Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com THE FACTS ON FILE MARINE SCIENCE HANDBOOK SCOTT MCCUTCHEON and BOBBI MCCUTCHEON www.Ebook777.com The Facts On File Marine Science Handbook Copyright © 2003 by Scott McCutcheon and Bobbi McCutcheon All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher For information contact: Facts On File, Inc 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data McCutcheon, Scott The Facts on File marine science handbook / Scott McCutcheon and Bobbi McCutcheon p cm — (the Facts on File science handbooks) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-8160-4812-6 (acid-free paper) Marine sciences — Handbooks, manuals, etc I McCutcheon, Bobbi II Title, III Series GC24.M43 2003 551.46 — dc21 2003000275 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at 212/967-8800 or 800/322-8755 You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Cover design by Cathy Rincon Illustrations by Bobbi McCutcheon and Scott McCutcheon, © Facts On File Printed in the United States of America VB Hermitage 10 This book is printed on acid-free paper CONTENTS Acknowledgments Preface Introduction iv iv vi SECTION ONE Glossary SECTION TWO Biographies 143 SECTION THREE Chronology 211 SECTION FOUR Charts & Tables 243 APPENDIXES: Prefixes and Suffixes Recommended Reading and Useful Websites INDEX 258 260 263 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We the authors would like to thank the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and their staff members for generously providing much of the information and many of the photos herein Also, we extend our gratitude to the Alaska Lighthouse Association for freely donating their time and materials Additionally, we would like to express our deepest appreciation Frank K Darmstadt, Senior Editor, Facts On File, for his invaluable guidance throughout the entire bookmaking process, Copy Editor Susan Thornton, and the entire Facts On File staff for their time and energies in the development of this project PREFACE Who are we? Where we come from? These are two of humankind’s most asked questions Though scientists differ on the answer, one that still yearns to be solved irrefutably, there is one fact we know with certainty: where there is water there is life Marine science is the ultimate requisite when exploring and understanding the world in which we live Within our solar system, Earth is the only body to have not only enough water to support life, but also enough to foster virtually millions of species, many of which are still waiting to be revealed One finds it fascinating that we as human beings live each day above the unassuming seas while beneath them in reality lies a hidden ecosystem teeming with creatures and vegetation so bizarre they really seem to be inhabitants of another world Some consider space the final frontier; yet the oceans of Earth are just as mysterious, and as far as we have come in understanding them, there is still so much to be discovered What would we give to know intimately and thoroughly our planet’s aquatic habitats? Descending to extreme depths in the vast waters of our world’s front yard demands equipment and technology as complex and advanced as those that travel into outer space And what is our primary goal of nearly each rocket mission that powers its way into our solar system to rendezvous with another world? Primarily to search for one important element: water And if on another world, one as close as Mars iv www.Ebook777.com Preface or the moons of Jupiter, we were to find liquid water, and with it perhaps ancient or newly forming life, it would undoubtedly generate a staffed mission What if the most important person on that future mission were the marine biologist? What if that biologist were you? But how can we begin to understand water-generated life on other worlds without first grasping the secrets of our own? This primer on marine science is the perfect start Within these pages designed especially for you can be found a selected list of easy-to-follow terms, descriptions, drawings, biographies of the great people who have made historic contributions in marine science, a chronology of exploration and research, and straightforward charts to augment the terms and definitions There appear to be many very separate areas of science, but as we grow and each distinct caste becomes clear, we find that all science is tied together Given the fact that three-quarters of Earth’s surface is covered in water, one cannot wonder why marine science is at the forefront of curiosity We believe that in order to conquer the mysteries of our world, humankind must look first toward the sea Preface v INTRODUCTION GLOSSARY This list contains almost 1,500 entries: alphabetically listed terms and their definitions used in the field of marine science, often accompanied by a graph or chart to clarify meanings A well-equipped and easily understood glossary within arm’s reach is essential for any field of study BIOGRAPHIES Throughout the history of the systematic study of the oceans, many great people have stood on the shoulders of their eminent predecessors to broaden knowledge about our marine environment These early to modern sailors and scientists began the process that allows today’s mind to understand more fully our greatest nurturer of life, the oceans Listed here are close to 250 of the most renowned of those people, along with many less familiar individuals who have earned recognition for their selfless efforts and principal contributions in the study of marine science CHRONOLOGY On an evolutionary scale, the discovery of science and technology has evolved on Earth in the twinkle of an eye, but in human terms, for the most part, it has not been what anyone could call fast paced Patience must sometimes be employed; yet the rewards are great, and each exciting breakthrough inevitably causes change, however gradual Nearly 200 entries are listed here, providing a general historical account of oceanic explorations and marine research spanning 6,000 years, events that have helped revolutionize civilized humanity’s understanding of the sea CHARTS AND TABLES Reliable information is the key to basic knowledge, and few methods work better than use of charts or graphs in enhancing understanding of new material For quick reference this primer offers a valuable resource of charts and tables dealing with the important, fundamental facts of our aquatic environment such as the tides in relationship to the Earth, Moon, and Sun; major shipping routes; examples of ocean food chains; and global wind circulation and oceanic surface currents vi SECTION ONE GLOSSARY GLOSSARY abaft – acidic abaft Behind A nautical term meaning toward the stern (rear) of a boat abalone A primitive, univalve gastropod found on the rocky shores of warm and temperate seas, except the western Atlantic Ocean We value them for their large, edible foot and the mother-of-pearl lining in their shells, which commonly is used to make decorative items such as jewelry Abalones constitute the family Haliotidae, in the order Archaeogastropoda, class Gastropoda, phylum Mollusca, kingdom Animalia abdomen In a TETRAPOD, the portion of its body between the thorax and pelvic girdle In an ARTHROPOD, the region of its body behind the thorax It contains the visceral (internal) organs abeam A nautical term meaning at a right angle to a ship’s keel, yet not on the ship abiotic The nonexistence of life, or nonbiological abyssal hills Low, undersea hills characteristic only of the deep sea Mainly, they rise from about 10 to 750 feet (3–228 m) high and range anywhere from a few hundred feet to a few miles wide abyssal plain abyssal plain Also known as basins or ocean basins, these are flat expanses of the deep seafloor that slope less than one part in 1,000 and typically exist between the base of abyssal hills and the continental slope Many basins and plains are identified in this book abyssopelagic zone The lightless area of open ocean beneath the BATHYPELAGIC ZONE, existing at about 12,000 to 20,000 feet (3,657–6,096 m) Examples of sea creatures adapted to such depths are deep-water eels, such as gulpers; deep-sea anglers; and stomiatoids acanthodians A group of the earliest known true jawed fishes from the Lower Silurian to the Lower Permian period They were sharklike and had spines on their bodies acetosporan A simple PROTOZOAN, parasitic on marine invertebrates, that is characterized as having multicellular spores It can cause diseases and mass mortality acicula Needlelike supporting bristle existing in the PARAPODIA of some (worms) It can also exist in the form of crystals of certain minerals POLYCHAETES abyssopelagic zone acidic GLOSSARY A term descriptive of a substance having acidlike qualities and possessing a relatively large number of hydrogen ions; having a pH less than 7.0 abaft – acidic Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com acoustic oceanography – aerobic GLOSSARY acoustic oceanography A study of ocean topology by way of sound waves, ranging from the earliest use of depth sounding to today’s use of sonar acoustics The technology and science of sound, its generation, transmission, reception, and effect In oceanography, acoustics plays an important role because sound waves are capable of traveling long distances unimpeded through water, bouncing off an object, and then returning to the source acoustic tomography By means of computer analysis, this technique is used in oceanic research to create images from data collected when acoustic signals are passed through an object Ocean floor mapping programs make good use of this technology acrorhagi NEMATOCYST-armed defensive structures of sea anemones Actinopoda Phylum of the radiolarians and heliozoans, within the kingdom Protozoa actual evaporation The amount of water evaporated from a somehow limited water supply See POTENTIAL EVAPORATION Aden, Gulf of A deep oceanic area centered at about 12° N and 47° E that separates the African coast, to the south, from the Arabian coast, to the north It connects the RED SEA to the ARABIAN SEA Adriatic Sea An arm of the MEDITERRANEAN SEA centered at about 43° N and 16 E° that separates the eastern Italian coast from the Hellenic and Balkan Peninsulas It is bounded by Italy to the west, Croatia to the east, and the IONIAN SEA to the south Because of the high rate of freshwater feeding the Adriatic, its tidal range is three times greater than that of the rest of the Mediterranean Aegean Sea Centered at about 39° N and 25° E, this is a deep, marginal sea in the eastern MEDITERRANEAN SEA, strewn with volcanic islands The Greek coast borders it to the west, Turkey to the east, and the islands of Crete and Rhodes to the south Though largely tideless, a strait between Greece and the island of Evia has long suffered from unpredictable, sometimes violent tides The ancient Greek philosopher ARISTOTLE commented on this anomaly AEPS (Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy) A program adopted in 1991 by the governments of the eight circumpolar nations (Canada, Denmark, Greenland, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States), whose objectives are to protect the arctic ecosystems, which includes protection of the arctic marine environment by taking steps to prevent marine pollution aerobic The state of requiring oxygen or living in oxygenated conditions acoustic oceanography – aerobic GLOSSARY www.Ebook777.com CHARTS & TABLES Relative Size of the Oceans CHARTS & TABLES Relative Size of the Oceans 252 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Major World Shipping Routes CHARTS & TABLES Major World Shipping Routes CHARTS & TABLES 253 www.Ebook777.com CHARTS & TABLES Tides CHARTS & TABLES Tides 254 Sample Tide Chart CHARTS & TABLES Sample Tide Chart CHARTS & TABLES 255 CHARTS & TABLES Examples of Two Ocean Food Chains CHARTS & TABLES Examples of Two Ocean Food Chains 256 Beaufort Wind Scale CHARTS & TABLES Beaufort Wind Scale CHARTS & TABLES 257 APPENDIXES Prefixes and Suffixes Relating to the Marine Environment Prefixes and Suffixes Relating to the Marine Environment Derived from Latin (L) and Greek (G) abysso- deep (G) aero- air, atmosphere (G) alga- seaweed (L) ampho- both, double (G) anomal- irregular,uneven (G) aqua- water (L) arch- first in time, beginning (G) arena- sand (L) arthro- joint (G) astro- star (G) bas- base, bottom (G) batho- deep (G) bio- living (G) branchi- gilllike (G) bryo- moss (G) calic- cup (L) calori- heat (L) capill- hair (L) capit- head (L) caud- tail (L) cephalo- head (G) cer-, cera- horn (G) chiton- tunic (G) chlor- green (G) chondri- cartilage (G) chrom- color (G) cirri- hair (L) clino- slope (G) cornu- horn (L) cran- skull (G) crusta- shell (L) -cyst bladder, bag (G) -cyte cell (G) dactyl- finger (G) deca- ten (L) dent- tooth (L) derm- skin (G) di- two, double (G) APPENDIXES 258 dia- through, across (G) dur- hard (L) echino- spiny (G) eco- house, abode (G) ecto- outside, outer (G) endo- inner, within (G) exo- out, without (G) fecund- fruitful (L) fluvi- river (L) geno- birth, race (G) geo- earth (G) giga- very large (G) gyr- round, circle (G) halo- salt (G) helio-sun (G) hemi- half (G) herbi- plant (L) holo- whole (G) hydro- water (G) hygro- wet (G) icthyo- fish (G) -idae members of the animal family (L) infra- below, beneath (L) insula- island (L) inter- between (L) intr- inside (L) iso- equal (G) -ite signifying a mineral or rock (G) lamino- layer (L) lati- broad, wide (L) litho- stone (G) lorica- armor (L) luna- moon (L) macro- large (G) magn- great, large (L) mari- sea (L) medi- middle (L) (continues) Prefixes and Suffixes Relating to the Marine Environment Prefixes and Suffixes Relating to the Marine Environment APPENDIXES Prefixes and Suffixes Relating to the Marine Environment Derived from Latin (L) and Greek (G) (continued) medus- jellyfish (G) mega- great, large (G) meso- middle (G) meta- after (G) -meter- measure (G) -metry science of measuring (G) micro- small (G) mono- one, single (G) -morph form (G) nano- dwarf (G) necto- swimming (G) neo- new (G) -nomy the science of (G) ob- opposite (L) octo- eight (L/G) oculo- eye (L) odonto- teeth (G) -ology science of (G) omni- all (L) opto- eye, vision (G) -osis signifying a process (G) oste- bone (G) ovo- egg (L) paleo- ancient (G) pari- equal (L) pedi- foot (L) penta- five (G) photo- light (G) phyto- plant (G) pisci- fish (L) platy- broad, wide (G) plankto- wandering (G) pluri- several (L) pneuma- air, breath (G) pod- foot (G) poly- many (G) pre- before (L) primo- first (L) proto- first (G) pulmo- lung (L) quarda- four (L) sali- salt (L) sarc- flesh (G) scler- hard (G) semi- half (L) strati- layer (L) sub- below (L) supra- above (L) tele- from afar (G) terra- earth (L) thalasso- sea (G) theri- wild animal (G) therm- heat (G) tri- three (G) tunic- cloak or covering (L) ultim- farthest, last (L) vas- vessel (L) -vorous feeding on (L) zoo- animal (G) zyg- pair (G) Prefixes and Suffixes Relating to the Marine Environment APPENDIXES 259 APPENDIXES Recommended Reading and Useful Websites Recommended Reading and Useful Websites Anikouchine, William A., Richard W Sternberg, et al The World Ocean, 2nd ed Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981 Baker, Lucy Life in the Oceans New York: Scholastic, 1993 Belleville, Bill Deep Cuba: The Inside Story of an American Oceanographic Expedition Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2002 Bird, Jonathan Beneath the North Atlantic Hartford, Conn.: Tidemark 1997 Brandon, Jeffrey L., and Frank Rokop Life between the Tides San Diego, Culif.: American Southwest Publishing, 1985 Cassie, Brian., et al National Audubon Society First Field Guide: Shells New York: Scholastic and Chanticleer Press, 2000 Charton, Barbara The Facts On File Dictionary of Marine Science, rev ed New York: Facts On File, 2001 Colin, Patrick L Marine Invertebrates and Plants of the Living Reef Neptune, N.J.: TFH Publications, 1990 Cousteau, Jacques Jacques Cousteau: The Ocean World New York: Harry N Abrams, 1992 Deacon, G E R., et al Seas, Maps and Men New York: Doubleday, 1962 The Diagram Group The Facts On File Earth Science Handbook New York: Facts On File, 2000 Earle, Sylvia A The National Geographic Atlas of the Ocean: The Deep Frontier Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2001 Ellis, Richard Deep Atlantic: Life, Death, and Exploration in the Abyss New York: Knopf, 1996 ——— Encyclopedia of the Sea New York: Knopf, 2000 Erickson, Jon Marine Geology: Exploring the New Frontiers of the Ocean, rev ed New York: Facts On File, 2002 Folkens, Pieter, illus National Audubon Society’s Guide to Marine Mammals of the World New York: Knopf, 2002 Hine, Robert, et al The Facts On File Dictionary of Biology, 3rd ed New York: Facts On File, 1999 Horn, Michael H., Karen L M Martin, and Michael A Chotkowski, eds Intertidal Fishes: Life in Two Worlds San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press, 1998 Kennish, Michael J Practical Handbook of Marine Science, 2nd ed Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press, Inc., 1994 Klimely, A Peter, ed., and David G Ainley Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon Carcharias San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press, 1998 Lambert, David The Oceans New York: Warwick Press, 1979 Mauseth, James D., et al Botany, 2nd ed Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, 1995 APPENDIXES 260 Recommended Reading and Useful Websites Recommended Reading and Useful Websites APPENDIXES Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Available online URL: www.encarta.msn.com Milne, David H., and A.A Milne Marine Life and the Sea Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing, 1995 The Random House Atlas of the Oceans New York: Random House, 1991 Ricketts, Edward Flanders, Joel W Hedgepeth, and Jack Calvin Between Pacific Tides, 5th ed Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1986 Thorne-Miller, Boyce, and Sylvia A Earle The Living Ocean: Understanding and Protecting Marine Biodiversity, 2nd ed Washington, D C.: Island Press, 1998 Tomas, Carmelo R., Grethe R Hasle, Jahn Throndsen, and Beit Heimdal, eds Identifying Marine Phytoplankton San Mateo, Calif.: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 1997 Van Dorn, William G Oceanography and Seamanship New York: Dodd, Mead, 1974 Ville, Claude A., Warren F Walker, Jr., Robert D Barnes, et al General Zoology, 4th ed Philadelphia: W B Saunders, 1973 Waller, Geoffrey Sea Life Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1996 World Book Encyclopedia Chicago: World Book, 1998 Useful Websites Alaska Fisheries and Science Center: www.afsc.noaa.gov Alfred Wegener Institute: http://www.awi-bremerhaven.de/# Alliance for Marine Remote Sensing: www.waterobserver.org American Society of Limnology and Oceanography: http://aslo.org Argentine Oceanographic Data Center: www.conae.gov.ar/~ceado Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory: www.aoml.noaa.gov Australian Oceanographic Data Center: www.aodc.gov.au/AODC.html Bigelow Laboratory of Ocean Sciences: http://www.bigelow.org British Oceanographic Data Center: http://www.bodc.ac.uk Center for Sea and Atmosphere Research: www-cima.at.fcen.uba.ar Coastal Ocean Probing Experiment: www.etl.noaa.gov/review/os/kropfli Coastal Zone Management Program: http://www.ocrm.nos.noaa.gov/czm CoastWatch: http://coastwatch.noaa.gov Consortium for Oceanographic Research and Education: http://core.cast.msstate.edu Coordinated Eastern Arctic Experiment: www-nsidc.colorado.edu/data/ nsidc-0020.html FishBase A worldwide database for information on fish: http://www.fishbase.org Recommended Reading and Useful Websites APPENDIXES 261 APPENDIXES Recommended Reading and Useful Websites General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans: www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/gebco/gebco.html Global Drifter Center: www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/dac/gdc.html Global Hydrology and Climate Center: www.ghcc.msfc.nasa.gov Hakluyt Society Books on maritime and geographical discovery: www.hakluyt.com Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission: ioc.unesco.org/iocweb International Association for the Physical Sciences of the Ocean: http://www.olympus.net/IAPSO International Council for the Exploration of the Sea: http://www.ices.dk International Council of Scientific Unions: www.icsu.org International Hydrographic Organization: www.iho.shom.fr International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange: ioc.unesco.org/iode International Whaling Commission: www.marine.gov.uk/iwc.htm Joint Institute for the Study of Atmosphere and the Ocean: www.jisao.washington.edu Marine Technology Society: www.mtsociety.org National Academy of Sciences: www.nationalacademies.org/nas National Sea Grant Library: http://nsgl.gso.uri.edu/diglib.html National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: www.noaa.gov The Oceanography Society: www.tos.org Pelagic Fisheries Research Program: www.soest.hawaii.edu/PFRP/pfrp1.html ReefBase, A global information system on coral reefs: www.reefbase.org Scripps Institution of Oceanography: http://www.sio.ucsd.edu Seaworld (Division of SAAMBR): www.seaworld.org.za TOPEX/Poseidon Cooperative project between the U.S and France to observe the earth’s oceans: topex-www.jpl.nasa.gov United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization: www.unesco.org University-National Oceanographic Laboratory Systems: www.unols.org Wildlife Conservation Society: www.wcs.org Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution: http://www.whoi.edu APPENDIXES 262 Recommended Reading and Useful Websites Adhemar – deep sea Italic page numbers indicate illustrations or captions Adhemar, Joseph Alphonse 144 Advanced Earth Observing Satellite 240 Adventure (ship) 161 Africa, exploration of 192–193 African Americans exploration by 177 in marine sciences 210 Agassiz, Alexander 144, 144, 145, 153, 222, 223 Agassiz, Elizabeth (Cabot) Carey 144–145 Agassiz, Louis (Jean-LouisRodolphe) 144, 145, 145, 160, 174, 222 Albatross (ship) 153, 224, 224 Albert I, prince of Monaco 145, 224, 227, 228 Alexander the Great 213 Alliance for Marine Remote Sensing (AMRS) 239, 261 ALVIN (submersible) 6, 6, 234, 240–241 Amazon River 191, 206 Americas, exploration of 156, 157–158, 160, 161, 169, 174, 181, 195, 196, 214, 215 AMRS See Alliance for Marine Remote Sensing Amundsen, Roald 91, 124, 145, 145, 200, 204, 225, 227 Anaximander 146 Andrews, Roy Chapman 146 ANGUS (submersible) 8, 237, 237 Anning, Mary 146 Antarctic exploration of 152, 154, 161–162, 165, 167, 192, 200–201, 202, 208, 219, 225, 226, 228, 229–230 Antarctic Ocean See Southern Ocean Aqua-Lung See scuba tanks aquaculture 9, 246–247 Aquarium habitat system 235 Arber, Agnes 228 Archimedes 146 Arctic 10 See also Northwest Passage exploration of 145, 148, 200, 204, 225 Arctic Ocean 10, 252 Argentine Oceanographic Data Center (CEADO) 236, 261 Argo-Jason (submersible) 148 Aristotle 146–147, 212–213 Arlindo Project 239 astrolabe 214, 214 Atlantic Ocean 12, 12 size of 252 Atlantis (ship) 181, 230 Atlantis II (ship) 234 Adhemar – deep sea INDEX Auguste Piccard (submarine) 195 Australia, exploration of 161, 167, 171, 204, 215 Bache, Alexander Dallas 147 Bacon, Sir Francis 147–148 Baffin, William 148 Balboa, Vasco Núñez de 148, 215 Ballard, Robert D 148, 148, 237 Banks, Sir Joseph 148–149 Barents, Willem 149, 185 Barrell, Joseph 149 Barrow, Sir John 149 Bartlett, Robert Abram 149–150 Barton, Otis 150, 151, 231 Baruna Jaya I 239 Bass, George 150 bathyscaphes 16, 62, 194, 233 bathyspheres 150, 151, 231 Baudin, Nicholas 150–151, 194 Beagle, HMS 164, 170, 220, 244 Beaufort, Sir Francis 17, 151 Beaufort Sea Mesoscale Project 238 Beaufort wind scale 17, 151, 257 Bede, Venerable 213 Beebe, Charles William 150, 151, 231 Belcher, Edward 151–152, 190 Belgica (ship) 225 Belknap, George E 223 Bellingshausen, Fabian Gottlieb von 152, 192, 219 Belon, Pierre 152, 215 Ben Franklin (submarine) 195 the bends 18, 175 Bering, Vitus 152, 202 Bering Strait 19, 152, 166 Bernoulli, Daniel 153 Bigelow, Henry Bryant 153 Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences 236, 261 Blaeu, Joannes 216 Blagden, Sir Charles 153 Blagden’s law 153 Blake (ship) 223 Bligh, Captain William 153–154 Bona Confidentia (ship) 209 Bona Esperanza (ship) 209 Booth, Felix 154 Borchgrevink, Carsten 154 Bougainville, Louis-Antoine de 154–155 Bounty (ship) 153 Bourne, William 155 Bowditch, Nathaniel 155 Boyle, Robert 155, 179, 216 Boyle’s law 155 Brendan, Saint 155 Brenneck, W 228 Britton, Elizabeth Gertrude Knight 155–156 Bruce, William S 226 Buchanan, John 156 Buffon, George-Louis Leclerc, comte de 156 Bull, H J 154 Byrd, Richard E 202 Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar Núñez 156 cable-controlled underwater recovery vehicle (CURV) 235, 236 Cabot, John 156–157 Cabot, Sebastian 157 Cabral, Pedro Álvarez 157, 166 Cabrillo, Juan Rodriguez 157–158 Calvin, Melvin 158 Calypso (ship) 162–163 Campbell, John 218 Cano, Sebastian del 158, 186, 215 Carlsberg Foundation Oceanographical Expedition 230 Carnegie (ship) 227 Carpenter, William Benjamin 158, 181 Carson, Rachel 158 Cartier, Jacques 158–159 Castro, João de 159 Cavendish, Thomas 159, 164 CEADO See Argentine Oceanographic Data Center CEAREX See Coordinated Eastern Arctic Experiment Center for Hydro-Optics and Remote Sensing 238 Center for Sea and Atmosphere Research (CIMA) 238, 261 Challenger, HMS 156, 181, 189, 190, 199, 205, 222, 224, 245 Champlain, Samuel de 159, 189 Chancellor, Richard 159–160, 209 Chappe d’Auteroch, Jean-Baptiste 160 Charles Doggett (ship) 167 chart(s) 29 See also map(s) General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans 227 history of 156, 170, 171, 176, 191–192, 196, 207 Chichester, Sir Francis Charles 160 Chun, Carl 225 CIMA See Center for Sea and Atmosphere Research CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) 236 Clapp, Cornelia M 160–161 Clean Water Act (1972) 235 Clermont (ship) 172, 172 Coastal Barriers Resources Act (1982) 237 Coastal Ocean Probing Experiment (COPE) 239–240, 261 Coastal Zone Management Act (1972) 235 Coastal Zone Management Program 261 CoastWatch 32, 261 Colladon, Daniel 220 Columbia (ship) 174 Columbus, Christopher 161, 195, 215 compass development of 175, 190, 194, 205, 213, 214, 217 gyroscopic 202 Concepción (ship) 158, 186 Condert, Charles 220 Conte di Savioa (ship) 230–231 continental drift 12, 34, 74, 78, 95–96 See also plate tectonics; seafloor spreading opponents of 181 proponents of 165, 204, 208, 228 research on 177, 207, 209 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 236 Cook, Fredrick 193–194 Cook, Captain James 22, 148–149, 153, 161–162, 218 Coordinated Eastern Arctic Experiment (CEAREX) 238, 261 COPE See Coastal Ocean Probing Experiment Cordus, Valerius 152 Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave 162 Coriolis effect 36, 46, 162 Cortés, Hernán 162 Cousteau, Jacques-Yves 10, 162–163, 228, 231 Croll, James 163 currents 38 See also specific currents deep/bottom 22, 95 Ekman transport 47, 47 global patterns of 248 research on 145, 156, 165, 168, 170, 175, 176, 181, 182, 183, 185, 187, 190, 195, 197, 204, 205, 238, 241 rip 110 upwellings 135, 135–136 CURV See cable-controlled underwater recovery vehicle Cuvier, Georges-Léopold-ChrétienFrédéric, Dagobert, Baron 163 Dampier, William 163–164 Dana I/II (ships) 200, 229, 230 Dana Reports 200 Darwin, Charles Robert 87, 164, 170, 174, 183, 207–208, 220, 221, 244 Darwin, Erasmus 164 Darwin, Sir George Howard 164 Davis, John 164–165 Deacon, Sir George 165 dead reckoning 39, 161 Deep Rover (submersible) 168 deep sea exploration of 148, 150, 151, 158, 168, 200, 231, 233, 234, 237, 237, 240–241 hydrothermal vents in 66, 66, 148 life discovered in 144, 145, 148, 181, 199, 219, 220–221, 224, 232, 232, 241 INDEX 263 INDEX deep sea (continued) mapping of 228 samples and readings taken from 167, 181, 182–183, 184, 194, 198–199, 201–202, 203, 205, 225–226, 227, 229, 232 Titanic discovery in 148, 237 Deitz, Robert Sinclair 165 Deryugin, Konstantin Mikhailovich 165–166 Deutschland (ship) 228 Dezhnyov (Dezhnev), Semyon Ivanovich 166 Dias, Bartolomeu 166 diatom(s) 41, 41, 221 diatometer 193 Discovery (ship, 1615–1616) 148 Discovery (ship, 1901–1903) 200 Discovery/Discovery II (ships, 1926–1931) 229 Discovery Reports 229 diving bells 42, 42 history of 168, 212–213, 217, 218–219 diving suits 217 See also jim suits; scuba tanks diving techniques, ancient 212–213 Dohrn, Felix Anton 166, 222 doldrums 42, 249 Donati, Vitaliano 166 Drake, Sir Francis 44, 166–167 Drebble, Cornelius van 215–216 dredging 215 Driver, William 167 Drygalski, Erich von 226 Dumont d’Urville, Jules-SébastienCésar 167 Dutton, Clarence Edward 167–168 Eads, James 168 Earle, Sylvia A 168, 168 Edward Bonaventure (ship) 159, 209 Eigenmann, Rosa Smith 168 Ekman, Vagn Walfrid 39, 46, 168, 190 Ekman spiral 190 El Niño 48, 241–242 Electric Boat Company 178 Elton, Charles S 229 Emery, K O 165 Endeavor (ship) 148–149, 161 Endurance (ship) 200–201 Eratosthenes 169, 213 Eric the Red 169, 213, 214 Ericson, Leif (Leiv Eirkisson) 169, 214 Ericsson, John 169 evolution, theory of 50, 146, 164, 180, 183, 187–188, 192, 207–208 Ewing, William Maurice 16, 169–170 Exxon Valdez (ship) 239 Fahrenheit, Gabriel D 217 Farquharson, William Ian 231 INDEX 264 deep sea – Kircher Ferdinand II (grand duke of Tuscany) 216 Ferrel, William 170, 170 Filchner, Wilhelm 228 Findlay, Alexander George 170 fish harvests in metric tons 246 by species 247 Fitzroy, Robert 164, 170, 220, 244 Flamsteed, John 170–171 Fleming, John 50 Flemming, R 231 Fleuss, Henry 223 Flinders, Matthew 150, 151, 171, 172 FLIP (floating instrument platform) 52, 53 food chain/web 54, 256 Forbes, Sir Edward 13, 171, 198–199, 199, 221 Forchhammer, Johann Georg 171 Forchhammer’s principle 171 Forlanini, Enrico 227 FPRP See Pelagic Fisheries Research Program Fram (ship) 189, 204, 225, 225, 245 Franklin, Benjamin 147, 171 Franklin, Sir John 149, 151–152, 172, 188, 190 Fresnel, Augustin-Jean 172 Freycinet, Captain Louis de 151, 194 Frobisher, Sir Martin 172 Fulton, Robert 172–173, 198, 202 Fulton the First (ship) 173 Gagnan, Émile 10, 36, 231 Galathea (ship) 232 Galilee (ship) 227 Galileo Galilei 215 Galton, Francis 164 Gama, Vasco da 157, 166, 173, 215 Gauss (ship) 226 Gazelle (ship) 222 GEBCO See General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans Gellibrand, Henry 173 General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) 227, 262 geological research 146, 165, 167–168, 169–170, 176, 177, 182, 183, 201, 204, 205–206, 233, 235 Gerard, John 173 Gerlache de Gomery, Adrein de 225 German Atlantic Expedition of 1925–1927 209–210 German Plankton Expedition 225 Gesner, Conrad 173 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey 173 Gilbert, William 194 Gill, Theodore Nicholas 173–174 Gipsy Moth III/IV (ships) 160 Godfrey, Thomas 218 Golden Hind (ship) 167 Gondwanaland 204 deep sea – Kircher Goode, George Brown 174 Gray, Robert 174 Greenwich Mean Time 60–61 Greenwich (Prime) Median 103, 216 Greenwich Observatory 170, 216 Grimaldi, Albert–Honoré Charles See Albert I, prince of Monaco Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission 232 Gulf Stream 14, 61, 145, 181, 203 gyroscopic compass 202 gyroscopic stabilizers 230–231 Hadley, John 218 Haeckel, Ernst 104, 166, 174 Hakluyt, Richard 175 Haldane, John Scott 175 Halley, Sir Edmund 175, 217 Happel, Eberhard Werner 175 Hardy, Sir Alister 229, 230 Harrison, John 161, 176, 218 Hassler (ship) 144 Hautefeuille, Abbé Jean de 216 Hawaiian Islands, discovery of 162 Hawkes, Graham 168 Hawkins, John 56 Hays, James Douglas 176 Heezen, Bruce Charles 176 Henry IV (king of France) 189 Henry VII (king of England) 156 Henry the Navigator 176, 214 Hensen, Victor 177, 225 Henson, Matthew Alexander 177, 193 Hero (ship) 192 Herodotus 212 Hess, Harry Hammond 62, 177, 233 Heyerdahl, Thor 177–178, 232 Hipparchus 178 Hjort, Johan 178 Holland, John Philip 178 Holland (submarine) 178 Hooke, Robert 178–179 Hooker, Joseph D 220–221, 221 Horner, J C 219 horse latitudes 65, 249 Hubbs, Carl L 168, 179 Hubbs, Laura 179 Hudson, Henry 65, 179–180 Humboldt, Friedrich von 180 Huxley, Sir Julian Sorell 180 Huxley, Thomas Henry 166, 180 hydrofoil, development of 227 Hydrolab 234, 234–235 Iberville, Pierre Le Moyne, sieur d’ 181 ice age, causes of 144, 163 ICES See International Council for the Exploration of the Sea ICSU See International Council of Scientific Unions IHO See International Hydrographic Organization INDE See International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange Indian Ocean, size of 252 Ingolf (ship) 225 Institute of Marine Technology 197 Inter-Amerian Tropical Tuna Commission 232 Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) 233, 262 International Convention for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Commission 232 International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) 226, 262 International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) 230, 262 International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) 187, 241, 262 International Indian Ocean Expedition 231–232, 233 International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange (INDE) 233, 262 International Whaling Commission (IWC) 232, 262 International Year of the Ocean (YOTO) 240 Investigator/Investigator II (ships) 224 IOC See Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission ironclad gunboats 168, 169 Isabella I (queen of Spain) 161 Isachsen, Gunner 229–230 Iselin, Columbus O’Donnell 181 isothermal lines 180, 180 IWC See International Whaling Commission Jansz, William 215 Jarret, Jim 70 Jason I (ship) 241 Jason Project 148 Jeffreys, Sir Harold 181 Jeffreys, John Gwyn 181 Jet stream 70 research on 199 jim suits 70, 237, 237 JISAO See Joint Institute for the Study of Atmosphere and the Ocean John II (king of Portugal) 166, 176 Johnson, M 231 Joint Institute for the Study of Atmosphere and the Ocean (JISAO) 237, 262 Jolly, John 182 Judith (ship) 167 Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de 182 Karluk (ship) 149 Kelvin, Lord See Thomson, William Kircher, Athanasius 182 Knudsen – Rayleigh Knudsen, Martin Hans Christian 182 Kon Tiki (ship) 177–178, 232 Kotzebue, Otto von 182–183, 219 Krümmel, Otto 183 Krusenstern, Adam Johann, baron von 182, 183 Kruzentein, Ivan F 219 Kuenen, Philip Henry 183 Lady Washington (ship) 174 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste-PierreAntoine de Monet, chevalier de 183184 Lapộrouse, Jean-Franỗois de Galaup de 184 Laplace, Pierre-Simon Laplace, marquis de 184 latitude definition of 74 history of 168, 178, 213, 213, 218 Leeuwenhoek, Antoni van (Antony) 179, 184–185 Lenz, Heinrich Friedrich Emil von 185, 219 Leonardo da Vinci 184, 214 Lichte, Hannes 228 lighthouses 54, 75, 172, 203 Lighting (ship) 181 Lincoln, Abraham 168 Lind, James 218 Linnaeus, Carolus (Carl von Linné) 185, 196 Linschoten, Jan Huygen van 185–186 longitude definition of 76 history of 168, 173, 178, 206, 213, 213, 217, 218 Lubbock, Sir John William 186 Mabahiss (ship) 231 Magellan, Ferdinand 158, 186–187, 215, 244 magnetic north definition of 79 search for 145, 158–159, 198, 220, 220 magnetic south, search for 154, 198 Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act (1976) 236, 239 Makarov, Admiral Stepan 187, 224 map(s) 79 See also chart(s) ancient 213, 213 aximuthal projections 13 conic projection 34 history of 197 Mercator projection 82, 188–189 projections 79 Mariana Trench 62, 80, 80, 194, 233 Marine Biological Association of England 223 Marine Biological Research Laboratory 222 Knudsen – Rayleigh INDEX marine chronometer 161, 176, 218, 218 Marine Mammals Protection Act (1972) 235 Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act (1972) 235 Marine Technology Society (MTS) 86, 234, 262 Marsigli Ferdinando, count de Luigi 187, 218 Matthew (ship) 156 Matthews, Drummond 207 Maud (ship) 204 Maury, Matthew Fontaine 187, 221 Mayr, Ernst Walter 187–188 McClure (M’Clure) Sir Robert John le Mesurier 172, 188 Menard, Henry William 188 Mendoza, Antonio de 157 Mercator, Gerardus 82, 188–189 Mercator projection map 82, 188–189 Meteor (ship) 209–210, 229, 230 Michael Sars (ship) 227 Mirny (ship) 152 mirror–galvanometer 205 Monitor (ship) 169 Monts, Pierre de Gua, sieur de 189 Morrissey (ship) 150 Mosby, Haakon 229–230 MTS See Marine Technology Society Müller, Johannes Peter 189 Murray, Sir John 189, 231 Musashi (ship) 231 Nansen, Fridtjof 87, 189–190, 225, 245 Nares, George Strong 190 NAS See National Academy of Sciences NASA See National Aeronautics and Space Administration National (ship) 177, 225 National Academy of Sciences (NAS) 221, 262 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 234, 240, 241 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 4, 89, 165, 168, 235, 237, 238, 239–240, 240–241, 262 National Science Foundation (NSF) 235 natural selection, theory of 87, 174 Nautilus (early submarine) 172 Nautilus (nuclear submarine) 233 Nautilus (research submarine) 204 navigation 87–88 See also charts; latitude; longitude ancient 213 automatic pilots 202 buoys and dolphins 24, 42–43, 43 by dead reckoning 39, 161 history of 155, 161, 164–165, 170–171, 175, 176, 196, 206, 214, 217 international standards for 187 magnetic north and 159 marine chronometer and 176, 218, 218 Mercator projection map 188–189 nautical miles 87 sextants, octants and quadrants 92, 105, 119, 217, 218, 218, 219 wind data and 249 Necho II 190, 212 Neckham, Alexander 190–191 neritic food chain 256 New Orleans (ship) 172–173, 198 New York Zoological Society 151, 240 New Zealand, discovery of 216 Newcomen, Thomas 217 Newport (ship) 190 Newton, Sir Isaac 191, 216, 217 Niña (ship) 161, 195 NOAA See National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Nordenskjöld, Nils Adolf Erik, baron 191, 223 North Pole 90 See also magnetic north expeditions to 145, 177, 189, 191, 193, 245 first submarine to reach 233 Northeast Passage, search for 145, 185, 191, 209, 223 Northwest Passage, search for 91, 145, 148, 149, 154, 157, 158–159, 164, 172, 173, 179–180, 184, 188, 193, 198, 227 Norwegia (ship) 229–230 Norwegian Antarctic Expedition 229–230 NSF See National Science Foundation Oceanography Society 238, 262 oceans, relative size of 252 octant 92, 218, 218 oil, crude production (2001) 250 spills 239 oil, marine 80 Ojeda, Alonso de 206 Ollitrault, M 240 Orellana, Francisco de 191 Ortelius, Abraham 191–192 Owen, Sir Richard 192, 206–207 Pacific Ocean 95 exploration of 148, 161–162, 163–164, 165, 183, 186, 196, 203, 208, 215 size of 252 tides in 255 paleontology, founding of 163 Palmer, Nathaniel Brown 192 Pangaea 34, 74, 78, 95 Park, Mungo 192–193 Parry, Sir William Edward 149, 188, 193, 198 Patience (ship) 148 Patrick, Ruth 193 Peary, Robert Edwin 145, 149, 177, 193, 193–194 Pegasus/Remora (submarine) 197 Pelagic Fisheries Research Program (FPRP) 239, 262 pelagic food chain 256 Peregrinus, Petrus 194 Peress, Salim “Joseph” 70 Peron, Franỗois 151, 194, 219 Perry Foundation 234 Peter the Pilgrim See Peregrinus, Petrus Philippa (queen of Portugal) 176 Phillip II (king of Spain) 192 Phoenix (ship) 202–203 photography from space 234 underwater 162–163, 197, 238 Piccard, Auguste 194, 233 Piccard, Jacques 165, 194–195, 233 Piccard, Jean-Félix 194 Pigafetta, Antonio 186 Pillsbury, John Elliot 223 Pinta (ship) 161 Pinzón, Vicente đez 195 Pisces (submersible) 236 Planet (ship) 228 plate tectonics 74, 78, 100 See also continental drift; seafloor spreading research on 34, 177, 206, 207, 208 support for 169–170, 188 Pliny the Elder 195 pollution research on 158 sources of 251 Ponce de León, Juan 195 Poodle (submersible) 110–111 Porcupine (ship) 181 Poutrincourt, Jean de Biencourt de 189 prefixes, marine–related 258–259 Priestley, Joseph 218 Prime (Greenwich) Median 103, 216 Project Mohole 233 propeller (screw) 114, 114, 169 Ptolemy, Claudius 196, 213, 213 Puget, Peter 196 Purkinje, Johannes 104 Pytheas 196 Queirós, Pedro Fernandes de 196 Raleigh, Sir Walter 173 Rattlesnake (ship) 180 Ray, John 185, 196–197 Rayleigh, Lord See Strutt, John William INDEX 265 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com INDEX reading, recommended 260–261 Rebikoff, Dimitri 110, 197 red tide 107, 241 Reliance (ship) 150 remotely operated vehicle (ROV) 110, 110–111 Rennell, James 197 Resolute (ship) 190 Resolution (ship) 161 Revelle, Roger 197–198 Rickover, Hyman G 233 Ringgold, Captain Cadwallader 203 Rodgers, Captain John 203 Rondelet, Guillaume 198 Roosevelt, Nicholas 172–173, 198 Roosevelt (ship) 149 Ross, Sir James Clark 110, 198, 220 Ross, Sir John 149, 154, 198–199, 219, 220 Rossby, Carl–Gustav Arvid 199 ROV See remotely operated vehicle Royal Meteorological Society of England 221 Royal Society of London 111, 147, 149, 154, 155, 165, 216, 222 rudder 111, 214 sail(s) 111, 212 Salter, Stephan 236 SAMBA See Sub-Antarctic Motions in the Brazil Basin San Antonio (ship) 186 Santa Maria (ship) 161 Santiago (ship) 186 Sars, George Ossian 199 Sars, Michael 199 satellites, for marine studies 240, 241 Schmidt, Ernst Johannes 199–200, 228, 229, 230 Scoresby, William 200, 219 Scotia (ship) 226 Scott, Robert Falcon 145, 200 Scottish Antarctic Expedition 226 screw (propeller) 114, 114, 169 Scripps Institution of Oceanography 52, 115, 165, 179, 188, 197, 201, 204, 227, 237, 242, 262 scuba tanks (aqua–lung) 10, 162, 168, 220, 223, 231 scurvy 218 seafloor spreading 100, 116 research on 78, 177, 207, 208, 209, 235 support for 165, 169–170, 197 seafood harvest in metric tons 246 by species 247 Sealab/Sealab II 117, 234 INDEX reading – Young Seasat–A 237 Seneca 213 sextants 119, 217, 218, 219 Shackelton, Sir Ernest 200–201 Shearwater (ship) 181 Shen Gua 214 Shepard, Francis Parker 165, 201 shipbuilding, ancient 212 shipping routes 253 Siboga (ship) 226 Sigsbee, Charles Dwight 201–202 Siple, Paul Allman 202 size of oceans, relative 252 Slocum, Joshua 225 Smeaton, John 218–219 sound, speed through water 220 sounding machines 201, 201, 223 South Pole 124, 145, 200 See also magnetic south Southern Cross (ship) 154 Southern Ocean 123–124, 241 size of 252 Sperry, Elmer Ambrose 202 Spilhaus, Athelstan 16, 231 Spray (ship) 225 stabilizers, gyroscopic 230–231 steam engine, development of 202–203, 217 Steller, George Wilhelm 202 Stevens, John Cox 202–203 Stevenson, Robert 203 Stimpson, William 203 Stommel, Henry Melson 203, 204 straits, international 253 Strutt, John William (Lord Rayleigh) 223 Sturm, Charles 220 Sub-Antarctic Motions in the Brazil Basin (SAMBA) 240 submarines and submersibles bathyscaphes 16, 62, 194, 233 bathyspheres 150, 151, 231 floating instrument platform (FLIP) 52, 53 history of 155, 172, 175, 178, 195, 215–216 nuclear-powered 233 personal 110–111, 197 photography and 162–163, 197 submersibles 127, 127 ALVIN 6, 6, 234, 240–241 ANGUS 8, 237, 237 Argo-Jason 148 Deep Rover 168 Pisces 236 Poodle 110–111 unmanned 13, 110, 110–111, 148, 235, 236, 237, 237 Suess, Eduard 204 suffixes, marine-related 258–259 Sverdrup, Harald Ulrik 204, 231 Swallow, John 204 Tansley, Arthur George 46 Tasman, Abel Janszoon 204–205, 216 Tharp, Marie 176 thermometer(s) 131 bathythermograph 16, 26, 231 history of 215, 216, 217 Thomson, Charles Wyville 181, 205, 222, 245 Thomson, J Vaughan 220 Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin) 205, 223 tide(s) 131, 131–132 cause of 254 measurement of 255 research on 164, 175, 182, 186, 196, 205 tide tables 132, 255 tiller, invention of 214 Titanic (ship) 148, 237 Tom Thumb (boat) 150 Torpille (submarine) 110–111, 197 trade ancient 212 shipping routes 253 trade winds, research on 175 Trieste (bathyscaphe) 62, 194, 233 Trinidad (ship) 186 tsunamis 225 Tuscarora (ship) 223 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 231–232, 233, 262 United States Coast Survey 147 United States government, ocean policy 232 Universal Time (UT) 60–61 University National Oceanographic Laboratory Systems (UNOLS) 235, 262 UNOLS See University National Oceanographic Laboratory Systems UT (Universal Time) 60–61 Vahsel, Richard 228 Valdivia (ship) 225 Vancouver, Captain George 196 Varen, Bernhard 205 Vega (ship) 191 Venerable Bede 213 Vening–Meinesz, Felix Andries 205–206 Verdierè, A Colin de 240 Verrazano, Giovanni da 206 Verrill, A E 56 reading – Young 266 www.Ebook777.com Vespucci, Amerigo 206 Victoria (ship) 158, 186, 244 Victory (ship) 154 Villepreux-Power, Jeanne 206–207 Vincennes (ship) 220, 220 Vine, Allyn Vine, Fred 207, 208 Vitaz (ship) 224 Vostok (ship) 152 Waghenaer, Lucas Janszoon 207 Waldseemüller, Martin 206 Wallace, Alfred Russel 137, 207–208 Wallace line 137, 208 Walsh, Donald 194, 233 Watt, James 217 websites, useful 261–262 Weddell, James 208 Wegener, Alfred Lothar 34, 100, 181, 208, 228 Whitehead, Robert 110 WHOI See Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute Wildlife Conservation Society 240, 262 Wilkes, Charles 208–209, 209, 220 Willebrord Snellius (ship) 230 William Scoresby (ship) 229 Willoughby, Sir Hugh 159, 209 Wilson, John Tuzo 209 wind Beaufort wind scale 17, 151, 257 collection of information on 240 global circulation of 249 roaring fourties 110 trade 133 true 134 women in earth sciences 146, 155–156 in marine sciences 144–145, 158, 160–161, 168, 193, 206–207, 210, 228 Woods Hole Marine Biology Laboratory 161, 181, 210, 222, 224 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI) 16, 140, 230, 234, 262 Wrangell, Ferdinand Petrovich, baron von 209 Wüst, Georg Adolf Otto 209–210, 229 Yamato (ship) 231 Yonge, Charles Maurice 210 YOTO (International Year of the Ocean) 240 Young, Roger Arliner 210 ... www.Ebook777.com THE FACTS ON FILE MARINE SCIENCE HANDBOOK SCOTT MCCUTCHEON and BOBBI MCCUTCHEON www.Ebook777.com The Facts On File Marine Science Handbook Copyright © 2003 by Scott McCutcheon and Bobbi... recognition for their selfless efforts and principal contributions in the study of marine science CHRONOLOGY On an evolutionary scale, the discovery of science and technology has evolved on Earth in the. .. about the polar regions, among other projects See also Useful websites in the Appendixes azimuth The horizontal angle between the observer’s bearing on the Earth’s surface and the line joining the