Anthropogenic Geomorphology József Szabó · Lóránt Dávid · Dénes Lóczy Editors Anthropogenic Geomorphology A Guide to Man-Made Landforms 123 Editors József Szabó Department of Physical Geography and Geoinformatics University of Debrecen Egyetem ter Debrecen 4010 Hungary wagner@puma.unideb.hu Lóránt Dávid Department of Tourism and Regional Development Károly Róbert College Mátrai út 36 Gngs 3200 Hungary davidlo@karolyrobert.hu Dénes Lóczy Department of Environmental Geography and Landscape Conservation Institute of Environmental Sciences University of Pécs Ifjúság útja 7624 Pécs Hungary loczyd@gamma.ttk.pte.hu This book is based on the monograph “Antropogén geomorfológia” published in Hungarian by the University of Debrecen, Hungary, in 2006 Translated by Zoltán Baros, Dénes Lóczy and Péter Rózsa Technical editor: Zoltán Baros ISBN 978-90-481-3057-3 e-ISBN 978-90-481-3058-0 DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-3058-0 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York Library of Congress Control Number: 2010920469 © Springer Science+Business Media B.V 2010 No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Foreword Anthropogenic geomorphology is the study of the role of humans in creating landforms and modifying the operation of geomorphological processes such as weathering, erosion, transport and deposition As the human population rises, new lands and resources are exploited, and new technologies are adopted, the impact of humans grows ever greater Some landforms are produced by direct anthropogenic actions These tend to be relatively obvious in form and are frequently created deliberately and knowingly They include landforms produced by construction (e.g spoil tips from mines), excavation (e.g mining and quarrying), hydrological interference (e.g the building of dams), farming (including cultivation, grazing and horticulture) and military activities (e.g craters) On the other hand, landforms produced by indirect anthropogenic actions are often more difficult to recognise, because they tend to involve the acceleration of natural processes rather than the operation of new ones They result from environmental changes brought about inadvertently by human actions By removing or modifying land cover – through cutting, bulldozing, burning and grazing – humans have accelerated rates of erosion and sedimentation Sometimes the results of inadvertent actions are spectacular, as for example when major gully systems develop following deforestation, extreme floods are generated by impermeable urban surfaces, subsidence features open up when groundwater is mined, lakes become desiccated as a result of inter-basin water transfers, and mass movements like landslides are triggered by loading of slopes Rates of rock weathering may be modified because of the acidification of precipitation caused by accelerated sulphate and nitrate emissions or because of accelerated salinisation in areas of irrigation and vegetation clearance There are situations where, through a lack of understanding of the operation of geomorphological systems, humans have deliberately and directly altered landforms and processes and thereby have caused a series of events which were neither anticipated nor desired There are, for example, many records of attempts to reduce coastal erosion by using imposing and expensive hard engineering solutions, which, far from solving erosion problems, only exacerbated them This has profound implications for land management v vi Foreword Finally, the possibility that the buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere may cause enhanced global warming in coming decades has many implications for anthropogenic geomorphology This valuable book provides an overview of impacts from most types of human activity, demonstrates the value of a historical approach, and although it has a special emphasis on Hungarian research, provides examples from all over the world Oxford University, UK Andrew Goudie Acknowledgements The authors and editors wish to express their gratitude to Professors Béla Kleb (Budapest) and György Hahn (Miskolc), who read and corrected the Hungarian version of this volume, for their constructive comments The financial support received from the Hungarian Office for Research and Technology and Pro Renovanda Cultura Hungariae Foundation is also gratefully acknowledged vii Contents Part I Introduction Anthropogenic Geomorphology: Subject and System József Szabó Part II Anthropogenic Geomorphology and Related Disciplines Human Impact in a Systems Approach Attila Kerényi 13 Anthropogenic Geomorphology in Environmental Management Dénes Lóczy 25 Anthropogenic Geomorphology and Landscape Ecology Péter Csorba 39 Part III Impacts of Various Human Activities on the Landscape Agriculture: Crop Cultivation and Horticulture József Lóki 55 Agriculture: Grazing Lands and Other Grasslands Csaba Tóth 69 Agriculture: Cultivation on Slopes Péter Csorba 83 Agriculture: Deforestation Zoltán Karancsi 95 Quarrying and Other Minerals Lóránt Dávid 113 10 Mining: Extraction of Fossil Fuels László Süt˝o 131 11 Water Management József Szabó 155 ix 17 Nature and Extent of Human Geomorphological Impact – A Review 283 Table 17.5 Estimated amount of earth moved in some advanced civilizations (after Hooke 2000) Time Civilization 2,500 BC Egypt, pyramid of Cheops Rome Rome Copán, Mexico Easter Island London London London United States Worldwide 100 600 1,400 1,650 1,750 1,825 Today Today Earth moved (million tons) Time-span (year) Earth moved per capita (kg/yr/person) 6.3 20 625 2,330.0 290 5.3 1.0 0.9 2.0 13.0 7,600.0 35,000.0 800 200 400 600 100 100 50 1 3,495 1735 665 260 3,365 4,040 12,860 31,000 6,000 Fig 17.3 The amount of earth moved annually per capita by human intervention from 7000 BC to the present (on the left side); and the total amount of earth moved annually by human geomorphological activities during the past 5,000 years (on the right side) (compiled by Rózsa 2007 after Hooke 2000) 284 P Rózsa To estimate the geomorphological impact of agriculture in the past, Hooke assumed that population dependent upon agriculture increased linearly from 9000 BP (i.e from the beginning of the agricultural technical–cultural era of humankind); about 2000 BP, it reached 100% and has remained at this level It should be emphasized that the expression of ‘population dependent upon agriculture’ does not refer to population following agricultural activity This expression concerns the fact that since that time, food supply for humans has been practically provided by tillage and animal husbandry and role of fishing, hunting and gathering became rather subordinate; therefore, the food supply has been dependent on agricultural production According to his assumption, the annual sediment loss from tillage and pasturing increased linearly during that 7,000 year period About 2000 BP, when riverine civilizations flourished and agricultural empires emerged, the amount of the earth moved per capita by agricultural activities began to decrease gradually This is due to the fact that pastures became less and less important for the food supply of world population; moreover, a land of a given extent provided food for an increasing number of people; technical innovations such as iron ploughs, irrigation and others were spreading Due to the dramatic increase in agricultural productivity and the implementation of modern soil conservation practices, the relative importance of anthropogenic geomorphological processes by agricultural activities has shown a more precipitous decline since the industrial revolution, particularly, over the last 50 years As indicated in Fig 17.3, the impact of intentional anthropogenic geomorphological activities (mining, building and road construction, etc.) increased slowly until the industrial revolution and their geomorphological importance was subordinate to agriculture After the industrial revolution, this pattern changed fundamentally: while the amount of earth moved per capita by agriculture has dropped considerably, intentional anthropogenic geomorphological activities are steadily gaining in importance The total amount of earth moved intentionally and unintentionally can be simply estimated by multiplying the per capita values by the population in the past (Fig 17.3) The figure shows that geomorphological impact of humans increased slowly and gradually until the industrial revolution, and this increase was dominantly the result of the increasing unintentional (agricultural) activity Industrial revolution drastically transformed this pattern The most important change is that linear increase of amount of earth moved by humans turned exponential According to Hooke’s estimation, the total earth moved in the past 500 years would be sufficient to build a mountain range 4000 m high, 40 km wide and 100 km long Moreover, at the current rate of increase, its length could be doubled in the next 100 years Another significant change is that, although there is a huge increase in geomorphological impact of both intentional and unintentional activities, intentional impacts have become more important As a consequence, humans are increasingly capable not only of modifying geomorphological processes but also visually transforming the Earth’s surface 17 Nature and Extent of Human Geomorphological Impact – A Review 285 17.5 Estimating Potential Anthropogenic Geomorphological Impact It could seem to be obvious that the amount of earth moved per capita by human activities should be regarded as a basic parameter for the quantification of anthropogenic geomorphological impact As it was mentioned, however, this method is hardly applicable because of the lack of detailed statistical data as well as considerable variation in estimations Human environmental impact is generally characterized by the equation of Erlich and Erlich (1990): I =P×A×T (17.1) where I is environmental impact, P is population, A is affluence per capita and T is a technology factor Some authors (e.g Haff 2003) suggest applying this equation to relate human factor in geomorphological processes This assumption seems to be logical since, regarding the social–economic side of anthropogenic geomorphology, human geomorphological impact is principally controlled by population size and economic and technological development However, this equation can be scarcely used to quantify anthropogenic geomorphological impact because there is no parameter to represent a direct and specific connection between technological development and general geomorphological ability of humans The most useable model suggested so far for the quantification of potential anthropogenic geomorphological impact was formulated by Nir (1983) His ‘index of potential anthropogenic geomorphology’ is based on two parameters, namely ‘the degree of development’ and ‘the degree of perception’ The former reflects the rate of human impact, while the latter concerns the perception of the harm of anthropogenic geomorphological processes, i.e the extent of combating erosion caused by human intervention Interpreting the relationship between the degree of development and that of perception, Nir hierarchically and chronologically ordered different human activities according to their geomorphological impact and presumes that each degree contains all the earlier ones On the basis of the rate of anthropogenic geomorphological processes (AGP), he identifies five different degrees on the scale ranging from (AGP non-exist) to (disastrous AGP) The correlation between anthropogenic geomorphological processes and the degree of development is shown by Fig 17.4 The three curves in the figure reflect the three main possibilities for the impact of the degree of development on the rate of the AGP Nir assumes that every curve starts and ends at the same points To determine the rate of the degree of perception, a similar train of thought is followed Therefore, Nir assumes that each degree contains all the earlier, less efficient combating erosion Figure 17.5 shows the scheme of correlation between anthropogenic geomorphological processes and the degree of perception As the figure shows, perception may happen at low, gradual and accelerated rates, and according to Nir’s assumption, the three curves begin and end at identical points in this case, 286 P Rózsa Fig 17.4 Correlation between the degree of development and anthropogenic geomorphological processes (Nir 1983) Fig 17.5 Correlation between degree of perception and anthropogenic geomorphological processes (Nir 1983) too Generally speaking, it can be stated that three kinds of relationship may occur between the degree of development (DD) and the degree of perception (DP): when DD is higher than DP, high AGP rates occur indicating a need for severe to moderate anti-erosive measures; when both DD and DP are similar, moderate AGP rates occur and there is no urgent need for corrective measures; when DD is lower than DP, low AGP rates occur In Nir’s opinion, the degree of development can be expressed by the percentage of urban population (UP), while the degree of (lack of) perception can be expressed by the percentage of illiteracy (DI) since illiteracy may indicate education, and 17 Nature and Extent of Human Geomorphological Impact – A Review 287 education is a necessary condition for forming a public degree of perception Therefore, he proposes to define the rate of anthropogenic geomorphological processes (AGP) as the average value of these two variables, as follows: AGP = (UP + DI)/2 (17.2) In his model, Nir intended to consider physical conditions that have an influence on geomorphological processes induced by human activities For this reason, he also reckoned with the influence of relief and climate, the two principal physical factors modifying geomorphological processes As a result, his ‘index of potential anthropogenic geomorphology’ (I) is formulated as I= UP + DI · · (Kc + Kr ) 100 (17.3) where UP is the percentage of urban population, DI is the percentage of illiteracy and Kc and Kr are constants reflecting climatic and relief conditions, respectively Values of constants may range from 0.4 to 0.8 and from 0.2 to 0.8, respectively (Tables 17.6 and 17.7) Higher Kc values (0.6 and 0.8) are reasoned by the significant geomorphic impact of high amounts of precipitation for equatorial and monsoon-savannah climates; that of aeolian erosion for arid and semi-arid climate; and that of gelisolifluction for cold climate The relative values of Kr constant obviously correspond to the dissection and slope condition of the main relief categories The multiplication by 1/100 serves to express the value of (UP + DI)/2 by a value between and 1; in general, index values also range from to Nir proposed this index to be a parameter, which indicates how harmful potential anthropogenic geomorphological processes are in a given country In his opinion, Table 17.6 Values of Kc constant for calculating I (according to Nir 1983) (Classification after Köppen) Equatorial climate (Af) 0.6 Monsoon-savannah climate (Aw) Arid and semi-arid climate (B) Temperate climate (C) Cold climate (D) Arctic climate (E) 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.4 Table 17.7 Values of Kr constant for calculating I (according to Nir 1983) Plains 0.2 Hills Plateaux Medium-high mountains High (Alpine) mountains 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 288 P Rózsa if I < 0.30, human geomorphological activities represent a low hazard; if 0.30 ≤ I ≤ 0.49, a hazard not negligible, with some conservation measures required; if I ≥ 0.50, anthropogenic geomorphological processes may cause considerable damage; therefore, urgent and efficient measures are needed It is an advantage of Nir’s index that the required data can be obtained for most countries Moreover, by using prediction for urban population and illiteracy in the future, potential anthropogenic geomorphological processes can be also forecasted Table 17.8 listed the values of I for 37 countries for the 1970s, the millennium Table 17.8 Values of I for 33 selected countries in the years 1970, 2000 and 2015 I Country 1970a 2000b 2015b Algeria Australia Brazil Botswana Bulgaria Canada Chile Greece Hungary India Indonesia Iran Israel Japan Malawi Malaysia Mexico Morocco Nepal New Zeeland Panama Philippines Poland South Korea Switzerland Syria Tanzania Thailand Tunisia Turkey United Kingdom United States Zambia 0.76 0.35 0.46 0.31 0.33 0.43 0.48 0.40 0.16 0.57 0.36 0.60 0.50 0.30 0.48 0.46 0.48 0.70 0.70 0.42 0.43 0.33 0.17 0.27 0.34 0.52 0.50 0.17 0.58 0.47 0.31 0.34 0.57 0.55 0.37 0.48 0.30 0.36 0.45 0.50 0.32 0.20 0.46 0.35 0.49 0.48 0.34 0.31 0.46 0.46 0.65 0.55 0.44 0.39 0.43 0.19 0.37 0.41 0.34 0.39 0.18 0.46 0.40 0.36 0.36 0.37 0.51 0.38 0.48 0.30 0.37 0.47 0.51 0.33 0.21 0.42 0.39 0.49 0.47 0.35 0.28 0.46 0.46 0.61 0.47 0.44 0.40 0.47 0.19 0.38 0.41 0.31 0.38 0.20 0.42 0.40 0.36 0.38 0.34 a Data source: Nir (1983) based on data published in hdr.undp.org and www.uis unesco.org b Calculated 17 Nature and Extent of Human Geomorphological Impact – A Review 289 Fig 17.6 Values of index of potential anthropogenic geomorphology (I) for 33 countries in 1970, 2000 and 2015 (see Table 17.8 for the data used) (by Rózsa 2007) and 2015 Distribution of the values of I grouped according to the three main risk categories (Fig 17.6) indicates that in the 1970s there were only four countries (Hungary, Poland, South Korea and Thailand) where potential anthropogenic geomorphological processes present a lower hazard; however, the high value of I suggested very high hazards for ten countries (Algeria, India, Iran, Israel, Morocco, Nepal, Syria, Tanzania, Tunisia, Zambia) For the other 19 countries, the medium value of the index indicated moderate hazards The picture seems to have improved by the millennium: the values of I suggest that anthropogenic geomorphological processes represent high hazards for only four of 33 countries (Algeria, Chile, Morocco and Nepal) Simultaneously, the number of countries of moderately dangerous human geomorphological impact increased from 19 to 26 (almost 80%) For three countries (Hungary, Poland and Thailand) anthropogenic geomorphological processes continued to be on a less dangerous level According to the prediction for 2015, basically, the present pattern will not change On the other hand, however, some details of the concept can be debated Regarding Kc and Kr constants, Butzer (1984), referring observational evidence from Jansen and Painter (1974), argues that relief heavily outweighs the influence of precipitation seasonality and intensity Moreover, the percentage of urban population as a parameter of the level of development may be questionable It is undoubtedly true that there are conditions of obtaining urban rank (e.g population, offices, services, spatial attraction, urban building methods, etc.), which reflect the level of development; however, these conditions can hardly be expressed by numerical data These conditions are different from country to country and from time to time The lower population limit of urban rank may range from 200 (Denmark, Norway) to 50,000 (Japan) In Hungary, some decades ago there were only some towns with a population less than 10,000; now there are settlements of urban rank 290 P Rózsa where less than 2,000 inhabitants live Perhaps, it is not too strong an exaggeration to say that those settlements, which have been declared as urban settlements by the competent authorities, have been listed as urban ones The percentage of urban population is rather an administrative–statistical category; consequently, its application as a parameter indicating social–economic development is misleading Moreover, due to anti-illiteracy campaigns it is also questionable whether the percentage of illiteracy really indicates the level of education, i.e it can be used as a parameter indicating the degree of perception The arguments mentioned above may reveal basic conceptual problems of the model Data representing socio-economic factors of the anthropogenic geomorphological processes concern countries; however, countries of large expanse may have an extremely varying relief and climatic features; consequently, characterization of their climate and relief conditions by one constant each can lead to sweeping generalization Consequently, the two sides of the equation should be separated and their validity should be investigated separately (Rózsa and Novák 2008) Nir’s effort to create an anthropogenic geomorphological model can be regarded as a pioneer attempt The concept has to be refined and improved further or renewed if necessary References Butzer KW (1984) Man, a geomorphological agent: an introduction to anthropic geomorphology (Book review) Ann Assoc Am Geogr 74 (4): 647–648 Erlich PR, Erlich AH (1990) The Population Explosion Simon and Schuster, New York Goudie A, Viles H (2003) The Earth Transformed An Introduction to Human Impacts on the Environment Blackwell Publishers, Oxford Haff PK (2003) Neogeomorphology, prediction, and the anthropogenic landscapes In Wilcock PR, Iverson RM (eds.), Prediction in Geomorphology AGU, Geophysical Monograph Series 135: 15–26 Hooke RL (1994) On the efficacy of humans as geomorphic agents GSA Today (9): 217, 224–225 Hooke RL (1999) Spatial distribution of human geomorphic activity in the United States: comparison with rivers Earth Sur Proc Landforms 24: 687–692 Hooke, RL (2000) On the history of humans as geomorphic agents Geology 28 (9): 843–846 Jansen JML, Painter RB (1974) Predicting sediment yield from climate and topography J Hydrol 21: 371–380 Livi-Bacci M (1992) A Concise History of World Population: An Introduction to Population Processes Blackwell Publishers, Oxford Loh J, Wackernagel M (eds.) (2004) Living Planet Report 2004 World Wilde Fund for Nature Nir D (1983) Man, A Geomorphological Agent An Introduction to Anthropic Geomorphology Reidel, Dordrecht, Boston, London Rózsa P (2007) Attempts at qualitative and quantitative assessment of human impact on the landscape Geogr Fiz Dinam Quat 30: 233–238 Rózsa P, Novák T (2008) Mapping Anthropogenic Geomorphological Sensitivity on Global Scale Abstracts of First Joint Congress of the IAG Working Groups Human Impact on the Landscape (HILS) & Geomorphological Hazards (IAGeomhaz) Ruhr-University, Bochum, Germany Simmons I (1993) Environmental History A Concise Introduction Blackwell Publishers, Oxford Szabó J (1993) A társadalom hatása a fưldfelszínre Antropogén geomorfológia (Human impact on the Earth’s surface Anthropogenic geomorphology) In Borsy Z (ed.), Általános természetföldrajz (Physical Geography) Nemzeti Tankưnyvkiadó, Budapest 17 Nature and Extent of Human Geomorphological Impact – A Review 291 Thomlinson, R (1976) Population Dynamics: Causes and Consequences of World Demographic Change Random House, New York Whitmore TM, Turner BL, Johnson DL, Kates RW, Gottschang TR (1990) Long term population change In: Turner BL, Clark WC, Kates RW, Richards JF, Matthews JT, Meyer WB (eds.), The Earth as Transformed by Human Action Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Index A Abandoned terrace systems, 93 Aberfan slump, 144–145 Accelerated erosion, 7, 102–103, 206, 235 Accelerated soil erosion, 235–237, 239, 242–245, 247, 249–250 Accumulated macroforms, 113, 116–117, 119 Accumulated mesoforms, 113, 116–117, 119 Accumulated microforms, 117, 120 Accumulation landforms, 61–62, 134 ´ am valley waste tip, 145–147 Ad´ Afforestation, 30, 73, 84–85, 96, 104, 106 After-use, 210 Agricultural revolution, 278 Agriculture, 9, 19 Airports, 50, 182, 185, 189, 203–204, 207, 257, 266 Air transport, 203 Antarctica, 256–258, 262 Anthropogenic activities, 17–19 Anthropogenic landforms/landscapes, 49–51, 58, 160, 168, 173, 180, 184–186, 217, 255, 262, 274 Anthropo-geomorphological processes (AGP), 276 Antonine Wall, 221 Applied geomorphology, 27 Architecture, 122–123, 182–185, 218, 223 Arid environments, 255, 258, 261–262 Artificial archipelagos, 239 Atmospheric pollution, 18 Avalanches, 7, 266, 269 B Badlands, 60, 78, 98, 259 Barrages, 158, 218 Barren surface, 62 Battlefields, 217, 226–228 Bedrock, 40–41, 60, 66, 98, 182, 191, 218, 256–257, 263–264 Birch wood circles, 109 Border dyke irrigation, 78 Bourtange, 223, 225 Brushwood palisades, 175 C Camping, 233, 249–250 Canals, 33, 47, 55, 59, 64, 156–157, 159–160, 166, 189, 205, 278 Carpathian Basin, 101, 159, 161 Cellars, 180–181, 189, 196–198 Channels, 155, 157, 160, 162, 164–165 Classification, anthropogenic geomorphology, 6–8 Clay buildings, 258–259 Climatic factors, 19, 22, 58 Climbing, 44, 234, 250 Closed systems, 14 Coastal engineering, 156, 174 Coastal erosion, 16, 29, 31, 237, 239, 249–250 Cold environments, 256–258 Collapse, 131, 134–135, 137, 139–140, 147, 151–152 slopes, 147 Collecting of stones, 79 Construction, 17–18, 22–23, 256–261, 264, 266–270 ‘Constructive geography’, 26 Constructive landforms, 6, Cooling water, 210 Copper mine, 123–124 Cornwall, 127 Crater, 149–150, 226, 228, 230, 261 Crown hole, 138, 140 Csăorsz Trench, 220 Cultivated landscapes, 39, 46–47 Cultivation, 55–66, 83–93 J Szab´o et al (eds.), Anthropogenic Geomorphology, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-3058-0, C Springer Science+Business Media B.V 2010 293 294 D Dams, 156, 158–159, 163, 165, 169, 174 Debris and mudflows, 264 Deep mining, 115, 131, 134 Defence constructions, 220 landscape, 219 Deflation, 19, 58, 62, 64–65, 81, 122, 147, 220, 229–230, 259 Deforestation, 30, 59, 84, 95–110, 165, 230, 233, 236, 246 Deltas, 96, 165 Depression field, 139, 148 trough, 148 Desertification, 69–73, 100 Diamond mine, 123, 125 Direct impacts, 8, 189, 198–205 Disposal sites, 7, 123, 142, 189, 210, 212 Ditches, 62, 64–65, 77–78, 89, 160, 190, 194, 210, 220, 237 Diurnal changes, 40 Drain pipe system, 64 Drivers of landscape evolution, 41 Drought, 26, 30, 64, 70–71, 74 Dust storms, 242, 246 Dynamic equilibrium, 5, 13–15, 164 E Early industrial sites, 194 Earth mottes, 217–218, 220, 223 Earth removal, Earthworks, 7, 23, 32, 184–185, 189–190, 200, 202, 206, 217–218, 220, 222–223, 228, 242 Ecological approach, 39–40 Ecological equilibrium, 71 Elevation, 8, 29, 59, 76, 90, 101, 107, 109, 116, 131, 140, 148, 157, 165, 168, 245, 255, 262–265, 267–268 Endogenic forces, 3–4, 17 Engineering geomorphology, 27 Entropy, 18–19 Environmental conflicts, 109–110 Environmental geomorphology, 26–27, 31 Environmental impact, 3–6, Environmental impact assessment, 31, 144–145, 201 Environmental management, 25–36 Environmental transformation, 103 Environmental values, 25–26, 113, 126 Equilibrium, Erosion, 83–84, 88, 90, 236–237, 243–250 See also specific erosions Index Excavated macroforms, 116–117 Excavated mesoforms, 116–118 Excavated microforms, 113, 117–118 Excavational landforms, Exogenic forces, 3–4, 13, 17, 19, 141 Expansion of arable land, 103 Explosion, 35, 149, 151, 194, 202, 218, 228–230, 264, 281 Exposure, 16, 22, 28, 59, 74, 76, 101, 106, 109, 147, 250 Extraction of building materials, 181 of groundwater, 170 Extreme environments, 255–270 F Farm-road pattern, 58 Flash floods, 95, 207, 236 Flood control, 155–161, 164 dykes, 23, 157–159, 164, 179, 184 Flood prevention, 160, 165, 181, 185, 229 Floods/flooding, 8, 30, 58, 78, 99, 103–104, 161–162, 170, 175, 207, 236, 258, 264, 267 Fluid fuels, 148–150 withdrawal, 148 Fluvial action, 162–166 Fly ash, 189, 210, 213 Footprints, 257 Forest cover, 95–96, 109 management, 18, 84, 95, 106 Fortification, 180, 184, 217–218, 221–223, 226, 228, 230 Fortresses, 202, 221–223, 226, 259, 261 Fossil fuels, 131–153 Fossil sand dunes, 70–71 Frost, 90–91 Functioning, 40–43, 46–48, 96 G Game damage, 110 Garden architecture, 183–185 Geochemical cycles, 13, 15–16 Geoglyphs, 262 Geomorphic cycles, 17–20, 23 Geomorphological activities, 273, 275–277, 283–284, 288 Geomorphological approach, 274 Geomorphological hazards, 28–31 Geomorphosites, 31–32 Golf courses, 235, 240–241 Gorges, 8, 33, 80, 264 Index Grabenkrieg, 230 Grass, 47, 69–70, 74–77, 79–81 Grassland management, 76–81 Grass-skiing, 237 Grazing, 69–81, 84–85 land, 69–81 Great Wall of China, 219–220 Gullies, 79–80, 109, 120, 122, 139–141, 147, 236 Gully erosion, 60, 117, 147, 152, 191–193 Gullying, 133, 144 H Hadrian’s Wall, 220 Hay-fields, 74 Headings, 134–135 Hemeroby, 39, 43 High mountains, 218, 245, 255–256, 265–266, 268–269, 287 Hiking, 7, 233, 245, 247 Hillocks, 62 Historical approach, 40, 55–58, 102–104, 126, 127, 184, 198–205, 218–219, 282–284 Hoe farming, 56 Hollow roads, 7, 65, 189, 191–193 in loess, 189, 192 Horse-riding, 127, 244–245 Horticulture, 49, 55–67 Hot air pockets, 90 Housing, 48, 142, 182–185 Human agency, 3–9 Human impact, 273–274, 278, 285 Humid savanna vegetation, 71 Humus, 20–21, 62, 65, 73, 75, 147 Hydrocarbon, 148–149 Hydrological interventions, 18–19 I Incased springs, 262 Incising gullies, 80 Index of potential anthropogenic geomorphology (I), 273, 285, 287, 289 Indirect impacts, 8, 20, 23, 189, 205–207 Industrial parks, 189, 211 Industrial revolution, 32, 50, 194, 198, 209, 279–281, 284 Industrial waste, 211–212 Infilling, 237, 239–240 Infrastructure, 46, 48, 51, 179, 181–182, 189–190, 211, 234–236, 242 Intensity of rainfall, 71 Inundated area, 64 295 Irrigation, 23, 30, 42, 47, 55, 58–59, 64, 72, 74, 77–78, 88, 90, 160, 210, 278, 280, 284 Isolated systems, 14 K Kareezes, 259 Kom´arom, 142, 180, 184, 223 L Land drainage, 77, 165, 171 reclamation, 25, 32–33, 42, 151–152, 155, 175–177, 210, 243 restoration, 23, 25, 27, 32–33, 42, 46, 93, 183–184, 200, 206 Landforms, 55, 57–65 Landscapes/landscaping, 39–44, 46–51, 84, 86, 131–133, 141, 150–153, 179, 183–184, 186, 211, 257, 259, 269 diversity, 42–43 ecology, 39–51 management, 40, 44, 49, 150, 183 persistence, 41 protection, 43, 47–49, 69, 81, 91, 102, 237 structure, 41–42 Layered tips, 143 Levelled terrains, 134 Levelling, 158 Limes, 220–222 Limiting conditions, 84 Local base level, 133, 148 Longitudinal landforms, 157–159, 163 M Maintenance, 83, 86, 93 Man-induced climate change, 19 Man-made landforms, March landscape, 219 Mass movements, 28, 66, 84, 117, 122, 133–134, 137, 141–142, 144–148, 155, 166–171, 180, 183, 210, 218, 236 M´atra Mountains, 127, 132, 181 Matter and energy flows, 13–17 Maturity of waste tips, 147–148 Meadows, 74, 104, 107, 109, 228 Mechanical weathering, 144, 257 Medves Region, 95, 101–102, 104–109 Metallurgy, 189, 194–195, 210 Microclimate, 3, 5, 22, 32, 46–47, 62, 87, 90, 190, 200, 242 Military actions, 218, 228, 230, 266 landscape, 219, 226 296 Mine/mining, 189, 194–195, 209, 211, 264–265 after-use, 113, 126–129 lakes, 122 landscape, 113, 115, 127, 133, 150 opening, 126–129 workings, 134–141 Modern industrial development, 209 Mole-hills, 81, 259 Montanogenic landforms, 132 Morphological districts, 139 Motorsports, 242 Motorways, 18, 46, 189, 198, 200 N Natural landscapes, 43–44 Natural processes, 5–6 ‘Nesting’ and furrowing, 78 Nordic walking, 249 Nuclear weapons, 230 O Observatories, 255, 269 Offa’s Dyke, 222 Off-road vehicles, 233, 245–248 Olympic parks, 242–243 Opencast coal mining, 132–134 Open-ditched land drainage, 77 Open systems, 14 Ores and metals, 278 Ottoman occupation, 103 Overgrazing, 72–73, 79, 81, 109, 246 Ox-bow lakes, 62, 160–162, 165 P Passages, 88–89, 170, 196–197, 259, 263, 265–266 Pastures, 46, 70, 74–79, 100, 102, 104–106, 108–109, 284 Permafrost, 30–31, 84, 189, 207, 209, 256, 264 Physical geographical systems, 20–22 Pipelines, 148, 170, 207–209, 255–256 Pits, 7, 26, 88–89, 120, 123, 132–134, 139, 142, 151, 157–158, 194, 201, 228, 259 Planated slopes, 236 Planation, 6–8, 55, 59, 116–117, 120, 122, 148, 189–190, 203, 213 Planner’s approach, 274 Plantations, 42, 46–49, 74, 83–84, 86, 90–91, 106–107, 110, 274 Plough/ploughing, 56–59, 61–62, 64–65, 77–78, 103–104, 106, 277–278, 280, 284 Polycentric structure, 41 Index Ponds in opencast mines, 134 Population growth, 72, 81, 96, 102, 273, 279–282 Positive impact of forests, 95–96 Potential vegetation, 106 Power machines, 59, 62, 79 Practical approach, 40, 43 Primary landforms, 8, 58, 157 Protection of soil, 90–91 Protective walls, 237 Pseudoacacia invasion, 106–110 Public roads, 90, 189, 198, 200, 206 Q Qanats, 259 Quarry dumps, 117, 119 Quarrying, 108, 113–129, 260–261, 276 R Railways, 39, 42, 47, 148, 185, 189, 198, 200, 203, 206–207 Ramparts, 156, 180, 184, 202, 217–224, 258 Ravines, 69, 73, 80, 141, 192, 236 Raw materials, 28, 96, 113, 115, 120–123, 131–132, 194, 279 Reconstructed landscapes, 92 Recreation, 96, 233–235, 239–245, 248–251 Reservoirs, 7, 15–16, 28, 35–36, 46, 143, 151–152, 159, 163–168, 172–173, 185, 194, 209–210, 213, 255–256, 258, 260 Residence time, 15–16 Resource exploration, 27–28 Ridges, 31, 34, 58, 60, 78, 143, 191, 219, 265, 270 Rilling, 78 Risk, 29–31 Riverine civilizations, 278–280, 284 environments, 32 River regime, 103 regulation, 155, 157–173 Roads, 255–256, 258–259, 261–270 Rock bunds, 60–61 Rockfalls, 23, 118, 143–144, 147, 206, 218, 250, 266 Roman roads, 190–191 Rubble heaps, 218, 229 Runoff, 189–190, 192, 205–207, 209, 211, 236, 243, 270 S Sacral sites, 261–262 Sahel, 69–73, 81, 246–247 Index Salt berm erosion, 78 Sanctuaries, 262 Sand dunes, 42, 70–71, 158, 205, 237, 250 Science, 265 Sculpture park, 129 Secondary impacts, 186 Secondary landforms, 8, 58, 60, 134, 157 Secondary processes, 132 Seismicity, 36, 171–173 Semi-desert areas, 59, 71 Semi-natural landscapes, 46–47 Settlement, 255–260, 262, 265–266 Shear strength, 29, 36, 166–167 stress, 155, 166–167 Sheet wash, 16–17, 60, 78–79, 152–153 Shelter belts, 46, 62 Shelter-wood, 106 Shopping centre, 127–128, 189, 211, 239 Show caves, 250 Shrub, 62, 70 Skiing, 44, 234, 236–237, 244 Ski tracks, 268–269 Slag cones, 189, 210, 213 Slightly modified landscapes, 44–46 Slope(s), 83–93 conditions, 58, 103, 140 gradient, 55, 59, 75, 83, 143, 184 Sludge reservoirs, 151–152, 189, 209–210 Snowmobiles, 246 Social demand, 40, 44, 49, 59 Socio-economic approach, 274 Socio-economic factors, 273, 278, 282, 290 Soil accumulation, 104 aggregates, 62 compaction, 69, 72, 170, 243, 268–269 conservation, 18–19, 58, 60, 95–96, 284 erosion, 14, 21, 29–32, 39, 55, 66, 73, 95, 101, 103, 106, 164, 201, 236–237, 243–245 profile, 73 quality, 59, 103 Solid communal waste, 211–212 Somme River, 228 Spatial approach, 40 Sports, 233–251 Spring caves, 262–263 Steps, 59, 161 Stone mounds, 256 quarrying, 115–120 Stony pastures, 79 297 Stripped layers, 62 Subject, anthropogenic geomorphology, 3–6 Subsidence, 134–141 trough, 139 Sunken roads, 191–192, 194 Superimposed seams, 139 Supporting walls, 86–87, 134, 179, 182, 185 Surface sprinkler irrigation, 78 Susceptible environments, 234 System, anthropogenic geomorphology, 6–9 System approach, 13, 23 T Technical progress, 230, 278–279, 281–282 Technology, 58–59, 115–118, 135, 141–143, 190–191, 203, 209, 264, 285 Terraced slopes, 47, 84, 86, 89–90, 255, 265–266 Terraces/terracing, 18, 58–60, 83–84, 86–93, 182–185, 280 risers, 86–87, 90 treads, 87–88 Terrain transformation, 182–183 Theme parks, 243 Tillage, 42, 55, 58–62, 65–66, 275–276, 284 Timber rafting, 267 Tourism, 233–251, 268–269 development, 113, 126, 233, 237–238 Towers of Silence, 262 Toyotarization, 242, 246–248 Tracks, 69, 73, 79, 190–192, 198, 206, 242, 245, 257–259, 264, 266, 268–269 Trampling, 69, 73, 78–79, 81, 102, 110, 242 Transhumance husbandry and farming, 71, 81 Transportation infrastructure construction, 189–193 Transversal landforms, 157–158 Trapping, 69, 72, 210 Treading, 44, 84, 110, 218, 243–244, 249, 269 Trenches, 16, 147, 180, 217, 219–223, 226–228, 230, 261, 270 Triggering effects, Tropical rainforests, 59, 95, 97, 99–100 Tunnels, 47, 123, 127, 189, 191, 198, 201–203, 206, 218, 228, 259, 263 Tussocks, 81 Types of irrigation, 77–78 of pastures, 74–79 U Uncased mole draining, 77 Underground channels, 259 298 Underground (cont.) hollows, 77, 135 passage networks, 134 reservoirs, 260 water, 133, 155–157, 168–171, 201, 259 Uranium mining, 151 Urban anthropogenic landforms, 184–185 Urban/urbanization, 30, 180–181, 278–279, 281 development, 179–186, 276–277, 279 explosion, 281 V Vaiont valley, 163, 168 Valley fill, 137, 141–146, 149, 151–152 Variability of the amount of precipitation, 71–72 Vegetation, 17–18, 21, 30, 32, 41, 43, 59, 62–63, 65, 70–71, 73–74, 76, 87, 93, 95, 97–98, 101, 103, 105–106, 108–110, 122, 134, 143, 147, 152–153, 165, 175, 191, 207, 210, 217–218, 237, 244–245, 249–250, 257 Verdun, 226 Vietnam, 229–230 Vineyards, 59, 83, 86–92 Volcanoes, 262, 264 Vulnerability, 25, 27–29, 139 Index W Wadis, 258 Warfare, 7, 9, 217–230, 258–259, 261 Waste rock, 131, 138, 141, 143, 147 tips, 5, 8, 26, 131, 134, 139, 141–145, 147–148, 151–152, 265 Water budget, 32, 62, 65, 74, 95–96, 183, 186 construction, 171–173 erosion, 18, 55, 60, 65, 71 management, 155–177 retaining capacity, 62, 95–96, 98, 236 sports, 234 supply, 23, 30, 48, 77, 152, 160, 168, 206, 209, 255, 258–260 transportation, 198, 205 and wind power, 279, 281 ‘Waterfall effect’, 189, 205, 207–209 Wetlands, 62, 69, 73, 165 Wheel, 245, 259, 264, 278 tracks, 79, 190–192, 257, 264 Wind-blown sand areas, 55, 62–64, 71, 101, 158 Wind erosion, 55, 58, 62–66, 73, 207, 209 World Heritage, 43, 83, 91, 128, 196, 220, 250 .. .Anthropogenic Geomorphology József Szabó · Lóránt Dávid · Dénes Lóczy Editors Anthropogenic Geomorphology A Guide to Man-Made Landforms 123 Editors... gratefully acknowledged vii Contents Part I Introduction Anthropogenic Geomorphology: Subject and System József Szabó Part II Anthropogenic Geomorphology and Related Disciplines Human Impact... a Systems Approach Attila Kerényi 13 Anthropogenic Geomorphology in Environmental Management Dénes Lóczy 25 Anthropogenic Geomorphology and Landscape Ecology Péter Csorba