Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook www.Ebo Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com The Emergence of Organizations and Markets www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com This page intentionally left blank www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com The Emergence of Organizations and Markets John F Padgett and Walter W Powell Prin ceton U ni vers ity P r ess Princeton & Oxford www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Copyright © 2012 by Princeton University Press Published by Princeton University Press, 41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey 08540 In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, Oxford Street, Woodstock, Oxfordshire OX20 1TW press.princeton.edu The cover displays a cross-section of fossilized stromatolites These were bacterial colonies formed not long after the earth cooled Stromatolites are arguably the earliest physical record we have of the origins of life Composite of photos by Paul Carrara/National Park Service and Walter W Powell All Rights Reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The emergence of organizations and markets / edited by John F Padgett and Walter W Powell    p cm   Includes index   ISBN 978-0-691-14867-0 (hbk.) — ISBN 978-0-691-14887-8 (pbk.)   Organizational sociology.  Organization Industrial organization (Economic theory) I Padgett, John Frederick.  II Powell, Walter W   HM786.E44 2012  302.3'5—dc23   2012004342 British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available This book has been composed in Sabon and Din Printed on acid-free paper ∞ Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com This volume is dedicated to H a r r ison C W h i t e , il maestro della bottega www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Nihil ideo quoniam natumst in corpore, ut uti possemus, sed quod natumst id procreat usum (Nothing is born in the body for us to use it, but rather, having been born, it begets a use.) —Lucretius, De Rerum Natura iv: 834–35 (first century B.C.) www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Contents Contributors ix List of Illustrations xiii List of Tables xvii Acknowledgments xix Chapter 1  ■ The Problem of Emergence John F Padgett and Walter W Powell 1 Part I  Autocatalysis 31 Chapter 2  ■  Autocatalysis in Chemistry and the Origin of Life John F Padgett 33 Chapter 3  ■ Economic Production as Chemistry II John F Padgett, Peter McMahan, and Xing Zhong 70 Chapter 4  ■  From Chemical to Social Networks John F Padgett 92 Part II  Early Capitalism and State Formation 115 Chapter 5  ■ The Emergence of Corporate Merchant-Banks in Dugento Tuscany John F Padgett 121 Chapter 6  ■ Transposition and Refunctionality: The Birth of Partnership Systems in Renaissance Florence John F Padgett 168 Chapter 7  ■ Country as Global Market: Netherlands, Calvinism, and the Joint-Stock Company John F Padgett 208 Chapter 8  ■ Conflict Displacement and Dual Inclusion in the Construction of Germany Jonathan Obert and John F Padgett 235 Part III  Communist Transitions 267 Chapter 9  ■ The Politics of Communist Economic Reform: Soviet Union and China John F Padgett 271 Chapter 10  ■  Deviations from Design: The Emergence of New Financial Markets and Organizations in Yeltsin’s Russia Andrew Spicer 316 Chapter 11  ■ The Emergence of the Russian Mobile Telecom Market: Local Technical Leadership and Global Investors in a Shadow of the State Valery Yakubovich and Stanislav Shekshnia 334 Chapter 12  ■ Social Sequence Analysis: Ownership Networks, Political Ties, and Foreign Investment in Hungary David Stark and Balázs Vedres 347 Part IV  Contemporary Capitalism and Science 375 Chapter 13  ■ Chance, Nécessité, et Naïveté: Ingredients to Create a New Organizational Form Walter W Powell and Kurt Sandholtz 379 Chapter 14  ■ Organizational and Institutional Genesis: The Emergence of High-Tech Clusters in the Life Sciences Walter W Powell, Kelley Packalen, and Kjersten Whittington 434 Chapter 15  ■  An Open Elite: Arbiters, Catalysts, or Gatekeepers in the Dynamics of Industry Evolution? Walter W Powell and Jason Owen-Smith 466 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com viii  ■  Contents Chapter 16  ■  Academic Laboratories and the Reproduction of Proprietary Science: Modeling Organizational Rules through Autocatalytic Networks Jeannette A Colyvas and Spiro Maroulis 496 Chapter 17  ■  Why the Valley Went First: Aggregation and Emergence in Regional Inventor Networks Lee Fleming, Lyra Colfer, Alexandra Marin, and Jonathan McPhie 520 Chapter 18  ■  Managing the Boundaries of an “Open” Project Fabrizio Ferraro and Siobhán O’Mahony 545 Coda: Reflections on the Study of Multiple Networks Walter W Powell and John F Padgett 566 Index of Authors 571 Index of Subjects 573 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Contributors John F Padgett is a social scientist at the University of Chicago, with a primary appointment in the Department of Political Science and courtesy appointments in the Departments of Sociology and History He is also a visiting professor in the Faculty of Economics and Management at the Universitá di Trento in Italy He was an external faculty member at the Santa Fe Institute from 1996 to 1999 and from 2005 to 2009 and a research professor there from 2000 to 2004 Walter W Powell is a sociologist at Stanford University, with a primary appointment in the School of Education and courtesy appointments in the Schools of Business and Engineering, and in Sociology, Communication, and Public Policy He is co-director of Stanford’s Center on Philanthropy and Civil Society He has been an external faculty member at the Santa Fe Institute since 2001 Peter McMahan is a Ph.D student in the sociology department at the University of Chicago His research interests center on microsociological foundations of group processes, with a focus on mathematical and statistical modeling Xing Zhong is a research fellow at Duke University, having received her Ph.D from the sociology department at the University of Chicago in 2009 Her research interests include the emergence and evolution of networks, the social contexts and processes of technological innovation, and the development of organizational capabilities in emerging markets Jonathan Obert is a Ph.D student in the political science department at the University of Chicago His research interests include American political development and the creation of police and internal security forces, as well as processes of state formation more generally Andrew Spicer is an associate professor of international business at the Moore School of Business at the University of South Carolina His research has examined privatization policies and outcomes in post-communist countries; the role of Western ideas and international organizations in shaping market reform policies; and the effects of national context and national identity on managers’ ethical evaluations in international business settings Valery Yakubovich is an associate professor of management at the ESSEC Business School in France He received his Ph.D in sociology from Stanford University and, prior to joining ­ESSEC, taught at Chicago Booth and the Wharton School His current projects explore organizational innovations in virtual firms and regional high-tech clusters, the interplay between formal hierarchies and social networks in large Russian firms, and the co-production of knowledge and social relations in organizations Stanislav Shekshnia is an affiliate professor of entrepreneurship at INSEAD and a senior partner at Ward Howell/Zest Leadership talent equity His research concentrates on leadership, leadership development, and effective governance in emerging markets and organizations David Stark is the Arthur Lehman Professor of Sociology and International Affairs at Columbia University where he directs the Center on Organizational Innovation His recent book, The Sense of Dissonance: Accounts of Worth in Eco­ nomic Life (Princeton University Press, 2009), uses ethnographic methods to study the organizational structures that contribute to reflexivity With Balázs Vedres, he coauthored “Structural Folds: Generative Disruption in Overlapping Groups” (American Journal of Sociology, 2010) Their current research on the historical network properties of creative teams is supported by the National Science Foundation Balázs Vedres is an associate professor of sociology at the Central European University in Budapest His research furthers the agenda of understanding historical dynamics in network systems, combining insights from historical sociology, social network analysis, and studies of complex systems in physics and biology His work combines historical sensitivities to temporal processes with a network analytic sensitivity to patterns of connectedness cross-sectionally His article with David Stark (American Journal www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Reflections on Multiple Networks  ■  569 networks And studying failures at transposition is essential to learning about the vulnerability of social systems Recombinant practices, generative disruptions, and hybridization are all forms of multiple network spillovers that can lead to organizational innovation This volume is rich with examples of the absorption of distant practices into new domains, which in turn altered the terrain that parties had to traverse We had less to say about system poisedness or vulnerability, however When perturbations have lasting consequences? Put differently, can these innovations find enough traction and support such that they are more than short-­term solutions to unanticipated problems? A central question for future research to explore is what turns fragile responses or transitions into more systemic innovations This issue of matching the character of innovative transpositions to the structural features of the system into which they were introduced is, to our minds, the research frontier We need to explain the architecture of systems that are most poised to tip in response to disturbances When new practices cause an existing order to unravel and when are systems resilient and able to accommodate, and even prosper, from the introduction of novel elements? To our way of thinking, reproductive fidelity is central to stability To the extent that networks are dense and interconnected, new elements are more readily absorbed We saw confirmation of this in chapter 15 when the intricately interconnected core of the biopharmaceutical community was able to absorb new entrants, as well as take on new skills, without unraveling This elite group was buttressed by multiple relations among themselves involving different activities, giving them redundancy in terms of both connections and expertise But when relations among the members of a field are thinner and the range of skills leaner, then the march-­in of new elements may have more transformative effects And if the connectivity among the core is more a Potemkin Village, new entrants may well take over leadership of the system What kind of events can reduce reproductive stability, thus leaving the status quo vulnerable? Obviously crises of various kinds can threaten a system’s ability to replicate its organizing routines In Renaissance Florence, disease and war robbed families of their young men, making it challenging to pass on family wealth and power In the contemporary knowledge economy, technological change can pull the rug out from under incumbents, leaving them vulnerable But crises are too simple an answer, as our cases of Florence and the contemporary life sciences show Change and tumult were ever-­present in both worlds and challenges to incumbents continuous Much of the time these threats were absorbed without too much damage to the existing order But when crises led people to vote with their feet, so to speak, and flock to new affiliations or careers at alternative sites, the external challenges rendered existing practices brittle Here the choice is no longer to resist or absorb but to see how quickly an incumbent can take on new alliances or pursue new kinds of practices, rules, and personnel in order to maintain its position of importance When rates of defection and turnover exceed the incumbent’s ability to learn new procedures, then collapse is the likely outcome The example of the pharmaceutical and biotech responses to external challenges may be illustrative Big Pharma companies had deep pockets and skills but lacked real access to university science and top-­tier scientists Biotechs, born out of universities, had such access and knowledge but were weak on organizational skills and starved for cash Their twin responses did not involve adopting the other’s capabilities but partial absorption and blending, depending on external options This oscillation between adopting hybrid responses and maintaining sufficient skill at what they were best at enabled organizations to be responsive Taken too far, however, such oscillation leaves organizations with no competitive advantage The distribution and accessibility of resources are two additional elements of system poisedness When resources are widely distributed, a skilled politician such as Bismarck could rise to prominence by deftly pulling the strings and playing off disparate participants But as the very system of state power that he helped create congealed into a few powerful players, his room to maneuver was reduced and his influence waned Technological systems where the sources of knowledge are diffusely located and developing rapidly are also ripe for cross-­ network transpositions But this opportunity for catalytic feedback is contingent on the pace of scientific advance If the knowledge matures or funding becomes scarce, incumbents will dominate In such cases there is little opportunity for tipping, unless those in control become too recalcitrant to continue to advance The authors in this volume use an eclectic array of methods to study emergence, ranging from www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 570  ■  Coda examining archives to constructing relational databases with centuries of detailed records to doing ethnographic observations of technical communities A similar variety is needed to study poisedness, and we urge the same openness to the creative use of multiple methods as is shown in this volume We emphasize that we view deductive modeling and inductive social histories as complements to, not substitutes for, understanding social processes Creative blending of quantitative and textual evidence is essential to progress on this front Consider, for example, the Colyvas and Maroulis’s use of Padgett et al.’s hypercycle model in chapter 16 Here the modeling offers an opportunity to test counterfactual alternatives to observations steeped in careful historical analysis of Stanford’s archives The effort is a valuable lesson to many who misread the takeaways from universities, such as MIT and Stanford, who reaped early benefits from the commercialization of their basic science Some later imitators look back on the first movers and assume they somehow got the incentives and rules right They believe there must be a recipe that can be emulated But Colyvas and Maroulis confirm earlier research by Colyvas and Powell, which documented that faculty were not spurred by the prospects of great wealth, nor were there well-­ codified routines Instead, faculty responded to the local exigencies of their research programs and the organization of their labs, looking to translate their research into tangible outcomes in order to advance science and medicine The modeling effort points out a plausible mechanism: the fear that patenting by colleagues would restrict scientific autonomy prompts a shift to a proprietary regime In this analysis, we see the great value of multiple methods, combining historical research with formal modeling A similar approach will prove valuable to examining the architecture of systems in order to uncover the mechanisms that illuminate vulnerability For example, the combination of interviews or ethnography with network analyses of elite structures would afford insight into the extent to which incumbents are absorbing new skills or are fundamentally challenged by them and reveal just how aware groups are of their connectivity Several of the chapters in this volume present network X-­rays that are sharp depictions of the structure of community relations When these carefully drawn cartographic examinations are combined with interviews that allow participants to tell their version of how they believe they fit into a larger social order, one gathers purchase on just how formidable the advantages of position are Many of the chapters in our volume draw on rich relational databases that permit linking individuals or organizations across multiple relations and data sources We have largely used these programs to track the relational profiles of individuals and organizations But there are suggestive hints in chapters 12 on Hungary and 14 on regional innovation of how to think about the system-­level changes that render particular ecologies robust or susceptible in the face of challenges For example, in their examination of successful biotech clusters, Powell et al find that the three regions where robust clusters grew all started with dense local connections, then expanded outside the respective regions In the eight communities where clusters did not develop, the most influential local participants built external connections first Neither the biotech nor the Hungarian case goes on to explore the larger question of system vulnerability, but both strongly suggest that the sequence of tie formation and the manner by which new skills were incorporated are crucial to understanding the robustness of networks These negative cases point to our final word To build a relational and historical understanding of system vulnerability does not mean looking only at cases when the walls came down Throughout this volume, there have been bankers, politicians, scientists, and engineers who moved between stations in life, seemingly in worlds without walls Our efforts have been focused on detailed reconstruction of the options that individuals and organizations pursued and did not consider at particular points in history We have dug deep into the details of different cases to produce grounded causal accounts, sensitive both to context and to the possibility that alternative accounts can be ruled out The horizons of possibilities we have sketched are the architecture of systems, not walls of concrete but self-­reproducing chains of interaction, amenable to analysis in the manner we have undertaken here www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Index of Authors Page numbers in italics indicate figures and tables Aganbegyan, Abel, 300n144 Anastasi, Carole, 41n45 Anderson, Margaret Lavinia, 250n84 Angel, D., 527n8 Aslund, Anders, 306n171 Axtell, R., 500 Barkin, Kenneth, 250n84 Barley, Stephen R., 1n5 Baron, Hans, 180, 192 Becker, Howard S., 383 Beckman, Christine M., 383n3 Bellows, Alfred, 535, 535n28 Berliner, Joseph, 271, 272 Blomberg, Clas, 50n101 Blomquist, Thomas W., 125, 127n38, 137n83, 137n84, 141–­42, 161 Blondé, Bruno, 214n35 Boerlijst, M C., 50n101, 71 Boldin, Valery, 302n154 Bonham, G J., 248n68, 251n86 Boorman, Scott A., 58n156 Boycko, M., 318 Brewer, Marilyn, 436n4 Burckhardt, Jacob, 201 Burg, U von, 520 Burrill, Stephen G., 386n18 Burris, Val, 367 Burt, Ronald S., 406 Burton, M Diane, 383n3 Buss, Leo W., 53, 53n125 Byers, Brook, 384n8, 384n10, 404, 414, 424–­26, 489 Cami, Jani, 40n39 Cape, Ronald, 382, 384, 415–­16 Casper, Steven, 449–­50 Chabod, Isabelle, 191 Chandler, Alfred D., 140n101, 169, 246n55, 284n72, 295n118 Chapais, Bernard, 93, 104n23, 105, 107–­8, 112 Chappelle, Francis H., 42n54 Chen, Katherine, 545–­46 Chiaudano, Mario, 135n68, 148 Church, Alonso, 53n123 Clarke, G W., 236n7 Cleaves, H James, 40n36 Clemens, Elisabeth, 567, 567n3 Cockburn, Ian M., 385–­86, 466n2 Cody, George D., 43, 43n66 Cohen, Stanley, 380–­82, 382n2, 415, 419 Collier, Nick, 71, 75, 78, 78n27 Colyvas, Jeannette A., 376, 498, 499 Craig, Gordon A., 244n40 Crick, F H., 39n28 Cronhjort, Mikael B., 50n101 D’Andrade, Hugh, 395, 396, 396n27, 412–­13 Daniels, Robert V., 277n23 Darby, Michael R., 436n4 Darwin, Charles, 1, 2, 12n30, 27, 37n19, 38 Dasgupta, Partha, 497 David, Paul A., 497, 546 Davies, R W., 280n46 De Duve, C., 43n66 Den Tex, Jan, 227n101 De Roover, Raymond, 122n4, 124, 169, 173, 193, 200 Dix, Gregory, 236n7 Duby, Georges, 236n7 Dumont, Louis, 239 Dunmore, Timothy, 284n73 Duzan, Steve, 426–­27 Ehrenfreund, Pascale, 40n39 Eigen, Manfred, 8n22, 36n10, 39, 46n84, 47, 48, 49–­51, 50n100, 51n104, 85 Eisenhardt, K M., 546 Ellman, Michael, 306n167, 306n172 English, Edward D., 135n70, 138n91, 148 Epstein, J M., 500 Erwin, Douglas H., 49n91 Evans, James A., 488n26 Face, Richard D., 128n44 Fleming, Lee, 520 Florida, R., 520 Fontana, Walter, 52, 53, 53n125, 55, 55, 57 Frankel, Richard Evan, 260n131 Franklin, Benjamin, 334 Fuhse, Jan, 57 Galison, Peter, 125n35 Gánti, Tibor, 35, 36 Gärdenfors, Peter, 58 Gelderblom, Oscar, 214n25, 214n35 Gilbert, Walter, 39n23, 46n86 Gillis, Steven, 397–­98, 426–­28 Glaser, Donald, 392, 416 Glick, J Leslie, 420–­22 Goeddel, David V., 419, 420 Goffman, Erving, 385 Goldthwaite, Richard A., 188, 193 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 300n141 Gould, Stephen J., 12n30, 45–­46, 46n83, 396n16 Granovetter, Mark, 358 Greenwood, Royston, 1n5, 434n1 Greif, Avner, 140n102 Haldane, J B S., 39–­40 Hall, A J., 43, 43n64 Hall, Stephen, 380, 384n11 Harrison, Mark, 283, 283n71 Hedlund, Gunnar, 353n6 Herrigel, Gary, 243n39 Hofbauer, Josef, 47, 49, 50, 71, 75, 79 Hogeweg, P., 50n101, 71 Hough, Jerry F., 273, 277n23, 285n76, 299n132, 299n135 Huber, P., 358 Israel, Jonathan I., 221n69 Jackson, David A., 392, 397, 420–­21 Jain, Sanjay, 52–­53, 54, 100 Jalbout, Abraham F., 42n54 John, Michael, 240n22 Johnson, J., 326, 326n4 Juda, A., 520 Kaeuper, Richard W., 123, 161 Kauffman, Stuart, 51–­52, 51n106 Keister, Lisa A., 352, 358 Kenney, Martin, 520 Kent, D V., 188 Kent, Francis William, 144n127, 188 Kimball, A., 39n30 King, C., 520 Klepper, Steve, 383n3 Knight, Amy, 299n137, 300n140 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 572  ■  Index of Authors Kontorovich, Vladimir, 306n167, 306n172 Kornberg, Arthur, 402n32, 403–­4, 420 Kreps, David, 1n5, 434n1 Krishna, Sandeep, 52–­53, 54, 100 Kuan, Yi-­Jehng, 40n39 Lach, S., 498 Lamont, Michelle, 546, 562 Lee, Doowan, 71, 75, 78, 78n27 Lévi-­Straus, Claude, 58, 105, 105n24 Lidtke, Vernon, 255n105 Lopez, Robert, 124 Lovejoy, Arthur O., 236n7 Luhmann, Niklas, 55–­58, 56n133, 57n141 Lunt, William E., 124n25, 132, 137n85, 139n95, 148, 152, 161 MacFarquhar, Roderick, 286n77, 291n106, 293n110 McLean, Paul D., 114n36, 138n89, 174, 175, 195, 198–­99, 201, 383 Maitland, F W., 122n7 Margulis, Lynn, 33, 37, 44 Marnef, Guido, 214n40, 217n53 Martin, William, 34, 34n2, 39n25, 41n51, 43, 43n66 Maturana, Humberto R., 55, 55nn131–­32, 56, 56nn135–­36, 57 Maynard Smith, John, 33, 36, 36n16, 37n17, 50n100 Melis, Federigo, 169, 173, 193 Meyer, John W., 434 Miller, Stanley L., 39, 39n30, 40, 50 Molho, Anthony, 180, 185, 192, 200 Molnar, Virag, 546 Morlacchi, Piera, 193, 194 Morowitz, Harold J., 34–­35, 35, 38, 38, 41–­42, 42 Mullis, Kary, 416, 416n36 Najemy, John M., 180, 185, 192, 200 Newman, Mark, 476n15 Oi, Jean C., 289n94, 295 O’Mahony, Siobhán, 545–­46, 547 Oparin, A I., 39–­41, 50 Orgel, Leslie, E., 39n23, 39n30, 52n111 Oró, J., 39n30 Owen-­Smith, Jason, 444, 445, 446 Padgett, John F., 15n31, 71, 75n17, 75n19, 75–­76, 78, 78nn26–­27, 80n33, 80–­82, 111n33, 114n36, 119, 138n89, 174, 175, 180–­81, 195, 198–­201, 383, 507n9 Palmowski, Jan, 246n53 Parker, Geoffrey, 208n2 Penhoet, Edward, 381, 392, 403, 417–­18 Peretó, J G., 43n66 Perkins, Thomas J., 389, 392, 402–­3, 412, 419–­20, 424 Pflanze, Otto, 236n7, 241n29, 242n31, 242n34, 244nn43–­45, 244n45, 246n58, 251–­52, 252nn91–­92, 252n92, 254nn100–­101, 255n109, 256n113 Poggi, Gianfranco, 236n7 Porter, Kelly, 444 Powell, Walter W., 169, 358, 370, 376, 435n2, 444, 445, 446, 498, 566n2 Prigogine, Ilya, 10n28, 34n7, 34–­35 Stern, Scott, 385–­86, 466n2 Stetter, Karl O., 42n54 Stinchcombe, Arthur L., 115n1, 435 Stuart, Toby E., 443 Swanson, Robert A., 396–­97, 402–­3 Szathmáry Eörs, 33, 36, 36n16, 37n17, 50n100 Rao, Hayagreeva, 407 Rathmann, George B., 384, 410–­12, 413, 417, 427 Retallack, James N., 256n111 Rowan, Brian, 434 Royston, Ivor, 392, 414, 424–­26 Russell, M J., 34, 34n2, 39n25, 43, 43n64, 43n66 Rutland, Peter, 299n135 Valera, Francisco J., 55, 55nn131–­32, 56, 56n136, 56n139, 57 Van Hoboken, W J., 229n116 Vasari, Georgio, 201 Vishny, R., 318 Vrba, Elisabeth S., 12n30, 396n16 Sabel, Charles, 214n35 Sagan, Dorion, 33 Santacroce, Ethel, 193-­94 Santos, F M., 546 Sapori, Armando, 122n9, 124–­25, 127, 140 Saxenian, A., 520, 536–­38 Schankerman, M., 498 Schattschneider, E E., 237n14, 237–­ 38, 245, 249 Schumpeter, Joseph A., 5n12, 9n25, 115n1, 267n1, 382, 438 Schurmann, Franz, 273n7 Sewell, William F., 400 Sewell, William H., Jr., 60, 60n178 Shapiro, James A., 49n93 Shirk, Susan L., 291, 293, 293n110, 294–­95 Shleifer, A., 318 Sigmund, Karl, 47, 49, 50, 71, 75 Skocpol, Theda, 180n61, 308 Sleeper, Sally, 383n3 Sorenson, Olav, 443 Spufford, Peter, 124 Stark, David, 349–­50, 352, 353, 364 ‘t Hart, Marjolein, 221n71 Thomas, Lewis, 44n80 Tolbert, Pamela S., 1n5 Tolstoy, Leo, 180n61 Tracy, James, 216, 216n47 Tucker, Robert C., 276n19, 283n68 Ullrich, Axel, 397n29, 403 Urey, Harold, 39, 40 Useem, Michael, 476n15 Usher, Abbott Payson, 121n3 Wächtershäuser, Günter, 43, 43n64 Walder, Andrew G., 289, 289n94, 295, 301n148 Waley, Daniel, 122n9, 130n59, 142n113 Warglien, Massimo, 58 Watson, J D., 39n28 Weber, Max, 137n81, 194, 209, 218, 223, 259, 259n127 Wehler, Hans Ulrich, 235n4, 262 Wheatcroft, S G., 280n46 White, Harrison C., 56n133, 57, 58–­ 60, 58n156, 59nn165–­66, 61, 371 Whittington, Kjersten, 444 Willerton, J P., 324 Willis, Geoffrey Grimshaw, 236n7 Witt, Ronald G., 180, 185, 192 Woese, Carle R., 39n25, 44 Wörgötter, A., 358 Yakubovich, Valery, 301n147 Yang, Dai L., 294 Young, Peyton, 434 Zaffaroni, Alejandro, 489 Zucker, Lynne G., 436n4 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Index of Subjects Page numbers in italics indicate figures and tables academic laboratories, and reproduction of proprietary science: overview of, 4, 375, 376–­77, 496–­97, 516–­18; archival examination of commercial practices and, 501, 502, 503–­6, 505; autocatalytic models and, 497, 508, 511, 513, 517; bottom-­up model and, 496, 501, 518; data and ­methods for study and, 499–­501; hybridization and, 498; science intersection with commerce and, 497–­99 See also agent-­based modeling (ABM), and academic laboratories; patenting process, and academic laboratories actors and relations, in context of organization emergence, 2–­4, 8–­9, 312, 492 agent-­based modeling (ABM), and academic laboratories: overview of, 496, 497, 506–­7, 508; analysis of, 511, 512, 513, 513–­16, 514; change mechanism comparison and, 513–­16, 515, 516; data and methods for study and, 500; representative results for, 511, 512, 513, 513, 514; routine types and, 507–­9; scientific laboratories and, 507; scientific products and, 507 See also academic laboratories, and reproduction of proprietary science agglomeration (spatial agglomeration), and high-­tech clusters, 14, 15, 435–­38, 437 aggregation/non-­aggregation, and inventor networks comparison between Boston and the Valley: Boston-­ specific reasons for aggregation and, 524, 525, 529–­30; Boston-­specific reasons for non-­aggregation and, 524, 525, 534–­37; non-­aggregation explanations and, 530–­32, 531, 532; Valley-­specific reasons for aggregation and, 526–­29, 527, 528; Valley-­ specific reasons for non-­aggregation and, 532–­34, 534 See also inventor networks comparison between Boston and Silicon Valley Alafi, Moshe, 411–­13, 416 Albizzean political faction, 176–­77, 178, 180, 183, 184, 189, 190, 200 See also Renaissance Florence, and partnership systems Albizzi faction, 176–­77, 179, 180, 182, 183, 184, 189, 190, 199 See also Renaissance Florence, and partnership systems degli Albizzi, Maso, 180, 192 Alexander IV (pope), 130, 131, 132–­ 36, 138, 157 ALL, and emergence of autocatalytic networks, 82, 82–­88, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87 ALZA: geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters and, 441, 442; inception of industry and, 387, 388; organizational features of, 389, 390–­ 91; profile of, 407, 409–­10; science’s relations with commerce and, 399 See also specific entrepreneurs and scientists Amgen: assembly of elements from multiple domains and, 401, 404n33; collaborative agreements trends and, 479, 480, 482; inception of industry and, 388; organizational and technical changes for, 385; organizational features of, 389, 390–­91, 392, 393; profile of, 407, 410–­12; science’s relations with commerce and, 393, 394, 398, 399 See also specific entrepreneurs and scientists amphibious scientist-­entrepreneurs, 386, 392, 403, 418–­20, 421, 426, 438, 491 anchoring diversity mechanism, 14, 15–­16, 377 anchor tenants, and high-­tech clusters, 438–­39, 443–­44, 447, 450, 451, 453–­55, 455, 458–­59 Andropov, Yuri: KGB and, 297, 300; purge and mass mobilization under, 21, 268n4; top-­down model and, 205, 271, 275, 297–­300, 308 See also Communism, and co-­evolution of economics and politics; post-­ Communist Russia, and financial markets and organizations antisocialism, 252, 253, 254, 257 See also Germany, and conflict displacement arbiters, and open elite model in DBFs, 468, 475–­76, 478, 492 artistic innovations during Renaissance, in context of partnership systems, 168–­69, 201, 203 Austria’s war with Germany in 1866, 19–­20, 20, 119, 241–­44, 242, 242, 243 See also Germany, and conflict displacement autocatalysis: academic laboratories and, 497, 508, 511, 513, 517; Communism and, 270, 290, 309, 310, 312; DBFs and, 400–­402, 401; Khrushchev and, 285; organizational catalysis and, 11; production, 6, 7–­10, 282, 283–­84 See also autocatalysis in chemistry and origins of life; autocatalytic networks autocatalysis, and evolution: overview of, 2; cellular autocatalysis and, 5n14, 10–­11, 261, 262; description of, 3; evolutionary theory and, 1, 2, 3, 12n30, 27, 112–­14; organization emergence and, 3; production, 6, 7–­10; self-­organizational principles of life and, 31–­32 See also autocatalysis; autocatalysis in chemistry and origins of life; autocatalytic networks; economic production as Chemistry II autocatalysis in chemistry and origins of life: overview of, 8, 31, 33; autopoiesis and, 55–­58; chemical origin of life literature and, 38, 38–­46, 42, 45; co-­evolution and, 60; “complexity barrier” to emergence of life and, 10, 50, 96; definition of, 33–­38, 35, 37; Eigen-­Schuster hypercycle model and, 31–­32, 36, 46–­47, 47, 49–­52; formal modeling and, 46–­53, 47, 48, 52, 54, 55, 55; literature on origins of life and, 38, 38–­46, 42, 45; multifunctionality and, 57; social constructivism and, 58–­60 See also autocatalysis; autocatalysis, and evolution autocatalytic networks: ALL in context of emergence of, 82, 82–­88, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87; innovation/invention and, 267; multiple networks and, 9, 11; SOLO H in context of www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 574  ■  Index of Subjects autocatalytic networks (continued) emergence of, 77, 77–­82, 78 See also autocatalysis autopoiesis, 55–­58 Baltimore and Washington D.C ­nascent cluster, 433, 437, 437, 442–­ 43, 450–­51, 454, 454–­55 banks absolved from excommunication, and corporate merchant-­banks in Dugento Tuscany, 134, 163–­65 Bay Area high-­tech cluster See San Francisco Bay Area high-­tech cluster Bayh-­Dole Act of 1980, 381, 442, 546–­47 Berg, Paul, 380, 381, 382n2, 397 Biogen: assembly of elements from multiple domains and, 401; collaborative agreements trends and, 479, 480, 482; geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters and, 441; inception of industry and, 388; organizational and technical changes for, 385; organizational features of, 389, 390–­91, 392; profile of, 407, 412–­14; science’s relations with commerce and, 393, 394, 395, 396, 399 See also specific entrepreneurs and scientists biographical autocatalysis (cellular auto­catalysis) See cellular auto­ catalysis (biographical autocatalysis) biographical transposition, in Renaissance Florence, 13, 181, 181–­82, 183, 184, 185 biotechnology industries See DBFs (dedicated biotechnology firms) Bio-­X program, 488–­89, 529n31 Birndorf, Howard, 424–­25 Bismarck, Otto von: biographical information about, 240–­41, 257, 257n116; chancellor position and, 243–­44; Danish Schleswig-­Holstein incident in 1863 and, 241 See also Germany, and conflict displacement; Germany’s dual inclusion structure blat network, and Gorbachev, 304, 304–­6 Bonsignori company of Siena, 131, 132, 134–­36, 138, 142, 144, 146–­49 Boston high tech cluster: overview of, 444–­47, 445, 448, 449, 450; collaborative agreements trends and, 479, 484, 485; as emergent region, 450–­ 51, 454–­58, 455, 456, 458; PROs and, 444–­47, 445, 450, 451, 455, 456; VC and, 444, 445, 456 See also inventor networks comparison between Boston and Silicon Valley bottom-­up model: academic laboratories and, 496, 501, 518; Communism and, 21, 274; Deng and, 289, 293, 301, 308; Gorbachev and, 297, 298, 301, 308; multiple organization inventions in the Netherlands and, 211, 215; open elite model in DBFs and, 473; partnership systems in Renaissance Florence and, 308; Stalin and, 279, 281–­82 boundaries management, and open approach to knowledge production: overview of, 545–­48; Debian Linux project and, 559–­61; open and commercial science boundaries and, 546–­47; open source and commercial software boundaries and, 547–­48 Bowes, William, 410–­12, 416, 489, 490 Boyer, Herbert W.: amphibious scientist-­entrepreneurs and, 392, 418–­20, 421, 426; Cohen-­Boyer papers and, 380, 382; on DBFs, 380n1; as Genentech co-­founder, 381, 447; geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters and, 449, 449n13; on patenting process in academic laboratories, 382n2; R&D relations with DBFs and, 385n18; science’s relations with commerce and, 396–­ 97, 398, 418–­20, 449, 472 Brezhnev, Leonid, and co-­evolution of economics and politics, 21, 271, 275, 285, 297–­99, 301, 303 Bukharin, Nikolai, 271n2, 277–­79, 286n80 Byer, Robert, 526n7, 527, 528 Byers, Brook, 384n8, 384n10, 389, 404, 414, 424–­26, 489 Calvinism, in the Netherlands: overview of, 116, 118, 208–­9, 230; Dutch revolt and, 216–­19; homology and, 18, 19, 210, 219–­21; lateral control at base of federalist system and, 209–­12, 210; merchant diaspora and, 221–­26; migration and, 18, 19, 210, 212–­14, 215; organizational consequences of merchant diaspora and, 223–­25; VOC joint-­ venture company and, 226–­30 See also the Netherlands, and multiple organization inventions “capitalism”: Communism and, 267–­68, 276, 285, 289, 305; post-­ Communist Russia and, 21, 23, 269, 297n128, 316–­22, 317, 327–­29, 331 capitalism and science, 2, 4, 375–­77 See also academic laboratories, and reproduction of proprietary science; DBFs (dedicated biotechnology firms); high-­tech clusters in the life sciences; inventor networks comparison between Boston and Silicon Valley; open approach to knowledge production; open elite model in DBFs capitalism in historic context of state formation, 2, 4, 6, 13, 17, 19, 21, 115–­20 See also Dugento Tuscany, and corporate merchant-­banks; Germany, and conflict displacement; Germany’s dual inclusion structure; the Netherlands, and multiple organization inventions; Renaissance Florence, and partnership systems cash investments, and post-­Communist Russia, 321, 323, 325 catalysts: institutions as, 537–­38; open elite model in DBFs and, 468, 478, 482–­83, 486–­91, 490n29, 493; organizational, 11; transposition and refunctionality of, 15n31 categorization, and social networks’ evolution, 111–­12 Catholic Church, and conflict displacement, 246–­51, 250 See also popes cells, 10, 101–­2 cellular autocatalysis (biographical autocatalysis): autocatalysis in context of evolution and, 5n14, 10–­11, 261, 262; Deng and, 291, 312; Gorbachev and, 270; Mao and, 270, 290, 291, 312; organization emergence and, 10–­11; Stalin and, 270, 312 cellular (mobile telecom) industry post-­Soviet Russia See post-­Soviet Russia, and cellular (mobile telecom) industry Centocor: assembly of elements from multiple domains and, 401, 404, 406; collaborative agreements trends and, 479, 480, 482; geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters and, 441; inception of industry and, 388; organizational and technical changes for, 385; organizational features of, 389, 390–­91, 393; profile of, 407, 414–­15; science’s relations with commerce and, 393, 394, 395, 398, 399; Wall and, 414–­15 Cetus: assembly of elements from multiple domains and, 401; collaborative agreements trends and, 482; geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters and, 441; inception of industry and, 388, 389; organizational and technical changes for, 385; organizational features of, 390–­91; profile of, 407; science’s relations with commerce and, 393, 394, 399 See also specific entrepreneurs and scientists Champagne fairs in France, and corporate merchant-­banks, 124, 126, 127–­29, 128, 130, 132–­33, 137–­38 Charles of Anjou, 128, 132, 133, 138, 139, 148 Charles V (king of Spain), 216 chemical and social networks See social networks’ evolution from chemical autocatalysis chemistry See autocatalysis in chemistry and origins of life; economic production as Chemistry II China, and co-­evolution of economics and politics: overview of, 271–­72, 297–­98, 309; “capitalism” and, 267; www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Index of Subjects  ■  575 personal networks and, 289–­90, 295; state enterprises and, 275, 287, 287; top-­down model and, 289 See also Communism, and co-­evolution of economics and politics; specific leaders Chiron: assembly of elements from multiple domains and, 401; collaborative agreements trends and, 479, 480, 482; geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters and, 447, 449; inception of industry and, 388; organizational and technical changes for, 385; organizational features of, 393; profile of, 407, 417–­18; science’s relations with commerce and, 393, 394, 399 See also specific entrepre­ neurs and scientists Ciompi revolt in Renaissance Florence: overview of, 172, 178–­79; partnership systems after, 117, 173–­75, 175, 180–­82, 185, 187–­88, 191–­93, 199; repression after, 179–­81 circular flow of power institutionalized in nomenklatura system: Communism and, 22–­23, 23, 268, 273, 274, 277, 284, 301–­2, 311; Gorbachev and, 299–­302; Mao and, 311; Soviet Union and, 22, 23, 23; Stalin and, 22, 268, 277, 284 Clement IV (pope), 131, 133, 134, 141, 164 closed model versus open elite model in DBFs, 467–­69 See also open elite model in DBFs co-­evolution: overview of, 2–­4, 7; economic production as Chemistry II and, 70, 89; evolutionary theory and, 37n19, 38; multiple organization inventions in the Netherlands and, 118; partnership systems in Renaissance Florence and, 171, 173 See also Communism, and co-­ evolution of economics and politics; Dugento Tuscany, and corporate merchant-­banks; the Netherlands, and multiple organization inventions; Renaissance Florence, and partnership systems cognition and categorization, in context of social networks’ evolution from chemical autocatalysis, 108–­12 Cohen, Richard, 527, 535, 535n27 cohesive recombinants repurposed, and Hungarian economy, 364–­65 collaborative agreements trends, and open elite model in DBFs, 472–­79, 473, 474, 475, 475–­79, 477 commerce’s relations with science See science’s relations with commerce communication among kin, and social networks’ evolution, 108–­9 Communism, and co-­evolution of economics and politics: overview of, 267–­68, 271–­72, 312; actors and relations in context of, 312; autocatalysis and, 270, 290, 309, 310, 312; bottom-­up model and, 21, 274; “capitalism” and, 267–­68; circular flow of power institutionalized in nomenklatura system and, 22–­23, 23, 268, 273, 274, 277, 284, 301–­2, 311; dual hierarchy and, 272–­76, 273; hybridization and, 295; longue durée trajectories and, 26n35; nomenklatura system and, 22, 23, 268, 277, 284, 301–­2, 311; state enterprises and, 273, 273–­75; top-­down model and, 271, 274 See also specific countries and leaders Communist transitions, 2, 4, 267–­70 See also Communism, and co-­ evolution of economics and politics; Hungarian economy, and interenterprise ownership networks in context of FDI; post-­Communist Russia, and financial markets and organizations; post-­Soviet Russia, and cellular (mobile telecom) industry; purge and mass mobilization mechanism competition opportunities, and Russia’s cellular industry, 340–­43 “complexity barrier” to emergence of life, and Eigen-­Schuster hypercycle model, 10, 50, 96 conflict displacement in Germany See Germany, and conflict displacement core model for economic production as Chemistry II, 10, 72–­77 See also economic production as Chemistry II; k-­core decomposition approach, and open elite model in DBFs corporate merchant-­banks in Dugento Tuscany See Dugento Tuscany, and corporate merchant-­banks corporate merchant-­banks in Florence See Medici bank in Florence corporate organizational form, and corporate merchant-­banks in Dugento Tuscany, 131, 137–­40 councils, and multiple organization inventions in the Netherlands, 209–­12, 210, 211, 215, 219, 220, 229 creative destruction: overview and definitions of, 9n25, 115n1, 267n1; DBFs and, 297n128, 382; innovation/invention and, 5n12, 9, 27, 267, 382, 438 cross-­sectional communication through symbols, and social networks’ evolution, 93–­100 Crusades, and corporate merchant-­ banks in Dugento Tuscany, 129–­30 Cultural Revolution, and Mao, 21, 25, 26, 268n3, 274, 275n13, 286, 289–­91 customs service of England, and corporate merchant-­banks in Dugento Tuscany, 133, 144 Czech model, 320, 321 Darwin, Charles, 1, 2, 12n30, 27, 37n19, 38 data and methods for study, and open elite model in DBFs, 469–­70 Datini system in Florence: bookkeeping systems and, 193–­94; composition of partnership systems and, 174, 175, 180; domestic bankers’ conversion into international system builders in context of organizational refunctionality and, 186; embedding elite marriages in context of multiple networks and, 184, 190; growth and diffusion documentation on, 174; inventions in business and, 169; literature on, 173; mixed-­kinship banks and, 199; organizational features of, 173; social and political embedding in, 175, 176–­77, 178 See also Renaissance Florence, and partnership systems Datini, Francesco di Marco, 169, 174, 175, 180, 186, 193–­94 DBFs (dedicated biotechnology firms): overview of, 4, 375–­76, 377, 379–­ 80, 406–­9; agglomerations and, 14, 15; anchoring diversity mechanism and, 14, 15–­16, 377; assembly of elements from multiple domains and, 379, 400–­406, 401, 405; autocatalysis and, 400–­402, 401; creative destruction and, 297n128, 382, 438; data and methods for study and, 386–­88, 388; first-­generation companies and, 386n18, 388, 407; fusion and, 392; high-­tech clusters compared with, 376, 386, 401n31; high-­tech cluster studies compared with, 376, 386, 401n31; historical context for, 380–­82, 386; hybridization and, 398–­99, 420, 442; legal ownership and scientific recognition issue and, 380–­81, 382; Nobel Prizes and, 380, 381, 382, 402n32, 412, 415–­16, 420; organizational and technical changes for, 382–­86; organizational features of, 388–­89, 390–­91, 392–­93; R&D laboratories and, 385–­86, 400n31, 402, 404; ­science’s relations with commerce and, 375–­76, 393–­99, 394, 398, 399, 400, 401; transposition and, 12, 14, 15, 384; VC and, 14, 15, 389, 392, 393, 398–­400, 402–­4 See also high-­tech clusters in the life sciences; open elite model in DBFs; specific DBFs; specific investors and leaders in DBFs Debian Linux project: overview of, 548–­52, 562–­63; boundaries management and, 559–­61; contributor account crisis and, 554–­56; data collection and measures for study and, 550, 550; field research and, 552; gatekeepers and, 556–­58, 557; membership process design and, 556; network expansion analysis and, 550, 559, 560; project initiation and, 552–­53; restrictions on www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 576  ■  Index of Subjects Debian Linux project (continued) candidates for membership and, 558–­59; statistical model for study and, 550, 550–­52, 551; success in context of vulnerabilities and, 553, 553–­54 See also open approach to knowledge production decentralization, and Mao, 285, 287–­88, 291 See also fiscal decentralization dedicated biotechnology firms (DBFs) See DBFs (dedicated biotechnology firms) democratization, and Gorbachev, 268n3, 298 Deng Xiaoping: overview of, 267–­68, 291–­93, 292, 311; bottom-­up model and, 289, 293, 301, 308; “capitalism” and, 285, 289, 305; cellular autocatalysis and, 291, 312; dual hierarchy and, 274–­75, 291; fiscal decentralization, 25, 268n2, 275, 291, 293–­95; hybridization and, 295, 296; longue durée trajectories and, 293; PLA and, 24, 25, 273n7, 275n16; Red Guards and, 292, 297; robust action and multivocality mechanism and, 25, 25–­26, 275n16, 293–­97; top-­down model and, 293, 301 See also China, and co-­ evolution of economics and politics; Communism, and co-­evolution of economics and politics division of labor, and open elite model in DBFs, 472 domestic bankers’ conversion into international system builders in context of organizational refunctionality, 181, 185–­87 dual hierarchy: Communism and, 272–­76, 273; conflict displacement in Germany and, 249–­51; Deng and, 274–­75, 291; Gorbachev and, 273, 274–­75, 297, 303–­4, 304; Khrushchev and, 275, 284–­85; Mao and, 275, 285–­87, 290; Soviet Union and, 273, 273; Stalin and, 268, 274–­75, 276–­80, 284 Dugento Tuscany, and corporate merchant-­banks: overview of, 17, 115–­17, 121–­24, 128, 144–­45; banks absolved from excommunication and, 134, 163–­65; Bonsignori company of Siena and, 131, 132, 134–­36, 138, 142, 144, 146–­49; case studies and, 134–­40, 146–­62; Champagne fairs in France and, 124, 126, 127–­29, 128, 130, 132–­33, 137–­38; corporate organizational form and, 131, 137–­40; Crusades and, 129–­30; customs service of England and, 133, 144; England and, 126, 128, 133–­37, 144; family names and kinship in context of companies and, 140–­44; France and, 129, 132; fusion and, 123; hybridization and, 16; incorporation and detachment mechanism and, 16, 17, 125–­27; Italian Crusades and, 129–­ 30; literature on, 124–­25; macro­ historical overview of, 127–­34; multifunctionality and, 5, 6, 7, 140, 143–­44; multiple-­network ensemble and, 5, 6, 7; organizational evolution and, 134–­40; refunctionality in, 122; Ricciardi company of Luca and, 133, 134, 134, 136–­37, 141–­43, 144–­45, 158–­62; Scali company of Florence and, 134, 134–­36, 138, 141–­43, 144, 150–­53; Scotti-­Tolomei company of Siena and, 136, 157; sequence of emergence and, 127, 128; Tolomei company of Siena and, 134, 136, 141–­42, 154–­57 See also popes; specific kings and popes Dutch East India (VOC) joint-­stock company, 210, 211, 212, 224, 226–­ 30 See also the Netherlands, and multiple organization inventions Dutch multiple organization inventions See the Netherlands, and multiple organization inventions Dutch Reformed Church, 18–­19, 19, 208–­9, 210, 211–­12, 219–­20, 223–­ 24, 228, 230 See also the Netherlands, and multiple organization inventions Dutch revolt, 16, 18, 18, 212, 214–­21, 223, 226, 228–­29 See also the Nether­lands, and multiple organization inventions economic consequences of Renaissance banking evolution: overview of, 192–­93, 201; bookkeeping and, 193–­94; commercial credit and, 194–­95; cross-­network relations of merchant and patron and, 195–­96, 196, 197, 198; hybridization and, 198, 199; mixed-­kinship banks and, 198–­200, 199; socially and politically open elite and, 200–­201 See also Renaissance Florence, and partnership systems economic production as Chemistry II: overview of, 8, 31–­32, 70–­72, 88–­89; ALL in context of emergence of autocatalytic networks and, 82, 82–­88, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87; co-­evolution and, 70, 89; core model of learning and, 72, 73–­74; core model of production and, 10, 72–­73; Eigen-­Schuster hypercycle model and, 71; experimental variations of core model and, 72, 74–­77; input environment effect and, 81; Moore neighborhoods and, 75; multifunctionality and, 87–­88; reproduction/ learning mode effect and, 80–­81; search intelligence effect and, 81–­82; SOLO H in context of emergence of autocatalytic networks and, 77, 77–­82, 78; spatial topology effect and, 79–­80; stigmergy and, 32, 76, 78, 79, 81, 82–­87, 88 Edward I (king of England), 126, 133–­ 37, 144 Eigen, Manfred: ALL in context of emergence of autocatalytic networks and, 85; autocatalysis in chemistry and origins of life defined and, 36n10; “Darwin-­Eigen cycle” and, 39, 51; formal modeling and, 47, 48, 50n100, 51n104; Nobel Prize and, 8n22, 46n84, 49–­50, 51n104 Eigen-­Schuster hypercycle model: overview of, 8; autocatalysis in chemistry and origins of life and, 31–­32, 36, 46–­47, 47, 49–­52; “complexity barrier” to emergence of life and, 10, 50, 96; economic production as Chemistry II and, 71 See also Eigen, Manfred emergent regions, and high-­tech clusters, 450–­51, 454–­58, 455, 456, 458 See also nascent regions, and high-­tech clusters; specific emergent regions evolutionary theory, 1, 2, 3, 12n30, 27, 37n19, 38, 112–­14 See also autocatalysis, and evolution exaptation, 45–­46 family circles: dual hierarchy and, 275; Gorbachev and, 295, 300–­301, 304, 305–­8; Soviet Union and, 268, 289–­90; Stalin and, 277n24, 279, 281, 284 family names and kinship in context of companies, and corporate merchant-­ banks in Dugento Tuscany, 140–­44 Farley, Peter, 384, 415–­16 FCSM (Federal Commission for the Securities Markets), 327–­28, 329–­ 30, 331, 332 FDI (foreign direct investment) in Hungarian economy See Hungarian economy, and interenterprise ownership networks in context of FDI Federal Commission for the Securities Markets (FCSM), 327–­28, 329–­30, 331, 332 financial markets and organizations in post-­Communist Russia See post-­ Communist Russia, and financial markets and organizations fiscal decentralization: Deng and, 25, 268n2, 275, 291, 293–­95; Khrushchev’s sovnarhkozy and, 284–­85, 287–­88, 301n146, 305n164, 310 See also decentralization, and Mao Fishman, Mark, 489–­90 Five-­Year Plans: Mao and, 285–­86; Stalin and, 25, 271n2, 275, 275n13, 276–­80, 285, 295, 309, 310 Florence See Renaissance Florence, and partnership systems foreign direct investment (FDI) in Hungarian economy See Hungarian www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Index of Subjects  ■  577 economy, and interenterprise ownership networks in context of FDI formal modeling, and autocatalysis in chemistry, 46–­53, 47, 48, 52, 54, 55, 55 formal organizational forms, 321, 322 founders and group names, in context of social networks’ evolution from chemical autocatalysis, 109–­11 fragmentation of principality bystanders through wars, and conflict displacement, 238–­39, 241–­42 France: Champagne fairs in context of corporate merchant-­banks in Dugento Tuscany and, 124, 126, 127–­29, 128, 130, 132–­33, 137–­38; corporate merchant-­banks in Dugento Tuscany and, 129, 132; popes’ role in corporate merchant-­banks and, 129, 132, 135, 136; war with Germany in 1870 and, 19, 119, 239, 241, 245, 261 See also Germany, and conflict displacement Frederick II (Holy Roman Emperor), 129–­30, 132 Froix, Michael, 532n23, 532–­36, 533n25 functional aggregation of linked hypercycles, and social networks’ evolution, 112, 112–­13 fusion, and organization evolution, 123, 174, 191, 202, 230, 392 fusion and hybridity mechanism, 125 See also hybridization gatekeepers, 468, 476, 478, 493, 556–­ 58, 557 See also open approach to knowledge production; open elite model in DBFs Genentech: assembly of elements from multiple domains and, 401, 402–­3, 404n33; collaborative agreements trends and, 479, 480, 482, 483; geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters and, 441, 447, 449; inception of industry and, 388; organizational and technical changes for, 385–­86; organizational features of, 389, 390–­91, 392–­93; profile of, 407, 418–­20; science’s relations with commerce and, 393, 394, 395, 396–­ 97, 399 See also specific entrepre­ neurs and scientists generalized exchange, and social networks’ evolution, 105–­8, 106, 107 generation of ‘38, and Stalin, 22, 23, 268, 276, 282, 284, 299n136, 310 Genex: assembly of elements from multiple domains and, 401, 404; geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters and, 441; inception of industry and, 388; organizational features of, 389, 390–­91, 392; profile of, 407, 420–­22; science’s relations with commerce and, 393, 394, 398, 399 See also specific entrepreneurs and scientists Genomics Institute of the Novartis Research Foundation (GNF), 489 Genzyme: assembly of elements from multiple domains and, 401, 404; collaborative agreements trends and, 482; inception of industry and, 388; organizational and technical changes for, 385; organizational features of, 389, 390–­91, 393; profile of, 407, 422–­24; science’s relations with commerce and, 393, 394, 398, 399 See also specific entrepreneurs and scientists geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters: overview of, 441–­44, 443; anchor tenants and, 443–­44; comparison of leading centers and, 447, 448; multiple networks and, 443–­45, 450; nascent regions and, 396n37, 450–­51, 452, 453, 454, 454–­59, 455, 456, 458, 487n25 See also high-­tech clusters in the life sciences; specific high-­tech clusters Germany, and conflict displacement: overview of, 19–­21, 20, 119–­20, 236–­40, 238, 260–­62; antisocialism and, 252, 253, 254, 257; Austrian war in 1866 and, 19–­20, 20, 119, 241–­44, 242, 242, 243; Catholic Church in context of Kulturkampf and, 246–­51, 250; dual hierarchy and, 249–­51; fragmentation of principality bystanders through wars and, 238–­39, 241–­42; France’s war in 1870 with, 19, 119, 239, 241, 245, 261; hieratic sublimation and, 240, 247; hybridization and, 235; institutional level and, 242, 242–­44, 249–­50, 250, 251; international relations level and, 241, 242, 242, 244; Kartell and, 256, 257, 259–­60; Kulturkampf and, 246–­51, 250; macrohistorical dynamics generated by, 257–­60; mass interest groups and, 257–­60, 259; political party level and, 237, 237–­38, 250, 251; political party realignment and, 243, 244–­46, 248–­49; protectionism in context of Sammlungspolitik and, 239, 251–­52, 253, 254–­55, 256, 257, 259–­60; social welfare and, 255–­57; top-­down model and, 257; universal male suffrage and, 242, 242, 244n43, 257n121 See also Germany’s dual inclusion structure; hieratic authority Germany’s dual inclusion structure: overview of, 19–­21, 21, 119–­20, 236–­37, 237, 240, 260–­62; hieratic authority and, 237, 240, 240; international relations and, 244; Kulturkampf and, 247–­48 See also Germany, and conflict displacement gift giving: economic production as Chemistry II and, 88; gift rate and, 102–­6, 109–­10; social networks’ evolution and, 102–­6, 109–­10, 114 Gilbert, Walter, 39n23, 46n86, 380, 381, 392, 395–­96, 412–­14, 441 GKI (State Committee on Property), 318–­19, 320 GKO (government bond) market, 325, 326 glasnost, and Gorbachev, 298, 299–­ 302, 305–­8 GNF (Genomics Institute of the Novartis Research Foundation), 489 Gorbachev, Mikhail: overview of, 267–­68, 271, 308–­9, 311–­12; banking system and, 324; blat network and, 304, 304–­6; bottom-­up model and, 297, 298, 301, 308; cellular autocatalysis and, 270; circular flow of power institutionalized in nomen­ klatura system and, 299–­302; democratization and, 268n3, 298; dual hierarchy and, 273, 274–­75, 297, 303–­4, 304; family circles and, 295, 300–­301, 304, 305–­8; glasnost and, 298, 299–­302, 305–­8; Hungarian-­ style market socialism and, 268n3, 298, 301, 302, 303, 308; Kádár-­style enterprise autonomy and, 302, 305, 306, 311; KGB and, 298, 300, 301, 302, 307n176, 308–­9; Kosygin-­style administrative reforms and, 298; Law on Cooperatives in 1988 and, 306, 324; Law on State Enterprises in 1987 and, 271, 301, 303, 305, 306; the military and, 273n7, 298–­ 301, 304, 309; nomenklatura system under, 301–­2; perestoika and, 268, 298, 300–­303, 305–­6; purge and mass mobilization mechanism under, 23, 274–­75, 298, 306–­7, 309; robust action and multivocality mechanism and, 298, 308; state enterprises and, 287, 297, 300n145, 301–­6, 304, 305–­6; tolkoch network and, 304, 304–­6; top-­down model and, 297–­ 300, 305, 308; writings by, 300n141, 303, 303n157 See also Communism, and co-­evolution of economics and politics government bond (GKO) market, 325, 326 Great Leap Forward, 286–­91 See also Mao Zedong Gregory IX (pope), 130, 135n70 Guion, Todd, 527, 528, 529 Healy, Paul, 536n32 Henney, Christopher, 426–­27 hieratic authority: overview of, 19, 119, 239–­40, 240, 260–­61; antisocialism and, 251, 253; dual hierarchy and, 249–­51; dual inclusion structure in Germany and, 237, 240, 240; Kulturkampf and, 247–­49, 250, 251; mass interest groups and, 259, 259–­60; political party realignment and, 245 See also Germany, and conflict displacement www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 578  ■  Index of Subjects hieratic sublimation, 240, 247 See also Germany, and conflict displacement high-­tech clusters in the life sciences: overview of, 4, 375, 376, 377, 434–­ 35, 459–­61; amphibious scientist-­ entrepreneurs and, 386, 392, 403, 418–­20, 421, 426, 438; anchor tenants and, 438–­39, 447, 450, 451, 453–­55, 455, 458–­59; data and methods for study and, 440–­41; DBFs compared with, 376, 386, 401n31; emergent regions and, 450–­ 51, 454–­58, 455, 456, 458; multiple networks and, 438–­40, 451, 457–­59, 458; PROs and, 437–­38, 441, 442, 444, 451; spatial agglomeration and, 14, 15, 435–­38, 437; transposition and, 438–­40, 447, 449, 454–­55, 456, 459, 461; VC and, 440–­45, 447, 450, 455–­56, 459, 461 See also geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters; specific high-­tech clusters Hitler’s defeat in world war, and Stalin, 22, 268, 272, 275, 283, 284 Holy Roman Emperor (Frederick II), 129–­30, 132 Houston nascent cluster: overview of, 450–­51, 453, 454, 455, 456, 457n16, 458; geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters and, 441–­43; spatial agglomeration in high-­tech clusters and, 437 Hungarian economy, and interenterprise ownership networks in context of FDI: overview of, 4, 23–­24, 267, 268, 270, 275, 297, 347–­49, 369–­71; cohesive recombinants repurposed and, 364–­65; data set and, 354–­55; domestic embeddedness of FDI and, 349–­54; emergence of, 349–­50; foreign-­led network formation and, 366–­67; Gorbachev and, 268n3, 298, 301, 302, 303, 308; hybridization and, 23; interenterprise ownership networks data set and, 354–­55; interenterprise ownership networks emergence and, 349–­50; isolation pathways and, 361, 366–­ 67; local network positions and, 357–­58, 359; macrostructure of ownership and, 349–­51, 350, 351, 356, 357, 369–­70; network formation as foreign-­led and, 366–­67; optimal matching analysis of network sequences and, 358–­60, 360; political ties and network sequences and, 367–­69, 368, 369; political ties data set and, 355, 356; political ties with, 295, 351–­52; political ties with interenterprise ownership networks and, 295, 351–­52; privatization and business groups mechanism and, 23–­24; sequence pathways and FDI and, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364–­67; sequence pathways for FDI and, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364–­67; social sequence analysis of network evolution and, 357–­60, 359, 360; social sequence approach to foreign embeddedness and, 352–­54; spin-­ off star-­periphery recombinants pathway and, 360, 361, 362, 366; start-­ups pathway and, 361, 365 hybridization: academic laboratories and, 498; co-­evolution of economics and politics under Communism and, 295, 296; conflict displacement in Germany and, 235; corporate merchant-­banks in Dugento Tuscany and, 16; DBFs and, 398–­99, 420, 442; fusion and hybridity mechanism and, 125; incorporation and detachment mechanism in corporate merchant-­banks in Dugento Tuscany and, 16; interenterprise ownership networks in Hungary and, 23; multiple networks and, 125, 170–­72, 569; multiple organization inventions in the Netherlands and, 211, 230; open elite model in DBFs and, 468, 489, 490, 491, 493; partnership systems in Renaissance Florence and, 125, 198, 199, 202; structural vulnerability and, 27 Hybritech: assembly of elements from multiple domains and, 401, 404; collaborative agreements trends and, 482, 483; geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters and, 441, 449–­50; inception of industry and, 388; profile of, 407, 424–­26; San Diego cluster and, 440n7; science’s relations with commerce and, 393, 394, 395, 399 See also specific entrepre­ neurs and scientists Immunex: assembly of elements from multiple domains and, 404n33; collaborative agreements trends and, 479, 480, 482; Duzan and, 426–­27; Gillis and, 397–­98, 426–­28; Henney and, 426–­27; inception of industry and, 388; profile of, 407; science’s relations with commerce and, 393, 394, 397–­98, 399 incorporation and detachment mechanism, and corporate merchant-­banks in Dugento Tuscany, 16, 17, 125–­27 informal organizational forms (“unlicensed financial companies”), 322–­23, 323 information-­flows, and inventor networks comparison between Boston and the Valley, 528, 529–­30, 535, 538–­39 Innocent IV (pope), 129–­30, 131, 132, 134, 135n70, 137n81 innovation: autocatalytic networks and, 267; creative destruction and, 5n12, 9, 27, 267, 382, 438; definition of, 1–­2, 5; invention versus, 5–­7, 6, 6–­7; relational ties and networks and, 5, 6, See also invention input environment effect, and economic production as Chemistry II, 81 Institute for Systems Biology (ISB), 490–­91 institutions: as catalysts, 537–­38; conflict displacement in Germany and, 241–­44, 242, 249–­51, 250, 251; origins of, 1–­2, 435n2 See also public research organizations (PROs) invention: autocatalytic networks and, 267; creative destruction and, 5n12, 9, 27, 267, 382, 438; definition of, 1; relational ties and networks and, 5, 6, See also innovation inventor networks comparison between Boston and Silicon Valley: overview of, 4, 16, 377, 520–­21, 539–­40; data and methods for study and, 521–­22, 522, 523; density and robustness analysis and, 538; information-­flows and, 528, 529–­30, 535, 538–­39; institutions as catalysts and, 537–­38; matching algorithm and, 540; patent robustness analysis, 540–­43, 541, 542; qualitative data for study and, 522, 525–­27, 526; qualitative methods for study and, 522, 523, 524, 524–­25, 525 ISB (Institute for Systems Biology), 490–­91 isolation pathways, and Hungarian economy, 361, 366–­67 Italian Crusades, and corporate merchant-­banks in Dugento Tuscany, 129–­30 Johnson, Franklin “Pitch,” 489 Johnston, Robert A., 420–­22 joint-­stock company, and VOC, 210, 211, 212, 224, 226–­30 Joyce, Thomas, 536, 536n32 Kádár, János, and enterprise autonomy, 297, 300, 302, 305, 306, 311 Kartell, 256, 257, 259–­60 See also Germany, and conflict displacement Kaufman, Charles, 524, 524–­25, 529n14, 529–­32, 530n17, 536, 539 k-­core decomposition approach, and open elite model in DBFs, 469–­70, 475–­76, 486, 492 See also core model for economic production as Chemistry II KGB, 297, 298, 300, 301, 302, 307n176, 308–­9 See also ­Soviet Union, and co-­evolution of ­economics and politics Khanna, Pyare, 527, 528, 529, 529n11, 537–­39 Khrushchev, Nikita, and co-­evolution of economics and politics: overview of, 267–­68; autocatalysis and, 285; dual hierarchy and, 275, 284–­85; fiscal decentralization and, 284–­85, 287–­88, 301n146, 305n164, 310 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Index of Subjects  ■  579 Kino, Gordon, 526nn6–­7, 526–­27, 528 Kleiner, Gene, 389 Kolesnikov, Aleksander, 331–­32 Koning, Paul, 524, 525, 529, 529n14, 530, 530n16, 532–­33, 535n28, 536, 539 Kosygin, Aleksei, and co-­evolution of economics and politics, 21, 268n4, 275, 297–­302, 298, 299 Kozlovsky, William, 526n7, 527, 528 Kulturkampf, 246–­51, 250 See also Germany, and conflict displacement “lash-­up” (assembly of elements from multiple domains), and DBFs, 379, 400–­406, 401, 405 Law on Cooperatives in 1988, and Gorbachev, 306, 324 Law on State Enterprises in 1987, and Gorbachev, 271, 301, 303, 305, 306 learning: spatial endogenous, 94–­96; symbols in context of long-­distance endogenous, 96–­98 legal ownership and scientific recognition issue, and DBFs, 380–­81, 382 Lenin, Vladimir: co-­evolution of economics and politics and, 276, 299, 307–­8, 310, 312; NEP and, 271n2, 275n11, 277–­80, 302; Stalin’s relations with, 277; world war and economic development under, 276; writings of, 303n155 See also Communism, and co-­evolution of economics and politics Ligachev, Yegor, 299, 306, 307 Linux See Debian Linux project loans-­for-­shares deal between government, and banks, 325–­27, 326 long-­distance endogenous learning through symbols, 96–­98 longitudinal communication through teaching, and evolution of social networks, 100–­108, 106, 107 longue durée trajectories: Communism and, 26n35; Deng and, 293 Los Angeles nascent cluster: overview of, 450–­51, 454, 454–­56, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459; collaborative agreements trends and, 479; geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters and, 441–­43; spatial agglomeration in high-­tech clusters and, 437, 437 macrohistorical dynamics, 127–­34, 257–­60 See also Dugento Tuscany, and corporate merchant-­banks; Germany, and conflict displacement macrostructure of ownership, and Hungarian economy, 349–­51, 350, 351, 356, 357, 369–­70 male suffrage, 242, 242, 244n43, 257n121 See also Germany, and conflict displacement Mao Zedong: overview of, 267–­68, 291–­93, 310–­11; cellular auto-­ catalysis and, 270, 290, 291, 312; circular flow of power institutionalized in nomenklatura system and, 311; Cultural Revolution and, 21, 25, 26, 268n3, 274, 275n13, 286, 289–­91; decentralization and, 285, 287–­88, 291; dual hierarchy and, 275, 285–­87, 290; Five-­Year Plans and, 285–­86; Great Leap Forward, 286–­91; PLA and, 273n7, 290–­92, 293n110, 296n123, 297, 310; purge and mass mobilization mechanism under, 21, 274–­75, 286, 288–­89, 290–­91, 292; Red Guards and, 290, 297, 311; state enterprises and, 287, 287, 289–­90, 310 See also China, and co-­evolution of economics and politics; Communism, and co-­ evolution of economics and politics markets: financial markets in post-­ Communist Russia and, 317, 317–­ 18; open elite model in DBFs and, 470–­72; post-­Communist Russia and, 318–­19, 329, 329–­31 mass interest groups, 257–­60, 259 See also Germany, and conflict displacement matching algorithm, and inventor networks comparison between Boston and the Valley, 540 Maya, Jakob, 524, 535, 535n28, 536 Medicean political faction, 176–­77, 178, 179, 183, 184, 189, 192, 195 Medici bank in Florence: corporate merchant-­banks in Dugento Tuscany compared with, 123; cross-­network relations of merchant and patron and, 198; growth and diffusion documentation on, 174; literature on, 169, 173; mixed-­kinship banks and, 199–­200; organizational features of, 173; social and political embedding in, 178 See also Renaissance Florence, and partnership systems; specific Medici family members de’ Medici, Averardo di Francesco, 25 de’ Medici, Cosimo di Giovanni, 25, 192, 200, 236, 291, 296, 308 de’ Medici, Francesco di Bicci, 199 de’ Medici, Giovanni di Bicci, 186, 199, 200 de’ Medici, Salvestro d’Alamanno, 179, 180, 199–­200 de’ Medici, Vieri di Cambio, 174, 175, 195, 198–­99, 200 merchant diaspora in the Netherlands, 221–­26 methodological individualism, 3, 56 methodology and empirical cases, for organization emergence, 4–­5, 28 migration and homology mechanism, in the Netherlands, 16, 18, 18–­19, 210, 212–­15 the military, and Communism: China’s Red Guards and, 290, 292, 297, 311; Gorbachev and, 273n7, 298–­ 301, 304, 309; Red Guards and, 297; Stalin’s defeat of Hitler in world war and, 22, 268, 272, 275, 283, 284 See also People’s Liberation Army (PLA) Miller, Greg, 536n32 mitosis, and social networks’ evolution, 102 mobile telecom (cellular) industry in post-­Soviet Russia See post-­Soviet Russia, and cellular (mobile telecom) industry Moore neighborhoods, 75, 94, 96, 102–­3, 104, 507, 514 Moscow See post-­Soviet Russia, and cellular (mobile telecom) industry multifunctionality: ALL in context of emergence of autocatalytic networks and, 87–­88, 107; autopoiesis and, 57; capitalism in historic context of state formation and, 116; corporate merchant-­banks in Dugento Tuscany and, 5, 6, 7, 140, 143–­44; organization emergence and, 11; partnership systems in Renaissance Florence and, 13, 117 multiple domains for assembly of elements (“lash-­up”), and DBFs, 379, 400–­406, 401, 405 multiple networks: overview of, 3–­5; communities and, 567; embedding elite marriages in Renaissance Florence and, 172–­73, 175, 176–­77, 178, 181, 183, 184, 187–­92, 189, 190, 200; geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters, 443–­45, 450; high-­tech clusters and, 438–­40, 451, 457–­59, 458; hybridization and, 125, 170–­72, 569; innovation/­ invention and, 5–­7, 6; partnership systems in Renaissance Florence and, 170–­72, 171, 187–­88, 189, 190, 191–­92; relational ties and networks and, 5, 6, 7, 10–­12, 16, 19, 27, 568; social or physical boundaries and, 567–­68; social worlds and, 567; studies in, 566–­70 multiple organization inventions in the Netherlands See the Netherlands, and multiple organization inventions multivocality and robust action mechanism See robust action and multivocality mechanism nascent regions, and high-­tech clusters, 396n37, 450–­51, 452, 453, 454, 454–­59, 455, 456, 458, 487n25 See also emergent regions, and high-­tech clusters; specific cities national level of activity, 317, 317–­18 NEP (New Economic Policy), 271n2, 275n11, 277–­80, 302 the Netherlands, and multiple organization inventions: overview of, 19, 116, 117–­19, 208–­9, 230–­31; bottom-­up model and, 211, 215; co-­ evolution and, 118; Dutch Reformed www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 580  ■  Index of Subjects the Netherlands (continued) Church and, 18–­19, 19, 208–­9, 210, 211–­12, 219–­20, 223–­24, 228, 230; Dutch revolt and, 16, 18, 18, 212, 214–­21, 223, 226, 228–­29; fusion and, 230; governmental federalism [councils], 210, 211; hybridization and, 211, 230; joint-­stock company of VOC and, 210, 211, 212, 224, 226–­30; lateral control at base of federalist system and, 209–­12, 210; merchant diaspora and, 221–­26; migration and homology mechanism of, 16, 18, 18, 18–­19, 210, 212–­15; organizational consequences of merchant diaspora and, 222–­26; public finance transformation of Spanish regents structure and, 215–­16; Spanish Netherlands and, 16, 208–­10, 210, 212–­19, 221, 225–­26; tripartite federalism and, 18, 119, 208–­9, 212–­15, 213 See also Calvinism, in the Netherlands network folding, 6–­7 network recombination, 5, 6–­7, 12 New Economic Policy (NEP), 271n2, 275n11, 277–­80, 302 New Jersey nascent cluster: geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters and, 441, 443; as high-­tech nascent region, 396n37, 450–­51, 452, 454–­ 57, 455, 456, 458, 487n25; spatial agglomeration in high-­tech clusters and, 437, 437 New York nascent cluster: collaborative agreements trends and, 482n21; geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters and, 441–­42; as high-­tech nascent region, 450–­51, 452, 454–­ 57, 455, 456, 458; spatial agglomeration in high-­tech clusters and, 436–­37, 437 NIBR (Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research), 489–­90 NKVD, 22, 273n7, 281–­82, 284, 290, 297, 300, 310 See also Stalin, ­Joseph, and co-­evolution of ­economics and politics Nobel Prizes, 380, 381, 382, 402n32, 412, 415–­16, 420 non-­aggregation/aggregation, and inventor networks comparison between Boston and the Valley See aggregation/non-­aggregation, and inventor networks comparison between Boston and the Valley Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research (NIBR), 489–­90 Oldenbarnevelt, Johan, 219, 200, 227 Olsen, Ken, 536 open approach to knowledge production: overview of, 4, 377, 545, 562–­ 63; boundaries management and, 545–­48; open and commercial science boundaries and, 546–­47; open source and commercial software boundaries and, 547–­48; Wikipedia and, 545, 566 See also Debian Linux project open elite model in DBFs: overview of, 4, 15, 27, 375, 376, 377, 466–­67, 468–­69; actors and relations in context of, 492; amphibious scientist-­ entrepreneurs and, 491; arbiters and, 468, 475–­76, 478, 492; Bio-­X program and, 488–­89, 529n31; bottom-­up model and, 473; catalysts and, 468, 478, 482–­83, 486–­91, 490n29, 493; closed model versus, 467–­69; collaborative agreements trends and, 472–­79, 473, 474, 475, 475–­79, 477; data and methods for study and, 469–­70; division of labor and, 472; gatekeepers and, 468, 476, 478, 493; GNF and, 489; hybridization and, 468, 489, 490, 491, 493; internal dynamics of, 479, 480, 481, 481–­86, 483, 485; ISB and, 490–­91; k-­core decomposition approach and, 469–­70, 475–­76, 486, 492; market structure and, 470–­72; NIBR and, 489–­90; PROs and, 473, 478–­79, 480, 482–­85, 486, 488; R&D collaborative agreements and, 472, 474, 478; robustness of, 486–­91; VC and, 472–­74, 478–­79, 482, 484–­85, 487–­ 89 See also open elite model in DBFs organizational genesis: overview of, 11–­12; anchoring diversity mechanism of, 15–­16; circular flow of power institutionalized in nomenklatura system and, 22, 23; conflict displacement and dual inclusion mechanism of, 19–­21, 20, 21; corporate merchant-­banks and, 134–­40; definition of, 11; financial markets in post-­Communist Russia and, 317, 318, 321–­27; incorporation and detachment mechanism of, 16, 17; migration and homology mechanism of, 16, 18, 18–­19; multiple networks and, 12; privatization and business groups mechanism of, 23–­24; purge and mass mobilization mechanism of, 21–­23, 22; robust action and multivocality mechanism of, 24, 24–­26, 25; stigmergy and, 23; transposition and refunctionality mechanism of, 12, 13, 14, 15 See also organization emergence organizational novelty, 1–­5 organizational theory, 1–­2 organization emergence: actors and relations in context of, 2–­4, 8–­9; autocatalysis and, 3; cells and, 10; cellular autocatalysis and, 10–­11; creative destruction and, 9; evolutionary theory and, 1, 2, 3, 12n30, 27; financial markets in post-­Communist Russia and, 317, 317–­18; innovation and, 1–­2; innovation versus invention and, 5–­7, 6, 6–­7; methodological individualism and, 3; methodology and empirical cases and, 4–­5; multifunctionality and, 11; multiple-­network ensemble in Renaissance Florence and, 5, 6, 7; network folding and, 6–­7; network recombination and, 5, 6–­7, 12; organizational catalysis defined and, 11; organizational novelty and, 1–­5; organizational theory and, 1–­2; production autocatalysis and, 6, 7–­10; social constructivism and, 2–­3; social networks and, 3–­6, 9, 11; structural vulnerability and, 26–­28 See also organizational genesis origins of life and autocatalysis in chemistry See autocatalysis in chemistry and origins of life Oró, J., 39n30 owners’ identity and resource access, in Russia’s cellular industry, 341–­43 partnership systems in Renaissance Florence See Renaissance Florence, and partnership systems patenting process, and academic laboratories: overview of, 382n2, 498, 499, 517–­18; ABM model analysis and, 511, 512, 513, 513, 515–­16; archival examination of commercial practices and, 501, 502, 503–­4, 505, 506–­7; change mechanisms comparisons and, 513–­14; data and methods for study and, 501; knowledge production and, 507–­11, 508, 510 See also academic laboratories, and reproduction of proprietary science patent robustness analysis, and inventor networks comparison, 540–­43, 541, 542 See also patenting process, and academic laboratories patron-­client networks, 324–­25 People’s Liberation Army (PLA): Deng and, 24, 25, 273n7, 275n16; Mao and, 273n7, 290–­92, 293n110, 296n123, 297, 310 perestoika, and Gorbachev, 268, 298, 300–­303, 305–­6 Perlman, Radia, 524, 524–­25, 529n14, 530, 532, 536 personal networks, in China, 289–­90, 295 Philadelphia nascent cluster: collaborative agreements trends and, 479, 482n21; geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters and, 441–­43; as high-­tech nascent region, 450–­51, 452, 454–­57, 455, 456, 458; spatial agglomeration in high-­tech clusters and, 437, 437 Philip II (king of Spain), 216–­18, 221 PLA (People’s Liberation Army) See People’s Liberation Army (PLA) Polish model, 320 politics: Germany’s conflict displacement and, 237, 237–­38, 243, www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Index of Subjects  ■  581 244–­46, 248–­49, 250, 251; Hungarian economy and, 355, 356, 367–­69, 368, 369 politics in Renaissance Florence: ­Albizzean political faction and, 176–­77, 178, 180, 183, 184, 189, 190, 200; co-­optation of cambio bankers and international merchants in context of biographical transposition and, 13, 181, 181–­82, 183, 184, 185; economic consequences during Renaissance banking evolution and, 200–­201; economic networks’ in context of, 172–­73; as embedded in society, 175, 176–­77, 178; Medicean political faction and, 176–­77, 178, 179, 183, 184, 189, 192, 195; Medici bank and, 178 See also politics; Renaissance Florence, and partnership systems popes: banks absolved from excommunication by, 134, 141, 163–­65; bulls issued by, 130, 131; Champagne fairs and, 126, 130, 132, 139; conflict displacement in Germany and, 246–­47, 246–­51, 250, 251; corporate organizational forms and, 136, 137–­39, 142, 157; incorporation and detachment mechanism, 126–­27; Italian Crusades and, 129–­30; merchant-­banks’ emergence and, 127, 128, 132–­33; War of Eight Saints and, 178–­79, 187 See also Dugento Tuscany, and corporate merchant-­banks; specific popes Portinari, Giovanni, 194 post-­Communist Russia, and financial markets and organizations: overview of, 4, 23, 267–­69, 307, 309, 316–­18, 331–­32; brokers and, 321, 322, 329; cash investments and, 321, 323, 325; Czech model and, 320, 321; design divergence from structure and, 329, 329–­31; FCSM and, 327–­28, 329–­ 30, 331, 332; formal organizational forms and, 321, 322; GKI and, 318–­19, 320; GKO market and, 325, 326; informal organizational forms and, 322–­23, 323; loans-­for-­shares deal between government and banks and, 325–­27, 326; national, market and organizational levels of activity and, 317, 317–­18; organizational forms emergence and, 317, 318, 321–­27; patron-­client networks and, 324–­25; Polish model and, 320; political context of initial market design and, 318–­19; private banking system and, 33, 322, 324, 325–­27, 328, 330; privatization and business groups mechanism and, 21, 23, 269, 297n128, 316–­22, 317, 327–­29, 331; RCB and, 324, 327–­29, 330; voucher privatization process and, 23, 319–­ 21, 322, 325, 327–­28, 329–­30, 331 post-­Soviet Russia, and cellular (mobile telecom) industry: overview of, 4, 23, 267–­69, 334–­36, 335, 343–­ 44; competition opportunities and, 340–­43; foreign owners’ identity and resource access and, 341–­43; industry structure and, 335, 335, 336–­37, 337, 338; Russian owners’ background and resource access and, 340–­41; social construction of competition and, 338–­39 private banking system, 33, 322, 324, 325–­27, 328, 330 privatization and business groups mechanism, 21, 23, 269, 297n128, 316–­22, 317, 327–­29, 331; organizational genesis and, 23–­24 See also Hungarian economy, and interenterprise ownership networks in context of FDI; post-­Soviet Russia, and cellular (mobile telecom) industry Proctor, Richard, 406 production autocatalysis, 6, 7–­10, 282, 283–­84 PROs (public research organizations) See public research organizations (PROs) protectionism and Sammlungspolitik, 239, 251–­52, 253, 254–­55, 256, 257, 259–­60 See also Germany, and conflict displacement public research organizations (PROs): high-­tech clusters and, 437–­38, 441, 442, 444, 451, 454, 456; open elite model in DBFs and, 473, 478–­79, 480, 482–­85, 486, 488 purge and mass mobilization mechanism: Andropov and, 21, 268n4; Gorbachev and, 23, 274–­75, 298, 306–­7, 309; Mao and, 21, 274–­ 75, 286, 288–­89, 290–­91, 292; organizational genesis and, 21–­23, 22, 274–­75; Stalin and, 21–­23, 22, 274–­75, 276–­84 Putin, Vladimir, 268, 269, 297n128, 309 See also post-­Communist Russia, and financial markets and organizations Rathmann, George B., 384, 411–­12, 413, 417, 427 RCB (Russian Central Bank), 324, 327–­29, 330 R&D (research and development) laboratories, and DBFs, 385–­86, 400n31, 402, 404, 472, 474, 478 reciprocity, and social networks’ evolution, 103–­5 Red Guards, 290, 292, 297, 311 refunctionality, in partnership systems, 117, 125, 170, 172, 181 refunctionality mechanism, 12, 13, 14, 15, 125 relational ties and networks, 5, 6, 7, 10–­12, 16, 19, 27, 568 Renaissance Florence, and partnership systems: overview of, 13, 116, 117, 168–­70; Albizzean political faction and, 176–­77, 178, 180, 183, 184, 189, 190, 200; Albizzi faction and, 176–­77, 179, 180, 182, 183, 184, 189, 190, 199; artistic innovations during Renaissance in context of, 168–­69, 201, 203; bottom-­up model and, 308; Ciompi revolt and repression in context of, 172, 178–­81; co-­evolution and, 171, 173; composition of post-­Ciompi, 117, 173–­75, 175, 180–­82, 185, 187–­88, 191–­93, 199; documentation of, 173–­78, 175, 176–­77; domestic bankers’ conversion into international system builders in context of organizational refunctionality and, 181, 185–­87; economic networks relationship to politics and, 172–­73; embedding elite marriages in context of multiple networks and, 172–­73, 175, 176–­77, 178, 181, 183, 184, 187–­92, 189, 190, 200; fusion and, 174, 191, 202; gift giving and, 114; growth and diffusion documentation on, 173–­74; hybridization and, 125, 202; Medicean political faction and, 176–­77, 178, 179, 183, 184, 189, 192, 195; multifunctionality and, 13, 117; multiple networks and, 170–­72, 171, 187–­88, 189, 190, 191–­92; political co-­optation of cambio bankers and international merchants in context of biographical transposition in, 13, 181, 181–­ 82, 183, 184, 185; refunctionality in, 117, 125, 170, 172, 181; Ricci faction and, 176–­77, 179, 182, 183, 184, 189, 190, 194; social and political embedding in, 175, 176–­ 77, 178; theoretical framework for, 170–­73, 171; transposition and, 12, 13, 15, 117, 125, 172, 181, 187 See also Datini system; economic consequences of Renaissance banking evolution; Medici bank in Florence reproduction/learning mode effect, and economic production as Chemistry II, 80–­81 research and development (R&D) laboratories, and DBFs, 385–­86, 400n31, 402, 404, 472, 474, 478 Research Triangle, North Carolina nascent cluster, 437, 442–­43, 450–­51, 453, 454, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458 Ribi, Hans, 527, 528, 529, 529n12, 538–­39 Ricci, Ardingo di Corso, 174, 194 Ricci faction, 176–­77, 179, 182, 183, 184, 189, 190, 194 See also Renaissance Florence, and partnership systems Ricciardi company of Luca, 133, 134, 134, 136–­37, 141–­43, 144–­45, 158–­62 Risk, William, 526n5, 526n7, 526–­28, 528, 537 Robertson, Channing, 533, 533n24 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 582  ■  Index of Subjects robust action and multivocality mechanism: overview of, 125; Deng and, 25, 25–­26, 275n16, 293–­97; Gorbachev and, 298, 308; organizational genesis and, 24, 24–­26, 25 robustness, of open elite model in DBFs, 486–­91 Royston, Ivor, 392, 414, 424–­26 Russia See post-­Communist Russia, and financial markets and organizations; post-­Soviet Russia, and cellular (mobile telecom) industry; Soviet Union, and co-­evolution of economics and politics Russian Central Bank (RCB), 324, 327–­29, 330 Rutter, William J., 380, 398, 401, 417–­ 18, 447 St Petersburg See post-­Soviet Russia, and cellular (mobile telecom) industry Sammlungspolitik, and protectionism, 239, 251–­52, 253, 254–­55, 256, 257, 259–­60 See also Germany, and conflict displacement San Diego high-­tech cluster: collaborative agreements trends and, 483, 483–­84, 485; as emergent region, 450–­51, 454–­57, 456, 458; geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters and, 447, 448, 449–­50; PROs and, 448, 449–­50, 456 San Francisco Bay Area high-­tech cluster: overview of, 447–­49, 448; collaborative agreements trends and, 479, 484, 485; as emergent region, 450–­51, 454, 455, 456, 456–­57, 458; PROs and, 448; VC and, 443, 447, 450, 451, 455, 456 See also inventor networks comparison between Boston and Silicon Valley Scali company of Florence, 134, 134–­ 36, 138, 141–­43, 144, 150–­53 Scheller, Richard, 384n11, 489 Schultz, Peter, 489 Schumpeter’s characterization of creative destruction, 5n12, 9n25, 115n1, 267n1, 382, 438 Schuster, Peter See Eigen-­Schuster hypercycle model science’s relations with commerce: academic laboratories and, 497–­99; DBFs and, 375–­76, 393–­99, 394, 398, 399, 400, 401 Scott, John Campbell, 527, 528, 528n10, 528–­30, 537 Scotti-­Tolomei company of Siena, 136, 157 search intelligence effect, 81–­82 Seattle nascent cluster: collaborative agreements trends and, 482n21; geographic propinquity in high-­tech clusters and, 441–­43; as high-­tech nascent region, 450–­51, 454, 454–­56, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459; open elite model and, 482n21, 490–­91; PROs and, 454; spatial agglomeration in high-­tech clusters and, 437, 437 Silicon Valley See inventor networks comparison between Boston and Silicon Valley; San Francisco Bay Area high-­tech cluster Snyder, Sheridan, 422–­24 social construction of competition, and Russia’s cellular industry, 338–­39 social constructivism, 2–­3, 58–­60 social networks: organization emergence and, 3–­6, 9, 11; partnership systems in Renaissance Florence and, 172–­73, 175, 176–­77, 178, 181, 183, 184, 187–­92, 189, 190, 200–­ 201 See also Debian Linux project social networks’ evolution from chemical autocatalysis: overview of, 8, 32, 92–­93, 112, 112–­14; categorization and, 111–­12; cell autocatalysis defined and, 102; cell birth defined and, 101; cell death problem and, 100–­101; cells and, 101–­2; cognition and categorization in context of, 108–­12; communication among kin and, 108–­9; cross-­sectional communication through symbols and, 93–­100; evolutionary theory and, 112–­14; founders and group names in context of, 109–­11; functional aggregation of linked hypercycles and, 112, 112–­13; generalized exchange and, 105–­8, 106, 107; gift giving and, 102–­6, 109–­10, 114; gift rate and, 102–­6, 109–­10; long-­distance endogenous learning through symbols and, 96–­98; longitudinal communication through teaching and, 100–­108, 106, 107; mitosis and, 102; Moore neighborhoods and, 94, 96, 102–­3; reciprocity and, 103–­5; spatial endogenous learning and, 94–­96; symbol transformation and, 98–­99 See also social networks social sequence approach in Hungarian economy, 352–­54, 357–­60, 359, 360 social welfare, 255–­57 See also Germany, and conflict displacement SOLO H, and emergence of autocatalytic networks, 77, 77–­82, 78 Soviet Union, and co-­evolution of economics and politics: overview of, 267–­69, 271–­72, 297–­98, 309; Brezhnev and, 21, 271, 275, 285, 297–­99, 301, 303; “capitalism” and, 267; circular flow of power institutionalized in nomenklatura system and, 22, 23, 23; dual hierarchy and, 273, 273; family circles and, 268, 289–­90; Kosygin and, 21, 268n4, 275, 297–­302, 298, 299 See also Communism, and co-­evolution of economics and politics; specific leaders sovnarhkozy (fiscal decentralization), and Khruschchev, 284–­85, 287–­88, 301n146, 305n164, 310 Spanish Netherlands, 16, 208–­10, 210, 212–­19, 221, 225–­26 See also the Netherlands, and multiple organization inventions spatial agglomeration (agglomeration), and high-­tech clusters, 14, 15, 435–­38, 437 spatial endogenous learning, 94–­96, 283n68 spatial topology effect, and economic production as Chemistry II, 79–­80 spin-­off star-­periphery recombinants pathway, and Hungarian economy, 360, 361, 362, 366 Sprague, Robert, 531, 531n19 Stalin, Joseph, and co-­evolution of economics and politics: overview of, 267–­68, 272, 276, 277, 309–­10; bottom-­up model and, 279, 281–­82; “capitalism” and, 276; cellular autocatalysis and, 270, 312; circular flow of power institutionalized in nomen­ klatura system and, 22, 268, 277, 284; dual hierarchy and, 268, 274–­ 75, 276–­80, 284; family circles and, 277n24, 279, 281, 284; Five-­Year Plans and, 25, 271n2, 275, 275n13, 276–­80, 285, 295, 309, 310; generation of ‘38 and, 22, 23, 268, 276, 282, 284, 299n136, 310; NKVD and, 22, 273n7, 281–­82, 284, 290, 297, 300, 310; production autocatalysis and, 282, 283–­84; purge and mass mobilization mechanism under, 21–­23, 22, 274–­75, 276–­84; spatial endogenous learning and, 283n68; top-­down model and, 271, 279; world war defeat of Hitler and, 22, 268, 272, 275, 283, 284 See also Communism, and co-­evolution of economics and politics start-­ups pathway, and Hungarian economy, 361, 365 State Committee on Property (GKI), 318–­19, 320 state enterprises (state-­ownership system): China and, 275, 287, 287; Communism and, 273, 273–­75; Gorbachev and, 287, 297, 300n145, 301–­6, 304, 305–­6; Mao and, 287, 287, 289–­90, 310 Stewart, Robert, 524, 524, 525, 529, 529n14, 534 stigmergy, 23, 32, 76, 78, 79, 81, 82–­ 87, 88 stock market, and VOC joint-­stock company, 210, 211, 212, 224, 226–­30 structural vulnerability, and organization emergence, 26–­28 structure of industry, and Russia’s cellular industry, 335, 335, 336–­37, 337, 338 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Index of Subjects  ■  583 suffrage for men, 242, 242, 244n43, 257n121 See also Germany, and conflict displacement Swanson, Robert A., 381, 389, 396–­97, 402–­3, 416, 418–­20, 425, 447 symbols, and cross-­sectional communication, 93–­100 Termeer, Henri, 384, 423, 424 tolkoch network, and Gorbachev, 304, 304–­6 Tolomei company of Siena, 134, 136, 141–­42, 154–­57 top-­down model: Andropov and, 205, 271, 275, 297–­300, 308; China and, 289; Communism and, 271, 274; conflict displacement in Germany and, 257; Deng and, 293, 301; Gorbachev and, 297–­300, 305, 308; Spanish Netherlands and, 210, 215; Stalin and, 271, 279 transposition: overview of, 125; DBFs and, 12, 14, 15, 384; high-­tech clusters and, 438–­40, 447, 449, 454–­55, 456, 459, 461; organizational genesis and, 12, 13, 14, 15; partnership systems in Renaissance Florence and, 12, 13, 15, 117, 125, 172, 181, 187 tripartite federalism, 18, 119, 208–­9, 212–­15, 213 Umatoy, Salvador, 524, 530, 530n18, 531, 538–­39 universal male suffrage, 242, 242, 244n43, 257n121 See also Germany, and conflict displacement “unlicensed financial companies” (informal organizational forms), 322–­23, 323 Urban IV (pope), 127, 130, 131, 132–­ 35, 137–­39, 141, 142, 157 the Valley See inventor networks comparison between Boston and Silicon Valley venture capital (VC): DBFs and, 14, 15, 389, 392, 393, 398–­400, 402–­4; high-­tech clusters, 440–­45, 447, 450, 455–­56, 459, 461; open elite model in DBFs and, 472–­74, 478–­79, 482, 484–­85, 487–­89 VOC (Dutch East India) joint-­stock company, 210, 211, 212, 224, 226–­30 voucher privatization process, 23, 319–­ 21, 322, 325, 327–­28, 329–­30, 331 Wall, Michael, 414–­15 War of Eight Saints, 178–­79, 187 See also Ciompi revolt in Renaissance Florence Washington-­Baltimore nascent cluster, 433, 437, 437, 442–­43, 450–­51, 454, 454–­55 Wikipedia, 545, 566 Wilhelm I (Kaiser/King of Prussia), 240, 244, 248, 251, 256 Wilhelm II (king of Prussia), 257, 257n116 world war defeat of Hitler, and Stalin, 22, 268, 272, 275, 283, 284 Yeltsin, Boris See post-­Communist Russia, and financial markets and organizations Zaffaroni, Alejandro, 409–­10, 489 www.Ebook777.com ... history of capitalism; new types of research organizations and research in the history of science; new types of political organizations and nations in the history of state formation All of these... theoretical framework to the high-­tech case of the emergence of the biotechnology industry within the life sciences The first chapter, by ­Powell and Kurt Sandholtz, focuses on the genesis of. .. Evolution and the generation of novelty were the animating themes of our SFI program These topics are at the frontier of sectors of the natural sciences ranging from biochemistry to systems biology They