Ponzo illusion 252, 256 positive regard 561, 781 positivism 21, 37, 40 positron emission tomography (PET) 58 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 356, 744, 755, 759–61, 784 postconventional morality 596–8 postnatal depression 808 Potentiality for fascism (F) scale 414–15 poverty 538, 708, 806 and cognitive capacity 228, 705–6, 820 environmental influences 136, 640, 708, 876–7 practitioner-patient relationship 201 prägnanz 247 pre-conscious thoughts 19, 106–7 pre-operational stage, cognitive development 570–8, 598 precognition 90, 95 prejudice 4, 20, 411–13 ageism 657–9 anti-Semitism 413–14, 418 authoritarian personalities 413–15, 418–19 influences on 418–21, 424–6 institutionalised 413 measurement of 397–8 mirror-image phenomenon 369–71, 425 outgroups 375, 424–5 racism 412–13, 419, 423, 511 reducing, approaches to 425–7 scapegoats 418 sexism 412, 826–9 stereotyping, and 427–8 studies 388–9, 416–17 theories of 413–28, 481 premenstrual dysphoric disorder 743 preparedness 185, 757, 791 prescience 42, 44 primary reinforcers 181, 532, 795 prioprioception 75–6 privation 543–7 problem-focused coping 213 problem-solving 4, 329–34 see also decision-making behaviourist approaches 330–2 information-processing approach 332–4 problem types 329–31, 334 sleep, and 115 thinking, types of 330–1 procedural memory 291–2 progesterone 70 programmed learning 17 propaganda 394, 404, 414, 428, 813 propioceptors 75–6 prosocial behaviour 503–4 see also altruism bystander intervention 503–13, 516 emotional influences 600–1 prosocial moral reasoning 598–601 television influences on 516–17 universal egoism, and 512–13, 516 988 9781471829734.indb 988 04/05/15 9:51 AM psychomotor disorders 767 psychoneurimmunology 210 psychopathology 755 anxiety disorders 5, 755 depressive and bipolar disorders 755, 760–5 eating disorders 772–6 obsessive-compulsive disorders 744, 755–8 phobic disorders 755–7 schizophrenia 5, 14, 478, 741, 743, 755, 765–72 stress and trauma disorders 356, 744, 755, 759–60 psychopathy 810–14 psychophysics 76 psychosexual development 19, 590–3 psychosexual disorders 827 psychosocial acceleration theory 626 psychosocial theory 18–19 psychostimulants 781 psychotherapeutic drugs 125 psychotherapy 6–7, 780 see also treatments and therapies puberty 623–6 public self 555 pyramidal system 63 Q-sort measurement 22 race see also racism altruism, and 510–11 eyewitness testimony 350 intelligence, and 708–10 language and thought, and 302, 309 measurement of 339–98 self-identity development 640 stereotyping 374–8 studies 831 racism 412–13, 419, 423 aversive racism 423, 511 radical behaviourism 16–18, 40, 860, 866 radioactive labelling 57–8 random-event generator (REG) 97 rape 487, 814 rapid eye movements see REM sleep rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) 20, 24–5 rationalisation 728 rationalism 37, 145 re-engagement theory 662––663 reaction formation 728 realistic group conflict theory 420––421 reality principle 590 recency effect 288 receptive fields 79–80 reciprocal altruism theory 513 reciprocal inhibition 791–2 reciprocity, norm of 380, 446–7, 478, 594 recognition-by-compotent model 235–6 recovered memories 345, 357–60 recurrent spontaneous PK (RSPK) 90 recursion 322 reductionism 15–16, 27, 48, 862–8 mind-body problem 864–6 mind-brain relationships 862, 864–8 referent social influence 440 refrigerator-parenting hypothesis 681 regression 728 reification 10, 730 reinforcement theory 16–17, 407 relationship breakdown causes 478–81 divorce 478–81, 540–1, 645–8 post-marital relationships 482 stages 481–2 relationships see interpersonal relationships relative deprivation theory 419–20 relived emotion method 167 REM rebound 118–19 REM sleep 109, 113–22 repertory grid test 724–5 repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) 676 representation enactive vs iconic mode 303 social representations 366–8 representativeness heuristics 336 INDEX voluntariness 515 prosopagnosia 241–3 proto-conversation 323 proximity 248, 469 Prozac 782–3 psi research studies 94–6, 100–1 psyche 1, 730–2 psychoactive substances 125 psychoanalytic theory 2, 18–21 analysis of 727–30 attachment theories 532–4 dreams 726–7 ego defence mechanisms 727–9 Electra complex 591–2 id, ego and superego 589–92, 727–9 moral development 589–93 neurotic symptoms 727 Oedipus complex 19, 590–3, 727–8 personality, and 2, 726–31 pleasure principle 145, 589 psychic apparatus 589–90 psychosexual development 19, 590–3 psychobiology see biopsychology psychodynamic psychology 18–21, 726 interpretation and resistance 788–9 moral development 589–93 motivation, and 143 neuropsychoanalysis 20, 729 personality, and 2, 726–31 treatments and therapies 787–90 psychokinesis (PK) 90 psycholinguistics 314 psychological abnormality classification 722, 742–52 cultural influences 746–9 definitions 722, 736–42, 737 deviation, types of 736–8 diagnosis 740–2, 749–50 external influences 741–2 free will, and 857 medical model for 740–1 organic mental disorders 742 theories 751–2 psychological reactance 155, 856 psychometric testing 7–8, 828 psychometric theories 689–93, 713, 717–24 989 9781471829734.indb 989 04/05/15 9:51 AM INDEX repression 19, 728 memory, of 355–7, 360–1 respondent conditioning 148, 176–9 restoration theory of sleep 118–19 reticular activating system (RAS) 62–3, 106 retirement 665–6 reverse learning theory of dreaming 121 reward theory 469 rhodopsin 79, 84 right vs left lateralisation 15, 32–3, 65, 67–8 risky shift phenomenon 442–3 rites of passage 628–30 Robber’s cave experiment 420, 426 role confusion 629, 639, 828 Rubin’s vase 247, 251 S-R learning 187 S-R psychology 17, 187 safety needs 21–2, 144–5, 156 salience 126, 130, 664 salivation 69, 148, 176–8 same-sex relationships attraction 476 parenthood and families 464–5, 550–1, 653 studies 416–17, 476 satiety 147–50 savants 672, 674–6 scaffolding 583–4 scapegoats 418 schema theory of memory 345–6 schemas 229–30, 345 causal schemata 388–9 functions 569–70 reconstructive memory, and 347–8 schizophrenia 5, 14, 54, 478, 741, 743, 755 diagnosis 765–8 symptoms 766–8 theories 370, 562, 768–72, 770–1 therapies and treatments 784–5, 798 twin studies 14, 770 scientist-practitioner model of helping 850–1 scotopic vision 79 secondary reinforcement 181, 532, 794–5 secondary sex characteristics 623–4 selective attention 63, 219–22 self-actualisation 21–3, 144–5 self-consciousness 106, 554–8 self-enhancement 555 self-esteem 555–7, 561–2 self-fulfilling prophecies 376, 471, 565–6 selfish gene theory 31 semantic differentials 397 semantics 315 sensation-seeking scale 520 sense organs 75–6 sense receptors 75–6 sensory deprivation 155 sensory experience 37 sensory neurons 51–2, 65, 76 sensory overload 155, 224, 256 sensory processes 74–5, 81–3 sensory-specific satiety 148–50 sensory thresholds 76 separation anxiety 540 serial position effect 287–8 serial processing 217 serial recall 219, 286 serial reproduction 346–8 serotonin 54, 113 serotonin reuptake inhibitors 763, 781–2 Seroxat 782 sex roles 607, 616 sex typing 607, 616 sexism 412, 826–9 sexual dysfunctional disorders 745 sexual identity 606 see also gender development biological development 610 gender identity disorder 606–7 learned identity 613 sex roles and sex typing 607, 616 sexual dimorphism 30 sexual orientation 793 gay and lesbian relationships 464–5 human rights 417 mental disorder, and 738, 793 prejudice 412 sexual selection theory, and 476 study trends 416–17 sexual selection theory 33, 474–6, 614 sexuality see also gender development; sexual orientation shadowing 218 shape constancy 250–1, 275–6 shape recognition 82, 305 shared environments 14, 876–7 shift work 204 sign learning theory 186 signal detection theory 76 similarity-attraction theory 470 single-channel theory, attention 219–23 single-photon/positron emission computerised tomography (SPECT) 58 situationism 714–17 size constancy 250, 256–7, 274–5 Skinner box 18, 180–1, 184 sleep consciousness 109 disorders 113, 132, 745 dreaming 116–17, 119 functions 115–16 memory, and 116, 122, 132, 296 physiology of 112–13 REM sleep 109, 113–22 sleep-wake cycle 63, 70, 111–12, 204–5 stages 113–15, 120 theories 118–20 types 113–14, 120 sleep debt 112, 120 sleep deprivation 112, 117–18, 120 sleep paralysis 93 sleeping sickness 768 smoking 130–2 social brain hypothesis 33 social categorisation theory 375 social class 302, 309 social cognition 23, 186, 363 criticisms 365–6 990 9781471829734.indb 990 04/05/15 9:51 AM stereotyping 20, 336, 364, 366, 372–8 theories 369, 372, 375 Social Readjustment Rating Scale 205–6, 211 social reality hypothesis 437 social representation theory 27, 30 social validation 446–7 socially generated drive 524 socially sensitive research 843–4 socio-emotional selectivity theory 663–5 sociobiology 31, 513, 862 somatotrophin 70 special educational needs see learning difficulties specific serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) 140, 763, 781–2, 782–4, 821 speech see also language structure of 314–15, 321–2 therapies, for autism 794 types 302, 311, 317–18 spina bifida 686 spinal cord 52–3, 64–5, 167 spiritualism 89, 102 split brains 56, 65–7 split-span procedures 219 spontaneous recovery 178, 184, 798–9 sport and exercise psychology 4, 11, 519–20 group cohesion 527–9 group performance 526–9 social facilitation 521–6 social inhibition 526–7 social loafing 526–7 theories 522–5 Standard Social Science Model 30 Stanford-Binet IQ test 696–7, 709 Stanford prison experiment 455–8 stereopsis 249 stereotyping 404, 411 attractiveness 470–1 gender 607, 609, 617 memory 375–6, 661 old age 658–9, 661 prejudice 427–8 self-definition 565 social perception 20, 336, 364, 366, 372–8 stimulants 129, 132, 133–4, 720–1 stimulus-value-role theory 469 storm and stress theory 626–8 Strange Situation test 536–8 stress 203–4, 207 biofeedback 17, 214 causes 204–7, 648 chronic 209–10, 212, 766 coping strategies 211, 213–14 disorders 744, 755 effects of 192, 207–12 hassles and uplifts 206–7 influences on 210–12 strokes 61, 65, 68, 134, 190, 787 structuralism 1, 38, 44 structure of intellect model 692–3 subjective contours 253 sublimation 728 subliminal advertising 405 sucker effect 526–7 suicide 667, 762 suicide bombers 813–14 summation 54, 79 superconducting quantum imaging/interference device (SQUID) 58 superimposition 250 superstition 758 supervisory attention system (SAS) 229–30, 293 superego 589–92, 727–9 surface traits 717–18, 722 surrogacy 533, 543, 550–1 suspension bridge experiment 169–71 sympathetic nervous system (SNS) 52, 68–9, 77, 207–9, 720 synaesthesia 1, 83–4 synapses 52–5 synaptic homeostatis hypothesis (SHY) 116–17 syncretic thought 572 syntax 315 synthesis models 228 systematic desensitisation 20, 179, 791–2, 852 systematic processing theory 401–2 tabula rasa 39, 264 INDEX health behaviour models, and 192–3 social cognitive training 798 social comparison theory 437, 461–2 social constructionism 26–8, 30, 161 aggression 497 language and thought 302–3 theories of self 555, 559–60 social desirability 385–7 social disengagement theory 661–3 social dominance theory 415, 481 social exchange theory 468, 477–8, 663 social facilitation 521–6 social identity theory 421–4, 426–8, 457 social impact theory 526 social influences conformity 431–40, 443–4 majority/minority influence 431–42 normal vs informational 437–40 risky shift phenomenon 442–3 self-categorisation, and 439–40, 443 social inhibition 526–7 social interaction theory 323 social learning theory 23, 186 gender development 615–16 media aggression 491–6 moral development 602–3 observational learning 20, 602–3 self-efficacy 603 social loafing 431, 526–7 social neuroscience 370–1 social penetration theory 380 social perception 4, 363–4, 366 attribution effect 171, 383 central vs peripheral traits 368 halo effect 368, 372 impression management 377–9, 408 mirror-image phenomenon 369–71, 425 objectification 366 physical appearance 372–7 self-disclosure 379–80 self-monitoring 378–9 social interactions, role of 26–7 social representations 366–8 991 9781471829734.indb 991 04/05/15 9:51 AM Tourette’s syndrome 855 trace theory of forgetting 295–6 trait theories 713–24 transactional analysis (TA) 20 transactional model, stress 204 transactionalism 260 transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) 140, 243, 676 transducers 75–6 transductive reasoning 572 transience 297 transsexuals 606–7, 619 treatments and therapies 779 behavioural 790–5 biological 780–7 chemotherapy 780–5 client-centred therapy 22, 780, 799, 861 cognitive-behavioural 795–7 directive/non-directive 779–80 electroconvulsive 785–7 evaluation of 797–801 medical model 779 meta-analysis 799 placebo effect 55, 800 psychoanalysis/psychodynamic 780, 787–90 qualitative vs quantitative 801 scientist-practitioner model 779 triadic reciprocal causation 872 triarchic theory 693–4 tricyclics 763, 781–2 Turing test 339–41 twin studies 14 autism 383, 679 intelligence 701–4 nature-nurture debate 878, 880–1 schizophrenia 14, 770 two-factor theory, intelligence 183, 690–1 two-word stage 317–19 type theory personality 713–24 Type A/Type C personalities 210–11 ultradian cycles 106, 113–15 uncommon effects analysis 384–5 unconscious thoughts 19, 106 cognitive unconscious 107–8 personality, and 729, 731–2 unilateral visual neglect 224–5 unipolar depressive disorder 743, 755, 761–5 universal egoism 512–13, 516 uplifts scale 206–7 utility-probability model 335 vasopressin 56, 70 vegetative state 108–9 violence see aggression visual co-orientation 323 visual cortex 59–60, 80–3 visual perception 256–62 visual scanning 236 visual search procedure 223–4 visuo-spatial scratch pad 228, 292 VMH syndrome 149–50 voluntary attentional vigilance 225 voluntary relationships 462–4 waist-to-hip ratio 475 weak central coherence 683–4 weapons effect 490–1 Weber-Fechner law 76 Wernicke’s area 60 Weschler tests 696 Wiseman-Schlitz tests 102 withdrawal 127, 131, 133, 784 working alliance 781, 789 working memory 228–9, 281, 292–3 Young-Helmholz trichomatic theory 84–5 zone of proximal development 583–4 INDEX task cohesion 528 taste aversion 148, 184–5 team cohesion 528 telepathy 90, 94–5 template-matching hypothesis 234 temporal lobe 59–60, 63, 76 terror management theory 156 terrorism 813–14, 858 testicular feminising syndrome 608, 610, 612 testosterone 70 thalmus 52, 62–4 thanatos 486 thematic apperception text (TAT) 155–6 theory of mind artificial intelligence 339–42 autism 370, 681–4 schizophrenia 370, 771 Theory of Planned Behaviour 192, 195, 198–9 Theory of Reasoned Action 192, 195, 199, 399 therapeutic relationships 729–30, 779 therapies see treatments and therapies thirst 143, 146, 258 thought processes see also decisionmaking; language and thought; problem-solving right vs brain lateralisation 67–8 types 19–20, 67, 106–7, 330–1, 729 threat simulation theory 122 three components model 398 tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon 297 token economy therapy 794–6, 852 top-down vs bottom-up perceptual theory 246, 255–6, 261–2 992 9781471829734.indb 992 04/05/15 9:51 AM ... to the study of mental processes This was reflected in James’s (1890) definition of Psychology as: THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY the Science of Mental Life, both of its phenomena and of their... personal way about why they asked the questions they did The methods they used, and the stories behind their research, will help you explain and evaluate the impact of their own and others’ work in this... understand the major studies and theories Trobriand Island boys and their fathers (Malinowski, 1929) ● Among the Trobriand Islanders of Papua New Guinea, boys were traditionally disciplined by their