Pollution Causes, Effects and Control 5th Edition Edited by R M Harrison University of Birmingham, UK Email: r.m.harrison@bham.ac.uk ISBN: 978-1-84973-648-0 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library r The Royal Society of Chemistry 2014* All rights reserved Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of research for non-commercial purposes or for private study, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 and the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003, this publication may not be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of The Royal Society of Chemistry or the copyright owner, or in the case of reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to The Royal Society of Chemistry at the address printed on this page The RSC is not responsible for individual opinions expressed in this work Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry, Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge CB4 0WF, UK Registered Charity Number 207890 Visit our website at www.rsc.org/books *Please note that, where indicated, copyright is shared Preface The subject of pollution remains high in the public consciousness and has been a significant factor on the political agenda of both developed and developing countries for a number of years The subject is now seen as a priority area for research and for technological developments It is therefore a fastmoving field and one where books require updating on a rather frequent basis The First Edition of this book was published in 1983 and arose from the collation of course notes from a Residential School held at Lancaster University in 1982, supplemented with additional chapters to give a fuller overview of the field Subsequent editions have expanded the coverage so as to provide a fairly full overview of the field of chemical and radioactive pollution The level of treatment remains much the same, being essentially introductory, although covering some more advanced aspects The very high sales achieved by the book suggest that this has been very popular and Pollution is used both as a teaching text and a reference book by practitioners requiring broad knowledge of the field In a fast-moving field it is necessary to scrutinise contents carefully and to ensure thorough updating The Fourth Edition of Pollution contained one wholly new chapter on Clean Technologies and Industrial Ecology reflecting the growing importance of pollution prevention as opposed to end-ofpipe controls Whilst authorship of the majority of the other chapters remained in the same hands, a large proportion of the chapters were thoroughly revised to reflect new developments in the field, and extended to improve coverage In the Fifth Edition, overall coverage is similar to the Fourth Edition, but greatly updated to include major new developments such as nanomaterials, as well as new scientific insights and legislative changes A wholly new chapter on Climate Change is included, reflecting the high societal importance of this issue and the need for an authoritative view on the science Once again, the chapter authors have been selected on the basis of their established reputation in the field and their ability to write with clarity of presentation I am delighted that a high proportion of those who wrote for the Fourth Edition have updated their contributions for the Fifth Edition A number of those in fast-moving areas have completely re-written their contributions Inevitably, given the length of time between the editions, some authors have changed, and it is a pleasure to welcome distinguished newcomers to the team Comparing the Fifth with the First Edition of this book, I am struck by the explosion in knowledge in this vital area Environmental pollution is now a very major area of research, consultancy and technological development, and I hope that this book goes some way towards providing an authoritative knowledge base for those working within the field Roy M Harrison Birmingham Pollution: Causes, Effects and Control, 5th Edition Edited by R M Harrison r The Royal Society of Chemistry 2014 Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org v Contents List of Contributors Chapter xix Chemical Pollution of the Aquatic Environment by Priority Pollutants and its Control Oliver A.H Jones and Rachel L Gomes 1.1 1.2 Introduction Pollution Control Philosophy 1.2.1 Integrated Control Measures 1.2.2 Trans-boundary Considerations 1.2.3 Complementary and Supplementary Control Measures 1.2.4 Life-cycle Considerations 1.2.5 The Impacts of Chemical Mixtures 1.3 Regulation of Direct Discharge Sources 1.3.1 The Water Framework Directive 1.3.2 REACH Regulations 1.4 Regulation of Diffuse Sources 1.5 Case Studies 1.5.1 Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) 1.5.2 Oestrogenic Chemicals 1.5.3 Pesticides 1.5.4 Emerging Contaminants of Concern (ECC) 1.6 Conclusions References Chapter Chemistry and Pollution of the Marine Environment Martin R Preston 2.1 2.2 Introduction General Features of the Oceanic Environment 2.2.1 Sources of Chemicals to the Oceans 2.2.2 Circulation Patterns 2.2.3 Sea Water Reactivity – Biogeochemical Processes Pollution: Causes, Effects and Control, 5th Edition Edited by R M Harrison r The Royal Society of Chemistry 2014 Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org vii 7 8 9 14 16 20 20 21 23 24 25 26 29 29 30 30 31 31 viii Contents 2.3 Sources, Movement and Behaviour of Individual Pollutants or Classes of Pollutant 2.3.1 Oil 2.3.2 Sewage and Nutrients 2.3.3 Persistent Organic Compounds 2.3.4 Trace Metals 2.3.5 Radioactivity 2.3.6 The Effects of Artificial Radioactivity on the Marine Environment 2.4 Conclusions References Chapter Drinking Water Quality and Health John K Fawell 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Introduction Drinking Water Sources Drinking Water Treatment and Supply Sources of Contamination Drinking Water Guidelines and Standards Microbiological Contaminants Chemical Contaminants 3.7.1 Inorganic Contaminants 3.7.2 Organic Contaminants 3.8 Water Safety Plans (WSPs) 3.9 Conclusions References Chapter 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 55 56 56 60 Water Pollution Biology William M Mayes 4.1 32 32 38 43 49 52 Introduction 4.1.1 The Role of Biology in Understanding Water Pollution 4.1.2 Pollution Types and Interactions Organic Pollution Eutrophication 4.3.1 Nutrient Pollution in Lakes 4.3.2 Nutrient Enrichment in Rivers and Groundwaters 4.3.3 Managing Nutrient Pollution Acidification 4.4.1 Acidification from Above: Sulfur and Nitrogen Oxides 4.4.2 Recovery from Acidification 4.4.3 Acidification from Below: Acid Mine Drainage Toxic Chemicals 4.5.1 Modes of Action of Toxic Chemicals 4.5.2 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification Thermal Pollution 4.6.1 Anthropogenic Impacts on Thermal Regime 4.6.2 Climate Change 60 61 61 62 63 65 67 67 72 76 76 77 80 80 80 81 82 87 87 89 90 91 91 93 94 94 94 97 99 99 100 ix Contents 4.7 4.8 4.9 Radioactivity Oil Emerging Contaminants 4.9.1 Nanomaterials 4.9.2 Human and Veterinary Medicines 4.10 Biological Monitoring of Pollution in Freshwaters 4.10.1 Laboratory Monitoring Techniques 4.10.2 Field Monitoring Techniques 4.11 Conclusions References Chapter Sewage and Sewage Sludge Treatment Elise Cartmell 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Objectives of Sewage Treatment 5.1.2 The Importance of Wastewater Reuse 5.1.3 Criteria for Sewage Treatment 5.1.4 Composition of Sewage 5.2 Sewage Treatment Processes 5.2.1 Preliminary Treatment 5.2.2 Primary Sedimentation 5.2.3 Secondary (Biological) Treatment 5.2.4 Secondary Sedimentation 5.3 Sludge Treatment and Reuse 5.3.1 Sources of Municipal Sludge 5.3.2 Sludge Recycling Options 5.3.3 Pre-treatment Handling 5.3.4 Sludge Treatment Processes References Chapter 115 Treatment of Toxic Wastes Stuart T Wagland and Simon J T Pollard 6.1 101 102 102 103 104 105 105 105 110 111 Introduction 6.1.1 Definition of Toxic and Hazardous Wastes 6.1.2 Sources 6.1.3 Case Study: Detection of Hazardous Materials used in the Preservation of Wood 6.2 Treatment and Management Routes 6.2.1 Introduction and Overview 6.2.2 Case Study: Animal Carcass Disposal following Disease Outbreak 6.2.3 Thermal Processes 6.2.4 Chemical Processes 6.3 Environmental and Health Management 6.3.1 Case Study: Severe Environmental Consequences of Poor Hazardous Waste Management (Spodden Valley, UK) References 115 116 117 118 119 120 120 121 123 132 132 133 133 134 134 138 140 140 141 142 143 144 144 144 147 150 152 152 153 x Chapter Contents Air Pollution: Sources, Concentrations and Measurements Roy M Harrison 7.1 7.2 Introduction Specific Air Pollutants 7.2.1 Sulfur Dioxide 7.2.2 Suspended Particulate Matter 7.2.3 Oxides of Nitrogen 7.2.4 Carbon Monoxide 7.2.5 Hydrocarbons 7.2.6 Secondary Pollutants: Ozone and Peroxyacetyl Nitrate 7.3 Temporal Patterns of Airborne Concentration 7.4 Air Quality Management 7.5 Indoor Air Quality 7.6 International Perspective 7.7 Appendix 7.7.1 Air Pollutant Concentration Units References Chapter Chapter 157 157 158 158 159 165 168 169 171 172 174 177 177 177 177 180 Chemistry of the Troposphere Roy M Harrison 182 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Pollutant Cycles 8.2 Atmospheric Chemical Transformations 8.2.1 The Importance of the Hydroxyl Radical (OH) 8.3 Atmospheric Oxidants 8.3.1 Formation of Ozone 8.3.2 Formation of PAN 8.3.3 NOy Compounds 8.4 Atmospheric Acids 8.4.1 Weak Acids 8.4.2 Strong Acids 8.4.3 Sulfuric Acid 8.4.4 Nitric Acid 8.4.5 Hydrochloric Acid 8.4.6 Methanesulfonic Acid (MSA) 8.5 Atmospheric Bases 8.6 Atmospheric Aerosols and Rainwater 8.6.1 Atmospheric Particles 8.6.2 Rainwater 8.6.3 Inter-relationships between Pollutants, Environmental Effects and Impacts References 182 183 186 186 187 187 192 193 193 193 194 194 196 196 197 197 198 198 200 Chemistry and Pollution of the Stratosphere A Robert MacKenzie and Francis D Pope 204 9.1 204 Introduction 201 202 xi Contents 9.2 Stratospheric Ozone Chemistry 9.2.1 Gas-Phase Chemistry 9.2.2 Heterogeneous Chemistry 9.3 Natural Sources of Trace Gases 9.4 Anthropogenic Sources of Trace Gases 9.4.1 Direct Injection of Pollutants into the Stratosphere 9.5 Antarctic Ozone 9.6 Arctic Zone 9.7 Mid-Latitude Ozone 9.8 Legislation 9.9 Geoengineering 9.10 Conclusions Acknowledgements References Chapter 10 Chapter 11 206 207 211 213 214 214 215 217 219 220 221 222 223 223 Atmospheric Dispersal of Pollutants and the Modelling of Air Pollution Martin L Williams 225 10.1 10.2 Introduction Dispersion and Transport in the Atmosphere 10.2.1 Mechanical Turbulence 10.2.2 Turbulence and Atmospheric Stability 10.2.3 Boundary Layer and Mixing Heights 10.2.4 Building, Topographical and Street Canyon Effects 10.2.5 Removal Processes – Dry and Wet Deposition 10.3 Modelling of Air Pollution Dispersion 10.3.1 Modelling in the Near-field 10.3.2 Operational Models 10.3.3 Emission Inventories 10.3.4 Modelling beyond Urban Scales – Long Range Transport and Chemical Transport Models 10.3.5 Uncertainty and Accuracy of Models References 225 226 226 226 228 230 231 231 232 235 236 Air Pollution and Health Robert L Maynard and Jon Ayres 244 11.1 11.2 11.3 Introduction Exposure to Air Pollution Epidemiological Methods Applied in the Air Pollution Field 11.3.1 Time Series Methods 11.3.2 Cohort Studies 11.3.3 Intervention Studies 11.4 Individual Air Pollutants 11.4.1 Particulate Matter 11.4.2 Problems with Mass as a Metric of Dose 11.4.3 Other Possible Metrics of ‘‘Dose’’ 11.4.4 World Health Organisation Air Quality Guidelines for Particulate Matter 237 239 241 244 245 246 246 249 250 251 251 252 252 253 xii Contents 11.4.5 Nitrogen Dioxide 11.4.6 Sulfur Dioxide 11.4.7 Ozone 11.4.8 Carbon Monoxide 11.4.9 Carcinogenic Air Pollutants 11.5 Conclusion References Chapter 12 Impacts of Air Pollutants on Crops, Trees and Ecosystems Mike Ashmore 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 Introduction Methods of Investigation Sulfur Dioxide and Sulfur Deposition Nitrogen Oxides, Ammonia and N Deposition Ozone Interactions between Pollutants 12.6.1 Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Oxides 12.6.2 Interactions between Ozone and Elevated Concentrations 12.7 Interactions with Biotic and Abiotic Factors 12.7.1 Climate 12.7.2 Interactions with Pests and Diseases 12.8 Critical Loads and Levels 12.9 Effects on Ecosystem Services References Chapter 13 268 CO2 268 270 272 273 276 279 279 280 280 280 281 283 285 289 Control of Pollutant Emissions from Road Transport Claire Holman 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 Introduction Engines 13.2.1 Introduction 13.2.2 Spark Ignition/Petrol Engines 13.2.3 Compression Ignition/Diesel Engines Controlling Regulated Emissions 13.3.1 Introduction 13.3.2 Exhaust After-treatment Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions Fuel Quality Alternative Fuels 13.6.1 Introduction 13.6.2 Natural Gas 13.6.3 Electric Vehicles 13.6.4 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 13.6.5 Biofuels 13.6.6 Hydrogen Particle Emissions Non-exhaust Particles 254 256 258 260 261 263 263 297 297 301 301 302 303 303 303 306 311 312 314 314 315 316 316 317 320 320 321 xiii Contents 13.9 In-service Emissions 13.10 Conclusions Acknowledgements References Chapter 14 Introduction Sources of Soil Pollutants 15.2.1 Potentially Toxic Elements 15.2.2 Organic Pollutants 15.2.3 Nanoparticles 15.3 Pathways of Pollutants in Soils 15.3.1 PTEs 15.3.2 Organic Pollutants 15.3.3 Nanoparticles 15.4 Consquences of Soil Pollution – Risk Assessment 15.4.1 Fine Tuning the Risk Assessment 15.5 Remediation of Contaminated Soils 15.6 Conclusions References 322 324 324 324 326 Soil Pollution and Risk Assessment Chris D Collins 15.1 15.2 Chapter 16 Climate Change Keith P Shine 14.1 Historical and Political Background 14.2 Scientific Background 14.3 Observed Changes in Climate 14.4 Changes in Atmospheric Composition and Radiative Forcing 14.5 Modelling Climate Change 14.6 Attribution of Climate Change over Past 150 Years 14.7 Modelling Future Climate Change 14.8 Conclusions References Chapter 15 326 328 329 332 335 336 337 337 338 340 340 342 342 344 345 345 346 347 349 349 350 351 352 353 Solid Waste Management Gev Eduljee 356 16.1 16.2 356 357 357 358 359 359 360 Introduction An Integrated Approach to Waste Management 16.2.1 The Waste Management Hierarchy 16.2.2 An Integrated Approach 16.3 Technical Options for Waste Prevention and Recycling 16.3.1 Opportunities for Waste Avoidance and Minimization 16.3.2 Collection and Sorting 16.4 Policy Options to make Waste Prevention and Recycling Work in Practice 16.4.1 Introduction 16.4.2 Producer Responsibility 361 361 362 ... Environment Agency as the regulatory body of England and Wales (Scotland, Ireland and Northern Ireland each have their own equivalents and Wales split from England in 2013) spent over d140 million in... river basin districts: 11 in England and Wales, in Scotland and in Northern Ireland (including international RBDs) In the Severn Trent Basin District in England, 29% and 37% of surface waters are... cost-effective and proportionate level and combination of product and process controls for both point and diffuse sources and take account of Community-wide uniform emission limit values for process controls