Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Sand Dune Conservation, Management and Restoration www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Coastal Research Library VOLUME Series Editor: Charles W Finkl Department of Geosciences Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, FL 33431 USA The aim of this book series is to disseminate information to the coastal research community The Series covers all aspects of coastal research including but not limited to relevant aspects of geological sciences, biology (incl ecology and coastal marine ecosystems), geomorphology (physical geography), climate, littoral oceanography, coastal hydraulics, environmental (resource) management, engineering, and remote sensing Policy, coastal law, and relevant issues such as conflict resolution and risk management would also be covered by the Series The scope of the Series is broad and with a unique crossdisciplinary nature The Series would tend to focus on topics that are of current interest and which carry some import as opposed to traditional titles that are esoteric and non-controversial Monographs as well as contributed volumes are welcomed For further volumes: http://www.springer.com/series/8795 www.Ebook777.com J Patrick Doody Sand Dune Conservation, Management and Restoration J Patrick Doody National Coastal Consultants Brampton, Huntingdon, UK ISSN 2211-0577 ISSN 2211-0585 (electronic) ISBN 978-94-007-4730-2 ISBN 978-94-007-4731-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-4731-9 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London Library of Congress Control Number: 2012948595 © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com To Norma who has fought the trials and tribulations of life with fortitude and humour and to Jean, for being there www.Ebook777.com Preface Sandy beaches and inland dunes occupy an important place in the coastal ecosystem They occur in moderately energetic environments where waves and then wind move sand grains towards the land They are essentially terrestrial in character, although in the early stages of development the plant and animal communities colonising the sandy shore are tolerant of saline conditions They provide coastal protection, buffering tides and waves, which may be particularly important in areas where relative sea level is rising, and during storms They support a rich and varied fauna and flora with many species especially adapted to the habitat Managing these assets in the face of continuing pressure from human populations on a sustainable basis is a major task The book is a guide introducing the sand dune and its main features, together with a summary of the changes brought about by human activities Thereafter it provides a description of the various states in which the habitat exists, and information on their values There are signposts to issues and activities, which alter the ecosystem services the sand dune system provides Options for management are considered and the likely consequences of taking a particular course of action highlighted These options include the traditional approaches to management (for the conservation of wildlife and landscapes) as well as habitat restoration This is an ecological textbook However, coastal systems are highly dynamic It is therefore important to consider the geomorphological context for the development of the sand dune system’s biological attributes Due to this, discussion includes the active sand-sharing system at the beach/foredune interface (Chaps and 6) and the inland1 sand dune (Chaps and 7) This book concentrates on sand dunes in temperate regions of the world using examples mainly from the British Isles, mainland Europe and North America It includes information based on personal knowledge, published scientific papers, reports and the internet It is for those with a special interest in the practical aspects of sand dune conservation, management and restoration and undergraduates Note “inland” refers to the sand dune immediately behind the beach/foredune vii viii Preface Plant names are those given in the International Plant Names Index (IPNI http:// www.ipni.org/index.html) At first mention, English and Latin names are given with Latin names used thereafter Similarly, animals have both Latin and English names but with English names where they appear in subsequent text Acknowledgments This book represents a synthesis of research and information derived from the work of a large number of scientists, managers and policy advisors over the last 70 years or so The studies of people such as Ranwell (1972) and work that is more recent (Packham and Willis 1997; Maun 2009) provide a foundation for understanding the ecology of coastal sand dunes Carter (1989), Carter and Woodroffe (1994) and Psuty (2004) provide a geomorphological context Thanks to all friends and former colleagues from the United Kingdom Nature Conservancy Council and Joint Nature Conservation Committee for their help during my time as coastal specialist within those organisations Dr Paul Rooney, Liverpool Hope University, played an important part in highlighting errors and omissions from an early draft of the book Thanks to him for all his efforts Dr Albert Salman, The Coastal and Marine Union (EUCC), commented on several chapters Thanks also to Dr Maike Isermann, Bremen University, for identifying omissions in Chap and Dr Stewart Angus, Scottish Natural Heritage (Chap 11) Special thanks to Prof Norbert Psuty of the Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University, New Jersey, who provided important and critical comment on all aspects of the book, especially its geomorphological content His help was invaluable Carter RWG (1989) Coastal environments An introduction to the physical, ecological and cultural systems of coastlines Academic, London, p 617 Carter RWG, Woodroffe CD (1994) Coastal evolution – late quaternary shoreline morphodynamics Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p 517 Maun MA (2009) The biology of coastal sand dunes Oxford University Press, Oxford, p 265 Packham JR, Willis AJ (1997) Ecology of dunes, salt marsh and shingle Chapman and Hall, London, p 335 Psuty NP (2004) The coastal foredune: a morphological basis for regional coastal dune development In: Martínez M, Psuty NP (eds) Coastal dunes: ecology and conservation Springer, Berlin, pp 11–27 Ranwell DS (1972) Ecology of salt marshes and sand dunes Chapman and Hall, London, p 258 ix Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com www.Ebook777.com 288 12 Present Threats and Future Prospects Fig 12.5 Chestnut paling fencing on Blakeney Point, a mobile shingle and sand dune complex on the North Norfolk coast, England August 1986 values, including species rich dune slacks, became apparent It also confirms the importance of grazing as a means of controlling scrub and restoring dune grassland 12.3.3 Blakeney Point – A Dynamic Spit Blakeney Point is a shingle spit on the east coast of England with a series of recurves, partly covered by sand dunes at its distal end Its inherent dynamism described in the early 1930s showed how it responded to changes in tides, storms and sediment movement (Oliver and Salisbury 1913) Bought by Charles Rothschild in 1912 at the suggestion of F.W Oliver and given to the National Trust in the same year, it was the first nature reserve in the county of Norfolk Blowouts in the sand dune occurred in the 1930s and whilst some remained more or less stable, others showed signs of rapid change in the following years The use of fencing to control sand movement occurred from time to time, including in the 1980s (Fig 12.5) Given the inherent dynamics of the site, it is questionable whether such interference was appropriate In 2011, the same area had a good cover of vegetation, the result of processes that would probably have occurred without fencing 12.4 Management Options 12.4 289 Management Options It is important when considering the management need to make a distinction between the beach/foredune sand sharing system and the inland dune In the former mobile sand, ephemeral vegetation along the strandline and early dune-forming vegetation are inherently unstable Many of the nature conservation attributes depend on this instability In temperate regions, the inland dune develops into more stable forms, and vegetation plays a key role in the process (Chap 1) Here bare sand occurs because of deposition of sand blown inland from the beach or foredune, or through damage or loss of surface vegetation often caused by human activity (Chap 2) From a nature conservation perspective, the two systems appear to require different approaches In the first, the best representation of nature conservation values occurs when the system remains active The second depends on stability within the system for the full development of dune grassland or heath However, as we have seen, too much stability can result in loss of nature conservation values 12.4.1 The Beach/Foredune Interface Eroding shorelines, i.e those with limited supply of sediment or in locations with a relative rise in sea level, may elicit a response involving erosion control On beaches with little or no vegetation and an eroding dune face (Figs 4.2 and 11.7) or on those where the vegetated foredune is shifting landwards (Fig 6.1) the underlying cause may lie outside the control of the local conservation manager These include activities such as offshore sediment extraction (Sect 6.3.1), sand mining from the foreshore (Sect 6.3.2) or river damming (Sect 6.3.3) Erosion may be partially reversible when governments are prepared to curtail these activities and/ or initiate remedial action to restore the sediment supply, for example by beach nourishment (Sect 9.2.7) The nature conservation manager should consider whether erecting barriers to sand movement is appropriate In most cases, it will treat the symptoms not the cause, and will probably be ineffective in the medium to long term In many situations, the beach/foredune will continue to move landward whatever the local action Maintaining the active dune front may be the preferred option, even if this is at the expense of the more stable inland dune The specialist plants and animals will continue to exist within the dynamic matrix of bare, mobile sand and open sparsely vegetated dune This will erode and/or overwhelm the inland dune (Fig 12.6) with important consequences for the values of the dune grassland or heath associated with it In the Netherlands where dune preservation is important for sea defence, since 1990, ‘dynamic preservation’ of the coast has become an integral part of policy In this context beach nourishment, allowing natural dynamics to create beach/ foredune barriers (Sect 9.2.7) is an important management tool Trade-offs associated with the creation of a more dynamic foredune system need not compromise 290 12 Present Threats and Future Prospects Fig 12.6 The relationship between, physical State eroding dune, physical State mobile foredune and vegetated State 2/3 sand dune, Skagen, northern Denmark in September 1997 The eroding dune front and the shifting foredune diminishes the area of stable vegetated inland sand dune their sea defence function (van der Meulen and van der Maarel 1989; van Bohemen and Meesters 1992) 12.4.2 Inland Dunes In all but a few locations where local conditions result in accreting physical State foredunes, those responsible for nature conservation often preside over a diminishing asset, as described above Even on larger systems where losses are small relative to the size of the dune, there are significant management issues These include control and removal of alien species (Chap 8), controlling scrub encroachment (Sect 9.4), establishing the most appropriate grazing regime (Sect 9.5) and managing recreational use (Sect 9.6) including golf course development and management (Chap 10) Of these, in temperate regions at least, scrub invasion at the expense of dune grassland and heath is probably the most significant Four of the states of vegetated inland sand dune relate directly to the level of grazing pressure The most frequently encountered on sand dunes of high nature conservation values, are those where grazing is absent or where it is at too low a level to control scrub development (vegetated State 4) In the past both planners and managers viewed mobile sand as a threat In the Netherlands, for example, large parts of the country are ‘protected’ from flooding 12.4 Management Options 291 Fig 12.7 Ammophila arenaria planting, used to stabilise bare sand, the Netherlands 1983 from the sea by massive sand dune barriers (Fig 6.7) The absence of grazing animals, and Ammophila arenaria planting to stabilise even the smallest patches of bare sand (Fig 12.7) in the 1970s and 1980s, left most of the dune landscape with little or no natural dynamics The reduction in nature conservation value, resulting from stability of these inland dunes, called into question the reliance on sand stabilisation as the primary policy for sand dune management From the 1980s, coastal scientists began to suggest adopting a more flexible dynamic approach to sand movement, not only immediately above the beach in the foredune, but also inland (Doody 1989, 2001) Since then there has been a change in attitude to valuing mobile features within the inland dune This has meant that rather than expending energy on barriers to sand movement, the modern manager is more likely to embrace it as a feature in its own right However, when is erosion a threat to the biological diversity of a sand dune? Of course, it all depends! A small site with little or no additional sediment might appear to be at risk of total destruction as the beach/foredune migrates inland, overwhelming the stable grassland or heath This will be particularly acute for dunes backed by rising ground or infrastructure On larger sites without such restrictions, the losses of vegetated dune may appear to be less significant In areas where there is an adequate supply of sediment for the formation of foredunes, the beach will continue to move seawards and with it the strandline and foredune Locations with falling sea levels relative to the land are more likely to experience this form of progradation As the inland dunes are ‘left behind’, in the absence of grazing they quickly become stabilised and scrub covered There is a 292 12 Present Threats and Future Prospects value judgement to be made as to the extent the vegetation succession should be allowed to revert to scrub and eventually become woodland (Sect 9.3.2) However, even where grazing is present, there may still be a loss of important areas of grassland, heath or dune slacks with increased stability In these circumstances, active promotion of instability may ultimately provide a more sustainable and cost effective way of promoting nature conservation In terms of practical management, this could mean cutting down trees rather than planting them, and creating blowouts rather than preventing them These solutions, however, will require a more complete understanding of the dune system and the historical, physical and climatic context in which development has taken place Clearly the larger the dune system the more opportunities there are for encouraging the full range of forms from bare sand, dune slacks, grassland and/ or heath, scrub and woodland 12.4.3 A Recreational Experience Where once mobile sand appeared as a threat to human activity, it has become part of a landscape and cultural experience Large migrating dunes can be a recreational magnet, such as la Dune du Pyla (Dune de Pilat) Arcachon Bay in France, possibly the highest dune in Europe Also in Europe is the mobile dune Råbjerg Mile (Fig 14.102 in Doody 2001) situated near Skagen in northern Denmark This remained unplanted even during the major periods of afforestation Today it serves as an example of a natural phenomenon and as an aid to understanding sand drift Moving at a speed of about 15 m per year depending on climate conditions, its height and mobility have also become a recreational attraction The public has free access to the area by foot, which helps maintain the moving dune front Other examples include the Rubjerg Knude lighthouse (Fig 12.8) in Denmark and the Łeba sand bar in Poland (Fig 7.58 in Doody 2001) 12.5 Conclusions Past human activities have resulted in widespread habitat modification and irreversible loss of sand dunes both big and small At many locations, the surviving areas represent a depleted resource There is legislation designed to protect both beach/ foredune and inland sand dune from further damage and destruction In the case of the former, this often recognises their contribution to sea defence For the latter, nature conservation and/or recreational values provide the focus Losses continue, and preventing further harmful development requires a more robust attitude by those responsible for implementing legislation affecting the coastal zone than hitherto At the beach/foredune interface, the lack of sediment is already significant Due to the other factors involved, notably rising sea levels, a reversal of the predominance 12.5 Conclusions 293 Fig 12.8 Rubjerg Knude lighthouse, a popular visitor attraction on the Danish coast, June 1992 when the buildings were still accessible Sand has since overwhelmed the buildings and only the lighthouse tower was visible in 2009 of erosion over accretion is unlikely without major intervention to restore sediment delivery to the coast On a few coastlines, economic considerations make beach nourishment worthwhile In many others, even some with developed shorelines, such intervention does not take place The result is a narrowing foreshore, breakdown of successional processes and loss of vegetation and associated animals (Feagin et al 2005) Where there are undeveloped inland dunes, the beach and/or foredune may continue to migrate landwards For dunes inland from an eroding foredune, the situation is different Here the migrating beach/foredune occurs at the expense of the vegetated inland dune This may not matter so long as the dune is large in comparison to the migrating dune, or has itself room to migrate Difficulties arise on smaller sand dunes and those where infrastructure development, afforestation or agricultural use inhibits landward migration The resulting sand dune squeeze (Sects 2.8 and 12.2.1; Fig 12.9) makes management of the surviving areas of habitat even more important Whatever the status of the beach/foredune interface, the vegetated inland dune may continue to require prescriptive management This will include scrub control, removing alien invaders, reintroducing grazing by domesticated stock and catering for visitors Without such management, in Europe at least, most of the surviving areas of dune grassland and heath will continue to deteriorate, as stabilisation degrades their biological diversity The most appropriate forms of management for nature reserves and other ‘protected’ areas, described in Chap continue to evolve 294 12 Present Threats and Future Prospects Fig 12.9 Relationship between (a) the beach/foredune Physical State Evaluation Model (Sect 6.2.4), (b) the inland dune Vegetated State Evaluation Model (Sect 7.2.6) and some of the factors preventing migration of the sand dune landward The inland dune is ‘squeezed’ into a narrowing zone The Ideal? States represent situations that are especially important for nature conservation values Based at Liverpool Hope University, the European Sand and Shingle Network facilitates exchange of experience amongst dune managers Management can be labour intensive, costly and often restricted to individual problems However, if we look to the past and consider the way sand dunes respond to environmental and human perturbations, alternative management options become apparent “The dune complex is a restless maze” so said Cowles (1899) It seems that in the intervening 100 years or so we have forgotten this fact and sought to stop blowing sand and control dune mobility Ancient Acts of Parliament and Laws forbidding removal of Ammophila spp and otherwise carrying out activities that cause destabilisation were relatively common Forestry plantations, usually of non-native conifers stabilised areas of inland sand dune (Sect 2.3) The local demand for a ‘seaside holiday’ and the burgeoning foreign tourist industry in the latter part of the twentieth century meant cleaning beaches and creating car parks, access points, paths and tourist facilities (Sect 6.3.4) Local planners and coastal managers failed to recognise the impact on beaches and inland dunes or, if they did, viewed the economic advantages as outweighing any environmental damage They were more likely to provide finance to prevent sand dune erosion than control the activities that helped to create it Chestnut paling fencing was, and continues to be, a means of controlling erosion along the coastal foredune (Sect 9.2.4), around car parks and access points to the beach (Fig 12.2) Nature conservation organisations were similarly concerned with preventing sand movement Sand fences became the first response to blowing sand, even in nature reserves where access was strictly controlled Some nature conservation bodies continued to use stabilisation techniques such as fencing and Ammophila spp planting (Fig 12.5) until quite recently However, as this book has demonstrated, in temperate regions vegetation is an extremely effective stabilising agent There are far more examples of scrub infested inland sand dunes than mobile ones 12.5 Conclusions 295 It is also true that destabilisation provides opportunities for habitat regeneration Prof Bill Carter said in 1990 at a conference in Sefton, England dedicated to dune conservation “these habitats are not sensitive but robust and designed to accommodate changes in tides, tidal energy and sediment availability It is our desire to prevent them from moving that has caused so much damage”, personal recollection (Carter 1990) We sometimes forget that nature has a way of restoring itself if left alone It may not be desirable to embark on the level of destabilisation in Europe, brought about during two world wars (especially the Second World War, Sect 12.1.3) However, if it had not been for this disturbance, it is likely many more sand dunes would be clothed in dense species-poor scrub or woodland Thus, the tendency has been for the nature conservation movement to adopt the same approach as those concerned with protecting land and property It was, and to some extent still is common practice to plant Ammophila arenaria, to thatch eroding dunes with brushwood or otherwise to stabilise bare sand using the techniques described in Sect 9.2 During the 1980s, however, there was an increasing recognition that instability of inland dunes, as part of a natural process, plays a vital part in conserving sand dune biodiversity (e.g Doody 1989) Conferences of the then newly formed European Union for Dune Conservation included further consideration of the theme (van der Meulen et al 1989; Carter et al 1992) We must continue to manage some special areas to prevent loss due to stabilisation However, we should also direct our efforts towards giving beaches and inland sand dunes, room to move We must actively resist building new structures on inland sand dunes Taking tentative steps to clear vegetation, reintroduce grazing and other relatively small-scale management at first, there is an increasing recognition of the value of techniques involving destabilisation Although this will not be on the scale of earlier unplanned activities, nevertheless it does offer a longer term solution to the conservation of many of the important natural attributes of this highly prized habitat Increased storminess and other effects brought on by global warming will increase the erosive forces acting upon sand dune systems We must resist the temptation to direct our efforts towards protecting them with traditional stabilisation techniques in either the foredune or inland, vegetated dune A change in attitude, which recognises blowing sand as integral to the healthy functioning of a sand dune system, whether in the foredune or inland dune (Fig 12.6) must continue Allowing greater mobility will help reverse some of the problems associated with stabilisation In one sense, grazing is a secondary ecosystem/succession process, which has modified the sand dune species composition Sediment movement, climate and soil forming processes are the basis for sand dune development The restoration of sand dune dynamics could therefore, be an important management tool for restoring this habitat Human use has been a significant agent of change in the past and could be in the future Despite opposition to removing forests planted with alien species or remobilising stable dunes, these management options may provide a more enduring prescription for conserving this valuable habitat 296 12 Present Threats and Future Prospects References Bass RT (1992) Spirits of the sand The history of the U.S Army Assault Training Centre Lee Publishing, Woolacombe, 170 pp Bigano A, Hamilton JM, Tol RSJ (2008) Climate change and tourism in the Mediterranean, FNU157, Hamburg University and Centre for Marine and Atmospheric Science, Hamburg Source: http://www.fnu.zmaw.de/fileadmin/fnu-files/publication/working-papers/mediterraneanwp pdf Accessed 28 Mar 2011 Brown AC, McLachlan A (2002) Sandy shore ecosystems and the threats facing them: some predictions for the year 2025 Environ Conserv 29:62–77 Carter RWG (1990) Coastal zone management: comparisons and conflicts In: Houston J, Jones C (eds) Planning and management of the coastal heritage Sefton Metropolitan Borough Council, Southport, pp 45–49 Carter RWG (1991) Near-future sea level impacts on coastal dune landscapes Landsc Ecol 6(1–2):29–39 Carter RWG, Curtis TGF, Sheehy-Skeffington MJ (eds) (1992) Coastal dunes: geomorphology, ecology and management for conservation Proceedings of the third European Dune Congress Galway, Ireland, 17th–21st June 1991 A.A Balkema, Rotterdam, 533 pp Cazenave A, Llovel W (2010) Contemporary sea level rise Annu Rev Mar Sci 2:145–173 Church JA, White NJ (2006) A 20th century acceleration in global sea-level rise Geophys Res Lett Source: http://naturescapebroward.com/ 33:L01602, doi:10.1029/2005GL024826 NaturalResources/ClimateChange/Documents/GRL_Church_White_2006_024826.pdf Accessed 19 Feb 2012 Church JA, White NJ (2011) Sea-level rise from the late 19th to the early 21st century Surv Geophys 32:585–602 Countryside Commission (1969) Nature conservation on the coast Special study report volume HMSO, p 97 plus maps Cowles HC (1899) The ecological relations of the vegetation on the sand dunes of Lake Michigan Part – Geographical relations of the dune floras Bot Gaz 95:391 Doody JP (1989) Management for nature conservation Proc R Soc Edinb, B 96:247–265 Doody JP (2001) Coastal conservation and management: an ecological perspective, vol 13, Conservation biology series Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, 306 pp Doody JP (2004) Coastal habitats to get bigger and better? In: Green DR et al (eds) Delivering sustainable coasts: connecting science and policy Proceedings of Littoral 2004, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK, vol Cambridge Publications, Cambridge, pp 84–89 Feagin RA, Sherman DJ, Grant WE (2005) Coastal erosion, global sea-level rise, and the loss of sand dune plant habitats Front Ecol Environ 3(7):359–364 Fish MR, Côté IM, Gill JA, Jones AP, Renshoff S, Watkinson AR (2005) Predicting the impact of sea-level rise on Caribbean sea turtle nesting habitat Conserv Biol 19(2):482–491 FitzGibbon C, Albon S, Robinson P (2005) The effects of a mixed grazing regime on sand dune vegetation communities at Braunton Burrows, Devon English Nature Research Reports, 637, p Gazenbeek A (2005) LIFE, Natura 2000 and the military LIFE Focus, Journal of the LIFE III programme (2000–2006), p 86 Source: European Commission, Environment Directorate General Source: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life/publications/lifepublications/lifefocus/ documents/military_en.pdf Accessed 26 Mar 2011 Koskela K, Sievänen M (2009) Restoration, environmental management and monitoring in the Vattaja Dune LIFE Project, 2005–2009 Nature Protection Publications of Metsähallitus, Series A, 181, p 39 Source: http://julkaisut.metsa.fi/julkaisut/pdf/luo/a181.pdf Accessed 26 Mar 2011 Muñoz-Reinoso JC (2003) Juniperus oxycedrus spp macrocarpa in Spain: ecology and conservation problems J Coast Conserv 9:113–122 Nicholls RJ, Hoozemans FMJ (1996) The Mediterranean: vulnerability to coastal implications of climate change Ocean Coast Manag 31(2–3):105–132 References 297 Oliver FW, Salisbury EJ (1913) The topography and vegetation of Blakeney Point, Norfolk Trans Norfolk Norwich Nat Soc 9:485–544 Packham JR, Willis AJ (2001) Braunton Burrows in context, a comparative management study In: Houston JA, Edmondson SE, Rooney PJ (eds) Coastal dune management: shared experience of European conservation practice Liverpool University Press, Liverpool, pp 69–75 Pizzey JM (1975) Assessment of dune stabilisation at Camber, Sussex, using air photographs Biol Conserv 7:275–288 Psuty NP, Silveira TM (2010) Global climate change: an opportunity for coastal dunes?? J Coast Conserv 14(2):153–160 Ranwell DS, Boar R (1986) Coast dune management guide Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, HMSO, London, 105 pp Rennie AF, Hansom JD (2011) Sea level trend reversal: land uplift outpaced by sea level rise on Scotland’s coast Geomorphology 125(1):193–202 Rodda JC, Marsh TJ (2011) The 1975–76 drought – a contemporary and retrospective review Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford, 58 pp Van Bohemen HD, Meesters HJN (1992) Ecological engineering and coastal defence In: Carter RWG, Curtis TGF, Sheehy-Skeffington MJ (eds) Coastal dunes: geomorphology, ecology and management for conservation A.A Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 369–378 van der Meulen F, van der Maarel E (1989) Coastal defence alternatives and nature development perspectives In: van der Meulen F, Jungerius PD, Visser J (eds) Perspectives in coastal dune management SPB Academic Publishing, The Hague, pp 183–198 van der Meulen F, Jungerius PD, Visser J (eds) (1989) Perspectives in coastal dune management SPB Academic Publishing, The Hague, 333 pp Warren SD, Büttner R (2008) Active military training areas as refugia for disturbance-dependent endangered insects J Insect Conserv 12(6):671–676 Index A Acacia longifolia, 186 biological control, 194 Acacia saligna, 187 Acaena novae-zelandiae, 191 Access control, 224 Access routes, 169 Accretion tentsmuir point, 57 Acid dune heathland, 105 Acid rain, 46 Aerial surveillance, 233 Aesthetic appeal, 120 Alien species, 177 American mink predation, Hebridean birds, 270 Ammophila arenaria herbicide treatment, 204 invasion, 180 planting, 202 removal, 203 Ammophila breviligulata die-back, 203 invasion, 180 Amphibious landing practice, 138 Ancient agricultural use, machair, 259 Ancient cropping rotation, machair, 260 Anholt Island, Denmark, 229 Arable weeds of machair, 263 Artificial creation of sand dunes, 232 Assessing the quality of the vegetation, 233 Atlantic storm(s), Atlantic storm frequency, 140 Atmospheric deposition, 172 B Barrier island urbanisations, 47 Bathymetry sediment removal, 133 Beach erosion, 88 seasonal variation, 89 Beach feeding, 208 Beach/foredune airport landing strip, 94 economic value, 93 invertebrates, 95 landfall sites, 94 plant communities, 94 recreational activities, 96 sea turtles, 96 sediment store, 93 shorebirds, 95 Beach nourishment, 73 temporary impacts on animals, 210 Beach parking, 136 Beachscape, 96 Beach sediment deficit, 129 mildly negative, 130 positive, 131 Biological diversity and afforestation, 167 Biosphere reserves, 69 Blackland, 259 Blowouts, 15, 106 Braunton Burrows North Devon, 74, 219 Breeding passerines, 118 Breeding waders of machair, 265 C Calcareous dune grassland, 105 Calcium carbonate content, 13 Camber Sands, 285 Campylopus introflexus, 190 J.P Doody, Sand Dune Conservation, Management and Restoration, Coastal Research Library 4, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-4731-9, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013 299 300 Carpobrotus edulis physical control, 193 Cattle grazing, 217, 221 Chronology of aeolian activity, Clematis vitalba, 191 Climax dune vegetation mediterranean, 28 Climax woodland, 18 Coastal legislation, 78 Coastal resilience, 81 Common grazing rights, 245 Common wadden sea secretariat, 73 Conservation grazing cattle, 217 donkey, 218 ponies and horses, 218 sheep, 218 Conservation management, military use, 280 Conservatoire du littoral, 72 Convention on biological diversity, 73 Coto Doñana, 45, 154 Crofting, 260 Culbin sands, 43 Cultivated machair, 259 Curonian Spit, Lithuania, 230 D DAISIE See Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe (DAISIE) Dawlish warren, 144 Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe (DAISIE), 178 Domestic stock grazing levels, 220 Doñana National Park, 45, 154 Drinking water supply, 171 Dune grassland acidic, 13 calcareous, 13 Dune mobility index, Dune nematodes, 182 Dune slack(s) primary, 15 secondary, 15 vegetation succession, 15 Dune slack acidification, 165 Dune slack succession, lack of grazing, 165 Dune species richness, decline, 163 Dune succession and invertebrates, 117 Dune surface deflation, 103 Index Dune vegetation types north america, 29 south america, 30 Dune vegetation zones australia and new zealand, 31 Dune water table height, 170 Dunging, 159 Dynamic preservation, 209, 289 E Ecological studies, 10 Engineering dunes, 141 Eroding beach/foredune, 141 Erosion control concrete revetments, 206 forestry brashings, 207 Erosion reference points, 128 Eskmeal Dunes, Cumbria, 183 Establishing the position of the beach/ foredune, 233 European afforestation, 54 European agriculture, 54 European commission LIFE nature projects, 228 European environment agency, 69 European sand dune resource, 68 European tourist development, 54 European Union programmes, Netherlands, 230 Eurosion, 81 F Fencing configuration, 205 Fixed-point photography, 234 Foredune erosion, golf courses, 250 Foredune plants, 12 G Garden escapes, 191 Garigue, 28 Garrigue, 106 Geodiversity action plans, 77 Geoparks, 76 Geosites, 76 Golf course development, 55 Golf course management and nature conservation, 255 Grazing cattle see Cattle grazing Grazing intensity, 159 Grazing sheep see Sheep grazing Grazing simulation, 222 Grazing trial, 219 301 Index H Habitat modification, St Andrews golf course, 243 Handbook of Ecological Monitoring, 234 Hard defences, 139 Hebridean machair, 260 Hedgehog predation, machair breeding waders, 270 Hippophaë medicinal properties, 109 Hippophaë Study Group, 192 Holocene dunes, Hulsig Hede, Denmark, 229 Hydraulic seeding, 208 Hydrological changes and afforestation, 167 I Illegal huts in Portugal, 47 Infiltrated water, 171 Inland dunes amphibians, 120 avifauna, 118 beef production, 110 european vegetation classification, 112 lamb production, 110 plant species diversity, 112 rare plants, 115 reptiles, 119 timber production, 109 Integrated coastal zone management, 77, 78 Integrated management plans, golf courses, 253 Intergovernmental panel on climate change, 140 Interpretation manual of european union habitats, 113 Invasive species, 177 Invertebrate dune specialists, 116 Irish dry machair, 262 wet machair, 262 Irish geological heritage programme, 77 Irish machair management and restoration, 272 Irish rabbit populations, 156 K Kelp manufacture, machair erosion, 268 Kill Devil Hills, 121 L Land conversion for golf, 242 Leba dunes, 279 Les Landes forests, 42 Ley de costas, 79 Lichen-rich dune heath, 13 Links golf courses, 241 ‘Links-style’ golf course development, 253 Little Ice Age, 3, increased storminess, Livestock Unit (LSU), 159 Lupinus arboreus biological control, 194 M Maasvlakte 2, 133 Machair, agricultural intensification effects on birds, 267 effects on plants, 266 Machair distribution, 258 Machair system, 259 Maine natural resources protection act (NRPA), 79 Maquis, 28, 106 Marine aggregates, 52 Marram planting, 41, 42 Mass tourism, 49 Medieval Warm Period, 3, Mediterranean vegetation, 16 Mediterraneoid, 17 Merthyr Mawr, South Wales Hippophaë control, 192 Merthyr Mawr Warren South Wales, 183 Mesolithic people, 37 Mineral extraction, 52 Mineral nutrient status, 171 Mobile beach/foredune, 143 Models for dune development, Monitoring beach width, 128 Mosaics and invertebrates, 118 Murlough Dunes Northern Ireland, 184 Mycorrhizal fungi, Myxomatosis, 157 N National Park Service coastal geology group, 77 National vegetation classification, 66, 68 Native coastal scrub, 163 302 Native species erosion control, 204 Native woodland, 108 Natural invasion, 178 Neolithic, 37, 38 Neolithic farming, 39 Neolithic settlement, Newborough warren forest, 43 New Jersey shore, 142 New Zealand forest service, 44 Nitrogen, critical load, 172 Nitrogen deposition, 46 Non-coastal lowland heath, 214 North Norfolk Coast Special Area of Conservation, 71 NRPA See Maine natural resources protection act (NRPA) O OECD pressure-state-response model, 85 Open Championship of golf, 244 Outer Hebridean dry machair, 262 Overgrazed inland dunes, 151 Overgrazing, 39, 40 P Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy (PEBLDS), 76 Particle size, PEBLDS See Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy (PEBLDS) Pine clearance, 229 Pine woodland, 107 Pinhals, 43 Pioneer plants, 11 Plant ecology, 98 Plant structural diversity and invertebrates, 164 Pleistocene sediment removal, 132 Postglacial relict populations, 115 Potato cultivation, 261 Primary dune, 86 Progradation, 90 Prunus serotina, 191 R Rabbit cultivation, 111 Rabbit grazing, 157, 223 Index Rabbits as a food resource, 111 Rare plants of dune slacks, 115 Recreation and afforestation, 167 Red Squirrel and deforestation, 227 Red Squirrel Sciurus vulgaris, 166 Relative sea level rise, Outer Hebrides, 271 Reservoir construction impact on deltas, 135 Restoration top soil inversion, 213 Restoring blowouts, 210 Restoring dune scrub, 211 Restoring dune slacks top soil removal, 213 River damming impact on deltas, 52, 134 Rock armouring, 139 Rosa rugosa Physical control, 193 Roughs, 242 Royal and Ancient, golf club, 242 Royal St George’s golf course, 244 Rubjerg Knude lighthouse, 292 S Saltation, Sand drift, 40 Sand Drift Bill New Zealand, 44 Sand dune distribution Arctic, 21 Australia and New Zealand, 26–27 Black Sea, 25 East Atlantic, 23 Eastern Mediterranean, 25 Europe, 22 Great Britain, 24 North America, 26 South Africa, 26 Western Mediterranean, 25 World, 19 Sand dune squeeze, 283, 293 Sand extraction, 51 Sand mining surf zone, 133 Sand sheet/washover, 87 Sand sliding, 169 Scottish machair, combating erosion, 272 Scrub invasion, 152, 163 Scrub Management Handbook, 215 Scrub removal, 215 Seaside holiday, 47 Seaward accreting foredunes, 143 Seaweed removal, 137 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 303 Index Secondary dune, 87 Secondary woodland, 107 Sediment availability, Sediment budget, Sediment loss, 134, 136 Sediment source, 111 Sefton Coast Life Project, 227 Setting appropriate grazing regimes, 216 Sheep grazing, 218, 221 Sheep grazing, machair erosion, 269 Sheet erosion, 160 Sites of special scientific interest, 73 Skara Brae, 2, 38 Slufters, 15 Sod cutting, 212 Soil acidity, 46 Soil borne fungi and nematodes, 181 Spanish urbanisations, 49 Special areas of conservation, 67, 69 Special protection areas, 69 Stabilisation, 287 State of virginia the marine resources commission, 79 Stock grazing alternative management on golf courses, 249 cessation on golf course, 247 conflict with golfers, 247 reduction on golf course, 246 Stocking rates, 219 Structural diversity lack of, 103 Succession, 9–11 Symbolic fences nesting sea turtles, 206 Symposia and conferences, 121 T Tentsmuir forest, 43 Time series measurements, 128 Time share urbanisation, 49 Trampling, 137 Trampling, impacts on vegetation, 168 Trampling pressure, 160 Trump International Golf Links, 80, 254 U Undergrazed inland dunes, 151 United Kingdom Geological Conservation Review, 76 United States of America Coastal Zone Management Act, 78 Urbanisation Belgium, 47 Urbanisation Sefton Coast, 55 V Valuing mobile features, 291 Vegetation succession Mediterranean, 28 northwest Europe, 27 Vehicle traffic effects on invertebrates, 138 Visitor management, 225 W Water abstraction, golf courses, 251 Wind speed threshold, World database on protected areas, 69 World heritage sites, 69 Z Zonation, www.Ebook777.com ... the sand dune system’s biological attributes Due to this, discussion includes the active sand- sharing system at the beach/foredune interface (Chaps and 6) and the inland1 sand dune (Chaps and. .. reports and the internet It is for those with a special interest in the practical aspects of sand dune conservation, management and restoration and undergraduates Note “inland” refers to the sand dune. .. coarse sand Coarse sand Medium sand Fine sand Very fine sand Silt Clays 1.2 Physical Development Fig 1.1 Movement of sediment in the coastal zone in relation to the development of sand dunes The