Introduction to Psychology Douglas S Krull Kona Publishing and Media Group Higher Education Division Charlotte, North Carolina www.konapublishing.com Design: Rokusek Design Copyright © 2014 Kona Publishing and Media Group All rights reserved No part of this publication can be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photography, or any informational storage and retrieval system, without permission from the publisher ISBN: 978-1-935987-42-0 Chapter One Introduction, History, and Research Methods iii contents Preface ix About the Author x Acknowledgments x chapter Introduction, History, and Research Methods INTRODUCTION HOW TO SUCCEED OR FAIL chapter Biological Psychology 41 WHAT IS BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY? 41 HISTORY AND OVERVIEW OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 42 IN INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY THE MIND-BODY PROBLEM 42 Perspectives in Psychology Specialities in Psychology Career Settings in Psychology CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 43 HISTORY RESEARCH METHODS 12 Theories, Hypotheses, and Science in General 12 Basic and Applied Research 14 Generating Ideas 15 Some Descriptive Statistics 16 Descriptive Research 18 Correlational Research 19 Experimental Research 23 Internal Validity and External Validity 28 Correlational and Experimental Research Revisited 33 P-values, Significance, and Inferential Statistics 33 Meta-Analysis 34 BEING A RESEARCH PARTICIPANT 35 HAVE NO FEAR! CRITICAL THINKING IS HERE! 36 Neurons 43 Glia 46 THE FIRING OF ACTION POTENTIALS 48 The Resting State 48 Ready, Aim, Fire! 50 Stimulus Intensity 51 Propagation Down the Axon 52 Speed of Conduction 52 SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION 53 Neurotransmitters 54 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 57 DIVISIONS OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 59 THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 60 The Spinal Cord 60 The Cerebrospinal Fluid and the Ventricles 62 THE BRAIN 62 Localization of Function and Phrenology 62 The Hindbrain 63 iii iv Contents The Midbrain 64 The Forebrain 65 Hemispheric Specialization 70 INVESTIGATING THE BRAIN 74 GENETICS AND BEHAVIORAL GENETICS 75 Evolutionary Psychology 83 chapter Sensation, Perception, and Attention 85 SENSATION VERSUS PERCEPTION 85 ADAPTATION 86 THRESHOLDS 86 Absolute Thresholds 86 Signal Detection Theory 87 The Just Noticeable Difference (JND) and Weber’s Law 88 SUBLIMINAL PERCEPTION 89 SENSATION 89 The Visual System 89 Common Eye Disorders 91 Composition of the Retina 92 Color and Color Vision 93 The Retina and Beyond 96 THE AUDITORY SYSTEM 97 Sound 97 Structures of the Ear 98 Detection of Pitch 101 From the Ear to the Cortex 103 The Vestibular Sense 103 THE SOMATOSENSORY SENSES 104 Touch 104 Pain 108 THE GUSTATORY SENSE: TASTE 109 THE OLFACTORY SENSE: SMELL 111 PERCEPTION 113 Gestalt Princicples 116 Depth Perception 117 Perception Across Senses 121 ATTENTION 122 Selective Attention 122 Divided Attention 124 Sustained Attention 126 chapter Learning 127 INTRODUCTION 127 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 128 Pavlov and His Amazing Salavating Dogs 129 Classical Conditioning Terminology 129 Factors that Affect Conditioning – Order of the CS/US 132 Factors that Affect Conditioning – Relationship Between the CS and US 133 Factors that Affect Conditioning – Intensity of the CS/US 134 Generalization and Discrimination 135 Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, and Renewal 136 What is Learned in Conditioning? S-R or S-S? 137 Classical Conditioning Phenomena Applications 139 INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING 147 Thorndike and His Amazing Puzzle-Solving Cats 147 B F Skinner and Operant/Instrumental Conditioning 148 Instrumental Conditioning Versus Classical Conditioning 148 Instrumental Conditioning Terminology 149 Spanking 150 Primary and Secondary Reinforcers 151 Effectiveness of Reinforcement and Punishment 151 Extinction and the Extinction Burst 152 Discriminative Stimuli 153 Shaping and Chaining 153 Schedules of Reinforcement 155 Choices Between Behaviors 157 Behavior Analysis Perspective 158 Instinctive Drift 159 Applications 160 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING 162 Distinguishing Observational Learning from Other Phenomena 163 Real Observational Learning 164 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory 164 Applications 165 ANIMAL COGNITION 166 Spatial Abilities 166 Communication and Language 169 Tool Use 171 chapter Cognitive Psychology 173 MEMORY 173 Sensory Memory 174 Short-term memory 175 Working memory 176 Long-Term Memory 179 Forgetting 186 Flashbulb Memory 188 Eyewitness Memory 188 The Recovered Memory Controversy 192 Memory Improvement 193 Metamemory 195 Organic Amnesia 196 THINKING 198 Problem Solving 198 Problem Solving in the Gestalt Tradition 199 Problem Solving Strategies 201 Reasoning 203 Heuristics and Biases in Decision-Making 209 Prospect Theory and Economic Decision-Making 214 Frontal Lobe Damage and Thinking Disorders 215 chapter Motivation and Emotion 219 PERSPECTIVES ON MOTIVATION 219 I Instincts 220 II Drive 220 III Arousal 221 IV Incentives 221 V Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 223 HUNGER AND EATING 224 Hunger and eating – biological factors 225 Hunger and eating – social factors 226 AGGRESSION 227 Aggression – biological factors 228 Aggression – social factors - culture 230 Contents v Aggression – social factors - media 231 Aggression – social factors - situations 234 Cognitive Mechanisms 236 Overcoming Aggression 240 SEX 242 Sexual behavior – biological factors 242 Sexual behavior – social factors 244 Gender 247 Sexually transmitted disease 249 Sexual orientation 250 EMOTION 254 Universal emotions 254 Theories of emotion 255 Neuroscience of Emotion 258 Affective Forecasting 259 Happiness 260 chapter Development 263 Research Methods 264 Organization of This Chapter 266 BIOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 267 Genetics and Behavioral Genetics 267 Prenatal Development 271 Physical Development in Childhood 274 Puberty 279 Young Adulthood 280 Middle Adulthood 281 Late Adulthood 282 Theories of Aging 282 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 283 Language Development 283 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 285 Assimilation and Accommodation 291 Adolescent Egocentrism 291 Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development 292 The Information Processing Perspective 292 Kohlberg’s Model of Moral Development 293 Cognitive Development in Young and Middle Adulthood 295 Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood 296 vi Contents SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 298 Erikson’s Psychosocial Model 298 Development of Emotions 299 Attachment 300 Parenting Styles 301 Peers 302 Identity 303 Socioemotional Development in Adulthood 306 chapter Personality and Individual Differences 313 PERSONALITY MEASUREMENT 314 Reliability 315 Validity 318 Bias 320 THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE 321 Freud’s Model of Mind and Structure of Personality 322 Psychosexual Stages of Development 323 Anxiety and Defense Mechanisms 325 Psychoanalysis 329 Evaluating Freud 329 NEO-FREUDIANS 330 Jung 331 Adler 332 Horney 332 Personality Versus the Situation 348 Evaluating the Trait Perspective 350 THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE 350 Genes 350 Extroversion and Eysenck’s Theory 351 Brain Asymmetry 351 Male-Female Differences 352 Evaluating the Biological Perspective 353 INTELLIGENCE 354 Theories of Intelligence 354 Intelligence Testing 355 chapter Psychological Disorders and Treatments 359 Diagnosis of Psychological Disorders 359 MODELS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 363 ANXIETY DISORDERS 368 Comorbidity 380 MOOD DISORDERS 380 Suicide 389 SCHIZOPHRENIA 390 DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS 397 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 400 PERSONALITY DISORDERS 401 THE LEARNING, SOCIAL LEARNING, AND COGNITIVE SOCIAL LEARNING PERSPECTIVE 333 Miller and Dollard 334 Rotter 335 Bandura 336 Mischel 337 Evaluating the Learning Perspective 338 THE HUMANISTIC, EXISTENTIAL, AND PHENOMENOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE 339 Abraham Maslow 340 Carl Rogers 340 Victor Frankl 341 George Kelly and Personal Constructs 342 Evaluating the Humanistic, Existential, and Phenomenological Perspective 343 THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVE 344 chapter 10 Health Psychology 405 INTRODUCTION 405 RESEARCH METHODS IN HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY 406 Healthy Behaviors 407 THEORIES ABOUT HEALTH BEHAVIOR 408 PROMOTING HEALTHY BEHAVIOR 410 Promoting Healthy Behavior – Attitude Change 410 Promoting Healthy Behavior – Behavioral and Cognitive Treatments 412 The Danger of Relapse 413 Social Engineering 413 NUTRITION 414 EXERCISE 415 SLEEP 417 OBESITY 419 Causes of obesity 421 Losing weight 423 chapter 12 Psychology of Religion 501 INTRODUCTION 502 HISTORY 506 EATING DISORDERS 425 RESEARCH METHODS 509 SMOKING 427 BIOLOGY 516 Smoking Cessation and Prevention 429 ALCOHOL ABUSE 431 Alcohol Abuse Treatment and Prevention 433 STRESS 434 Theories About Stress 435 Predictors of Stress 437 How Does Stress Cause Disease? 439 Coping With Stress 440 CORONARY HEART DISEASE 442 COPING WITH CHRONIC DISEASE 445 PATIENTS, PROVIDERS, AND TREATMENT 446 chapter 11 Social Psychology 451 THE SELF 451 Positive Illusions and Biases 454 Self-Esteem 456 Self-Regulation 457 Self-Presentation 458 ATTRIBUTION 460 ATTRACTION AND RELATIONSHIPS 466 HELPING 470 Genes and Religiosity 516 Biology and Mystical and Religious Experience 517 SENSATION/PERCEPTION/ATTENTION, COGNITION, LEARNING, AND MOTIVATION/EMOTION 522 DEVELOPMENT 524 Religious Thinking 524 Parenting Style 524 Parents and Peers in the Development of Religiosity 525 Attachment 526 Identity Development 528 Marriage 529 PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 529 Religiosity and the Big Five 529 Terror Management 530 Moral Frameworks 533 Gender Differences in Religiosity 534 PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH 535 Scrupulosity 537 PHYSICAL HEALTH 539 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 540 Self-Control 540 Helping Behavior 540 Prejudice and Discrimination 543 STEREOTYPING AND PREJUDICE 475 INFLUENCE 484 ATTITUDES 490 GROUPS 496 Contents Index 547 References 567 vii 616 References Rosch, E (1976) Basic objects in natural categories Cognitive Psychology, 8(3), 382-439 doi:10.1016/0010-0285(76)90013-X Rosen, E F., Brown, A., Braden, J., & Dorsett, H W (1993) African-American males prefer a larger female body silhouette than Whites Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 31(6), 599-601 Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=1994-13392-001&site=ehost-live Rosenbaum, J E (2009) Patient teenagers? 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1477-1481 doi:10.1126/science.1124755 ... good capstone for introductory psychology because many of the topics in introductory psychology are also topics in the psychology of religion More could be said, but let me encourage you to read... Acknowledgments x chapter Introduction, History, and Research Methods INTRODUCTION HOW TO SUCCEED OR FAIL chapter Biological Psychology 41 WHAT IS BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY? 41 HISTORY AND OVERVIEW OF... when we get to methods) Introduction, History, and Research Methods HOW TO SUCCEED OR FAIL IN INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY Before we go on, let me address one issue that might be important to you I’m