Remote Sensing of Urban and Suburban Areas Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing VOLUME 10 Series Editor: EARSel Series Editor: Freek D van der Meer Department of Earth Systems Analysis International Instituite for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC) Enchede, The Netherlands & Department of Physical Geography Faculty of Geosciences Utrecht University The Netherlands Andrộ Marỗal Department of Applied Mathematics Faculty of Sciences University of Porto Porto, Portugal Editorial Advisory Board: EARSel Editorial Advisory Board: Michael Abrams NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory Pasadena, CA, U.S.A Mario A Gomarasca CNR - IREA Milan, Italy Paul Curran University of Bournemouth, U.K Arnold Dekker CSIRO, Land and Water Division Canberra, Australia Martti Hallikainen Helsinki University of Technology Finland Håkan Olsson Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Sweden Steven M de Jong Department of Physical Geography Faculty of Geosciences Utrecht University, The Netherlands Eberhard Parlow University of Basel Switzerland Michael Schaepman Department of Geography University of Zurich, Switzerland Rainer Reuter University of Oldenburg Germany For other titles published in this series, go to http://www.springer.com/series/6477 Remote Sensing of Urban and Suburban Areas Tarek Rashed Geospatial Applied Research Expert House (GSAREH), Austin, TX, USA and Carsten Jürgens Geography Department, Ruhr-University, Bochum, Germany Editors Editors Dr Tarek Rashed Geospatial Applied Research Expert House (GSAREH) Austin, TX USA rashed@gsareh.com Dr Carsten Jürgens Ruhr-University Geography Department Geomatics Group Universitätsstr 150 44801 Bochum Germany carsten.jürgens@rub.de Cover illustrations: Landsat satellite image of San Francisco, CA, USA, combined with photograph taken by Maike Reichardt Responsible Series Editor: Freek van der Meer ISBN 978-1-4020-4371-0 e-ISBN 978-1-4020-4385-7 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-4385-7 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York Library of Congress Control Number: 2010929276 © Springer Science+Business Media B.V 2010 No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work Cover design: deblik, Berlin Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Acknowledgments The preparation of this volume was possible due to the fact that all authors supported the original idea behind this book We thank all authors for their contributions and their patience The publication process did not run smoothly in all stages and we apologize for the resulting time delay We also thank all reviewers whose valuable comments improved the content of the different chapters Finally we thank the Springer team for their continuous support and discussions from the beginning to the end of this book project and for the publication in their book series We are convinced that with the publication of this book we are making an essential contribution to the knowledge about the different aspects of urban and suburban remote sensing v Contents Urban and Suburban Areas as a Research Topic for Remote Sensing Maik Netzband and Carsten Jürgens Part I Theoretical Aspects The Structure and Form of Urban Settlements Elena Besussi, Nancy Chin, Michael Batty, and Paul Longley 13 Defining Urban Areas John R Weeks 33 The Spectral Dimension in Urban Remote Sensing Martin Herold and Dar A Roberts 47 The Spatial and Temporal Nature of Urban Objects Richard Sliuzas, Monika Kuffer, and Ian Masser 67 The V-I-S Model: Quantifying the Urban Environment Renee M Gluch and Merrill K Ridd 85 Part II Techniques and Applications A Survey of the Evolution of Remote Sensing Imaging Systems and Urban Remote Sensing Applications 119 Debbie Fugate, Elena Tarnavsky, and Douglas Stow Classification of Urban Areas: Inferring Land Use from the Interpretation of Land Cover 141 Victor Mesev vii viii Contents Processing Techniques for Hyperspectral Data 165 Patrick Hostert 10 Segmentation and Object-Based Image Analysis 181 Elisabeth Schöpfer, Stefan Lang, and Josef Strobl 11 Data Fusion in Remote Sensing of Urban and Suburban Areas 193 Thierry Ranchin and Lucien Wald 12 Characterization and Monitoring of Urban/Peri-urban Ecological Function and Landscape Structure Using Satellite Data 219 William L Stefanov and Maik Netzband 13 Remote Sensing of Desert Cities in Developing Countries 245 Mohamed Ait Belaid 14 Remote Sensing of Urban Environmental Conditions 267 Andy Kwarteng and Christopher Small 15 Remote Sensing of Urban Land Use Change in Developing Countries: An Example from Bỹyỹkỗekmece, Istanbul, Turkey 289 Derya Maktav and Filiz Sunar Erbek 16 Using Satellite Images in Policing Urban Environments 313 Meshgan Mohammad Al-Awar and Farouk El-Baz 17 Using DMSP OLS Imagery to Characterize Urban Populations in Developed and Developing Countries 329 Paul C Sutton, Matthew J Taylor, and Christopher D Elvidge Index 349 Contributors Mohamed Ait Belaid College of Graduate Studies, Arabian Gulf University, P.O Box 26671, Manama, Kingdom of Bahrain belaid@agu.edu.bh Meshgan Mohammad Al-Awar Research and Studies Center, Dubai Police Academy, 53900 Dubai, United Arab Emirates meshkan@dubaipolice.gov.ae; drmeshkan@yahoo.com Michael Batty Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London, 1-19 Torrington Place, London WC1E 6BT, UK m.batty@ucl.ac.uk Elena Besussi Development Planning Unit, University College London, 34 Tavistock Square, London WC1H 9EZ, UK e.besussi@ucl.ac.uk Nancy Chin Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London, 1-19 Torrington Place, London WC1E 7HB, UK n.chin@ucl.ac.uk Farouk El-Baz Center for Remote Sensing, Boston University, 725 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston MA, 02215-1401, USA farouk@bu.edu Christopher D Elvidge Earth Observation Group, NOAA National Geophysical Data Center, 325 Broadway, Boulder CO, 80305, USA chris.elvidge@noaa.gov ix 338 P.C Sutton et al Fig 17.4 Changes to nighttime lights on the Asian Sub-Continent 1993–2000 urban–wildland interface of homes that are at threat to wildfires, present problems with human-wildlife interactions (mountain lion attacks, auto impacts with elk and deer, etc.) Many of the costs associated with living in exurbia are born by the exurbanites themselves; however, many are not (road maintenance, fire protection, etc.) There is some debate as to whether or not exurban development is a unique and unprecedented kind of development or if it is merely the beginning of suburbanization (Long and Nucci 1997; Nelson and Sanchez 1999) In any case, it is an interesting question to ask how much of the United States would be classified as exurbia by the nighttime satellite imagery and how many people actually live in these areas This has been done based on a simple classification of the low-gain DMSP OLS imagery (Fig 17.6) The exurban areas in Fig 17.6 contain 37% of the U.S population on 14% of the land area It has not been determined if they share the same attributes of the exurban areas in the southwest corner 17 Using DMSP OLS Imagery to Characterize Urban Populations 339 Fig 17.5 The southwest corner of Denver, Colorado of Denver Nonetheless the image raises interesting questions regarding contemporary land use patterns in the United States Traditionally urban was distinguished from rural Since World War II this classification began to include ‘suburban’ This exploration suggests that the new category of ‘Exurban’ might be appropriate It is interesting to note that the population densities of urban (which includes suburban in this example), exurban, and rural roughly follow a descending power of 340 P.C Sutton et al Fig 17.6 Rural, exurban, and urban areas defined from DMSP OLS imagery 10 Perhaps the nighttime imagery may be used in the future as simple means of delineating ‘exurban’ areas 17.4.2 Case Study #2 (Developing Country): Exploring the Use of Nighttime Imagery in Guatemala Guatemala is one of the least developed countries in the western hemisphere It is a nation slightly smaller in area than the state of Tennessee with a population of over 13 million people The capital, Guatemala City has a population of over million Over 40% of the population is under 15 years old and approximately 60% of the population lives in poverty Approximately 50% of the population works in the agricultural sector; however this only accounts for about 23% of GDP The GDP per capita in terms of purchasing power parity is about $3,700 per year (CIA World Fact Book http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/) These low levels of economic development have been exacerbated by a long running civil war that ended in 1996 Since then there have been many attempts at rural development including rural electrification programs Using nighttime imagery for mapping population or economic activity is more problematic in less developed countries like Guatemala 17 Using DMSP OLS Imagery to Characterize Urban Populations 341 Infrastructure like street lights, roads, etc are not nearly as developed as they are in wealthier nations; consequently nocturnal emissions captured by sensors like DMSP are greatly reduced Moreover, household consumption of energy in Guatemala makes measurement of population density using DMSP difficult For example, the government offers a social subsidy whereby users who consume less than 300 kilowatt hours (kWh) per month receive discounts on their energy bills paid by businesses and factories that consume larger amounts of energy Also, despite a massive electrification program that reached large portions of Guatemala’s rural residents, most of the rural residents cannot afford to pay for services and thus only use electricity to power a single light bulb for several hours each evening (Taylor 2005) The economic situation of Guatemala’s majority prevents us, at this stage, from making useful population estimates using DMSP Figure 17.7 contrasts the nighttime image product derived from DMSP OLS imagery with the LandScan population dataset produced at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Dobson et al 2000) Urban clusters identified by a threshold in the Fig 17.7 Population density (Landscan) and nighttime imagery (DMSP OLS) for Guatemala 342 P.C Sutton et al nighttime imagery are shown on the LandScan population density dataset The regression on the left shows that there is a moderate log–log relationship between the population and area of the urban clusters (Stewart and Warntz 1958; Tobler 1969) The regression on the right contrasts with similar analyses shown in Fig 17.3 in that there is only a very weak relationship between light intensity and population density on a pixel by pixel basis The clusters of light shown in Fig 17.7 clearly illustrates; however, areas of high population density The DMSP performs poorly as tool to measure rural population in Guatemala The authors know of many rural areas (in a sense the Guatemalan equivalent of the North American exurbia) that not appear using DMSP simply because rural folk in Guatemala use their light conservatively Future research might combine night-time light data with rural fire data to get an idea of rural population That is, use fire locations and areal extent detected by the satellite as an indicator of rural population density Figure 17.8 illustrates how different urban settings in Guatemala emit different light levels and how these light intensities are captured by the sensor For example, a clear difference is noted in both the light levels and the ground shots between central Guatemala City and the northern reaches of the same city where recent population growth has taken new residents into unsuitable building areas that cannot support the same density of people and buildings as the traditional downtown area Unlike many North American cities, Guatemala’s downtown is a high-density residential and commercial zone Overall, the imagery performs well in depicting population density in urban settings in Guatemala, regardless of the size of the community (see Fig 17.8) Also, because Guatemala’s population is still largely rural (60% rural, which is high for Latin America), the imagery also performs well in illustrating the distribution of Guatemala’s rural population, who live in dispersed households or hamlets If we know where people live and we also have information about countrylevel GDP, we can begin to create new maps using DMSP to map GDP per capita at finer spatial resolutions Basically, we can map areas of poverty and wealth in developing nations Figure 17.9 is the result of an exploratory exercise combining nighttime satellite imagery and LandScan data in a new way Basically the nighttime imagery is used to allocate the GDP of Guatemala to km2 spatial resolution This is accomplished by spreading the roughly 50 billion of GDP around the country based on the lights Agriculture is about 25% of Guatemla’s GDP and this is uniformly allocated to all the ‘dark’ areas in the DMSP OLS image The other 75% of GDP is linearly allocated to the lit areas of the DMSP OLS image based on the light intensity or DN value This produces a map of GDP per km2 The LandScan population density dataset is then divided into this map of GDP to produce a map of wealth and poverty or GDP per capita of Guatemala at km2 resolution (Fig 17.9) This kind of analysis is merely exploratory; it has not been validated in any way and probably suffers from problems like the ecological fallacy and the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP) The Ecological fallacy and MAUP are problems associated with interpreting the relationships between variables as their formal representations are 17 Using DMSP OLS Imagery to Characterize Urban Populations 343 Fig 17.8 DMSP OLS image of Guatemala and corresponding ground and aerial photographs aggregated or disaggregated In this example both population and GDP have been disaggregated to km2 resolution in contestable ways (Aker 1969) However, local knowledge of Guatemala does suggest that the map does capture some significant aspects of the spatial distribution of wealth and poverty in Guatemala Urban areas and regions of known economic activity show up well on this map Note the donut shape of high economic activity around Guatemala City This pattern results because central Guatemala City is densely populated Contrast 344 P.C Sutton et al Fig 17.9 Gross Domestic Product per capita in Guatemala at ~1 km2 spatial resolution this with the elite, low-density suburbs just east of the city In many residential zones outside of Guatemala City’s CBD, especially to the east, a quick drive through the neighborhoods reflects the patterns shown in Fig 17.9 These eastern zones are dominated by the homes of Guatemala’s elite, each house sitting on a large lot with commanding views of the densely populated city center below Mapping GDP in this fashion also reveals a well-recognized pattern of poverty in Guatemala Basically, all Guatemalan government statistics tell us that the indigenous western, and northwestern regions are the poorest regions in Guatemala This area is dominated by indigenous inhabitants and was also the region most impacted by the civil war in the 1980s and 1990s Another area of Guatemala is worthy of our focus In this case the data depict areas of extreme poverty along Guatemala’s pacific coast On the map we see 17 Using DMSP OLS Imagery to Characterize Urban Populations 345 large blocks of GDP per capita below US$1,000 per person This is an artifact of the mapping method and Guatemala’s highly unequal distribution of land and wealth (Gini coefficient for land is 0.85, with being perfect inequality) (Todaro 1994) The Pacific coast area is dominated by large cattle, coffee, sugar cane, and cotton estates Population density on these estates is low most of the year These areas see, however, a large influx of seasonal workers to harvest crops, especially coffee The specific dynamics of land use and ownership are not well represented by Fig 17.9, but overall patterns are verifiable by an intimate knowledge of the country We must temper this new method of mapping poverty and wealth in the developing world (where census data are often unavailable or unreliable) with the caution that it should only be conducted along with extensive ground truthing that can explain anomalies like the case illustrates above Nonetheless, we believe that further research into the meaning and potential of this idea of mapping wealth and poverty with population and nighttime imagery should be explored Chapter Summary Nighttime satellite imagery derived from the DMSP OLS has potential for monitoring and measuring many anthropogenic phenomena at a global scale While nighttime satellite imagery is no substitute for an on the ground census of the population it can be used in innovative and interesting ways to supplement mapping human presence and activity on the earth The case study exploring exurbia in the United States shows how the nighttime imagery may provide information that is not captured by finer resolution imagery such as Landsat The case study exploring applications of DMSP OLS imagery in Guatemala demonstrates some of the potential and pitfalls of using this kind of imagery in developing countries Many countries of the world lack the financial and/or institutional resources to conduct useful censuses Models derived from readily available satellite imagery that have been validated in parts of the world where good ground based information is available could serve as reasonable proxy measures in countries that lack such information The LandScan data product takes advantage of many of these ideas In addition, if a country has some limited resources with which to conduct an incomplete census of its population, existing imagery for that country could be used to help design statistical sampling strategies for a limited census These sampling strategies could be designed to maximize the effectiveness and accuracy of proxy measures derived from satellite imagery Future nighttime image products from NPOES will have finer spatial and spectral resolution which are likely to improve the number and quality of applications to which this kind of imagery can be used 346 P.C Sutton et al Learning Activities Study Questions • Look at Fig 17.1 or find a similar image on the web (http://dmsp.ngdc.noaa.gov/ html/night_light_posters.html, or search the internet for DMSP, Nighttime lights of the world or something like that) Study the image and answer the following questions: – How are city lights, fires, lightning, lantern fishing, and gas flares separated from one another systematically? – What percentage of the earth’s land surface appears to have city light emanating from it? – Do you think your ‘eyeball’ guess would correspond reasonably with an analytic inquiry using a GIS or remote sensing package? – Does the map of city lights correspond directly with population density? – How varying levels of economic development around the world influence the amount of light seen in the image (compare U.S to India, check out North Korea and Afghanistan)? • Consider the concept of ‘ambient’ population density which the LandScan dataset attempts to represent Ambient population density is a temporally averaged conception in which the population density of any particular area is a function of the mobility of the human population Census data records population density on the basis of where people live Typically census data records low population density for places like airports where many people work and travel through on a daily basis Does the nighttime imagery provide a way for measuring ambient as opposed to residential population density? How? Why? • In case study #1 the DMSP OLS imagery was used to map ‘exurbia’ Surprisingly the coarse resolution of the DMSP OLS imagery (1 km) could ‘see’ human development that finer resolution Landsat imagery (30 m) could not – How is the nighttime imagery able to ‘leapfrog’ this ‘disadvantage’ in spatial scale of measurement to capture human development and activity? – Do you think the nighttime imagery used in this way truly measures the areal extent of ‘exurbia’ (Explain Why or Why not)? – Do you think developing countries would have a similar phenomena of ‘exurbia’ (Explain Why or Why not)? • In case study #2 the DMSP OLS imagery was used to explore various aspects of population and income distribution in Guatemala Guatemala is one of the least developed countries in the western hemisphere 17 Using DMSP OLS Imagery to Characterize Urban Populations 347 – How the low levels of economic development influence any attempts to use the nighttime imagery for population mapping? – How does the percentage of the population involved in mixed or subsistence agriculture influence this kind of mapping? – How would you incorporate this information into any model building process? – The idea of using the nighttime imagery as a proxy for economic activity was also explored Does the map of GDP/capita at km resolution make sense? How could a relatively fine resolution (1 km) of GDP/capita map be used? References Aker HR (1969) A typology of ecological fallacies In: Rokkam S, Dogan M (eds) Quantitative ecological analysis in the social sciences MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp 69–86 Cova TJ, Sutton PC, Theobald DM (2004) Exurban change detection in fire-prone areas with nighttime satellite imagery Photogramm Eng Remote Sens 70(11):1249–1257 Dickinson LC, Boselly SE, Burgmann WW (1974) Defense Meteorological Satellite Program User’s Guide, Air Weather Service (MAC), U.S Air Force Dobson JE, Bright EA, Coleman PR, Durfee RC, Worley BA (2000) LandScan: a global population database for estimating populations at risk Photogramm Eng Remote Sens 66(7): 849–857 Doll C, Muller JP, Elvidge CD (2000) Night-time imagery as a tool for global mapping of socioeconomic parameters and greenhouse gas emissions Ambio 29(3):159–174 Elvidge CD, Baugh K, Kihn E, Kroehl H, Davis E, Davis C (1996) Relation between satellite observed visible–near infrared emissions, population, economic activity, and electric power consumption Int J Remote Sens 18:1373–1379 Elvidge CD, Baugh KE, Kihn K, Kroehl H, Davis E (1997) Mapping city lights with nighttime data from the DMSP operational linescan system Photogramm Eng Remote Sens 63(June): 727–734 Elvidge CD, Baugh K, Dietz JB, Bland T, Sutton PC, Kroehl H (1998) Radiance Calibration of DMSP-OLS low-light imaging data of human settlements Remote Sens Environ 68(1):77–88 Elvidge CD, Milesi C, Dietz JB, Tuttle BT, Sutton PC, Nemani R, Vogelmann JE (2004) U.S constructed area approaches the size of Ohio EOS Trans Am Geophys Union 85:2333 Foster JL (1983) Observations of the Earth using nighttime visible imagery Int J Remote Sens 4:785–791 Imhoff ML, Lawrence WT, Stutzer DC, Elvidge CD (1997) A technique for using composite DMSP/OLS city lights satellite data to map urban area Remote Sens Environ 61(3):361–370 Lo CP (2001) Modeling the population of China using DMSP OLS nighttime data Photogramm Eng Remote Sens 67:1037–1047 Lo CP (2002) Urban indicators of China from radiance calibrated digital DMSP-OLS nighttime images Ann Assoc Am Geogr 92(2):225–240 Long L, Nucci A (1997) The clean break revisited: is U.S population again deconcentrating? 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Photogramm Eng Remote Sens 63(11):1303–1313 Sutton PC, Elvidge CD, Obremski T (2003) Building and evaluating models to estimate ambient population density Photgramm Eng Remote Sens 69(5):545–553 Taylor MJ (2005) Electrifying rural Guatemala: central policy and local reality Environ Plann C 23(2):173–189 Tobler W (1969) Satellite confirmation of settlement size coefficients Area 1:30–34 Todaro M (1994) Economic development, 5th edn Longman, New York Vogelmann JE, Limin Y, Larson CR, Wylie BK, Van DN (2001) Completion of the 1990s national land cover data set for the conterminous United States from Landsat thematic mapper data and ancillary data sources Photogramm Eng Remote Sens 67(6):650–662 Welch R (1980a) Monitoring urban population and energy utilization patterns from satellite data Remote Sens Environ 9(1):1–9 Welch R (1980b) Urbanized area energy utilization patterns from DMSP data Photogramm Eng Remote Sens 46(2):201–207 Index A Absorption, 50–52, 56–58 Absorption features, 166, 173, 174 Accuracy assessment, 227–229 Across-track illumination correction, 167, 168 Advanced spaceborne thermal emission and reflection radiometer (ASTER), 219, 221–222, 224–231, 236–238 Airborne visible/infrared imaging spectrometer (AVIRIS), 51–54, 56–58, 60–62, 166 Albedo, 221–223, 234–236 Ambient population density, 333, 335, 346 Ancillary data, 141, 142, 160 Ancillary geospatial data, 238 Aqua satellite, 221–222 Arizona, 219, 221, 224 ARSIS concept, 204–209 Astronaut photography, 221 Atmospheric correction, 224 B Bare soil, 40 Bayesian, 146, 148 Bilinear re-sampling (BL), 320 Biodiversity, 220, 223 Biomass, 221 Built environment, 34, 36–43 C Census, 37–39, 42, 43, 130–134, 144, 148–151, 159 Central Arizona-Phoenix Long-Term Ecological Research Project (CAP LTER), 224 Change detection, 245, 250, 252–253, 263 Change detection analysis, 289, 294, 299, 307 100 Cites Project, 221 City size, 34, 35 Class area, 229, 232–233, 235 Classification, 181–184, 186–190, 219, 225–230 hard, 141, 142, 144–147, 159, 160 soft, 141, 142, 144–146, 159, 160 spatial, 141–147, 158 spectral, 141–146, 159–161 Clumpiness, 42 Community and problem solving policing, 314, 324 Compact development, 20 Contextual interpretation, Contiguity index, 42 Conversion of agricultural lands, Crime hot spots, 317, 322–324 Crime mapping, 314–317, 319, 320, 326 Crime pattern, 317, 322 Crime pattern theory, 315 Crime prevention, 314, 316 D Data fusion, 7, 193–215 Data number (DN), 225 Data requirements, 79–81 Defense Meteorological Satellite Program Operational Linescan System (DMSP OLS), 221, 329–347 Demographic transition, 35 Density, 34–38, 42, 43 Desert cities, 245–264 Developing countries, 7–8, 245–264 Digital elevation model, 221 Dimensions of urbaneness, 349 350 E Earth observation, 3, Earth observing system (EOS), 220–222 eCognition, 181–182, 185–186, 189 Ecological analysis, 221, 224 Ecological functioning, Economic activity, 330, 333, 340, 343, 347 Ecosystems, 85–88, 96, 107, 219–220, 223, 238 Edge density, 229, 232–233, 235 Encrustation, 195,198–203 Energy consumption, 329, 331, 333, 341 Enhanced thematic mapper plus (ETM+), 220 Environmental criminology, 319 Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP), 176 Environment for visualizing images (ENVI), 148, 160, 161 Expert classification, 226–227 Expert systems, 128, 219, 226–227 Exurbia, 330, 334, 336–340, 342, 345, 346 F Famine, 133 Form, 13–29 fPAR dataset, 222, 234–236 FRAGSTATS software, 229–231 G Geographic information systems (GIS), 230, 249–254, 256, 257, 260, 263 Geo-information, Geometric correction, 169–170 Geospatial technologies, 5, Grid, 219, 224, 229–237 H Health, 127, 133, 134 Housing, 127, 133 Hue saturation value (HSV), 320, 321 Human sources, 330 Hyperspectral, 47–50, 52, 54, 56–58, 165–178 Hyperspectral image analysis, I IKONOS, 48–49, 58–62, 145, 156, 158, 161, 221, 234, 237 Image objects, 183, 185–188 Image segmentation, 181–185, 187, 189 Imaging spectrometry, 165, 170, 173 Index Impervious surface, 3, 6, 8, 40–42, 85–89, 91–93, 95–97, 99, 102, 104–105, 108, 110–112, 329, 330, 333 Interspersion/Juxtaposition index, 229, 233, 235 Istanbul, 289–311 K Kuwait city, 267, 269, 279–283 L LAI dataset, 234, 236 Land cover, 47, 49, 51–62, 141–162, 219–221, 223, 225–238 Land cover/land use change, 220–221, 234 Landsat, 148, 149 Landsat ETM+, 274, 280 Landscan, 334, 341, 342, 345, 346 Landscape dynamics, ecology, 223 metrics, 39, 41, 43, 222–223, 237–238 structure, Land use, 15, 18–19, 21–23, 29, 63–64, 220– 221, 227, 231, 234 commercial, 153, 156, 158 residential, 153, 156, 158 Leaf area index (LAI), 222, 234–236 Light detection and ranging (LIDAR), 59–62, 221 Lightning, 330, 332, 346 Linear regression, 230, 238 M Maximum likelihood, prior probabilities, 148–151, 162 Mean patch size, 229, 231, 235, 237 Mesic, 225, 227, 229, 232, 234, 236 Migration, 35 Minimum distance to means (MDM), 225–227 Minimum/Maximum noise fraction (MNF), 172, 173, 175, 177 Moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS), 219, 221–225, 227, 229–230, 234–238 Modern technology, 35, 36 MOLAND, 221 Multiscale methods, 206, 207, 209 Multispectral scanner (MSS), 220 Index Multitemporal satellite data, 289, 295–299 N Nearest neighbor, 142, 148, 152–158 Near-infrared (NIR) region, 49, 51, 58, 59, 220–222, 224–226, 234 Neighborhood, 153, 155, 160 New York city, 267, 279–283 Nighttime imagery, 221 Nighttime satellite imagery, 8, 131, 329–333, 336, 338, 342, 345 Nonagricultural activities, 34, 43 Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), 222, 225–227, 235–238 O Oases, 237 Object-based image analysis, 7, 181–190 Object features, 186 Open spaces, 2–4, Ordnance survey, 152 P Patch dynamics, 223 Patch types, 223, 229 Peri-urban, 219–238 Peri-urban developments, Phoenix, 219, 222, 224–225, 228–229, 231–232, 234, 236–237 Pixel-based image analysis, 181–183, 188 Planned and unplanned development, 67–69, 71, 72, 79 Population, 128, 130–133, 135, 136 Population size, 34, 35, 43 Post-classification recoding, 226 Pre-processing, 165, 167–170, 172, 176 Proxy measure, 333, 345, 347 Q Quantify land cover, 86, 91 Quickbird, 221, 237 R Radar, 221 Radiometric correction, 168–169 Radiometric resolution, 121–126, 132, 135, 136 Rational choice theory, 315 351 Reference dataset Reflectance, 167–169, 171, 172, 174–176 Remotely-sensed data, 38–42 Remote sensing (RS), 1–8, 85–87, 94–98, 102, 108–109, 113, 245–264 Resilience, Routine activities theory, 315 Rural, 33, 34, 36–40, 43 Rural-urban continuum, 37 S Satellite imagery, 42 Scale, 142, 144–146, 148, 153, 155, 156, 159, 160 Sealed surface, Security in cities, Segmentation, Self-sufficiency, 36 Semantic classes, 182, 187 Settlement density, Short-wave-infrared (SWIR) region, 49, 51, 58, 220–225 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), 167, 174, 176 Social indicators, Socioeconomic development, Soft classification, 39, 40 Spatial and temporal change, 67–82 Spatial data analysis, 317–320 Spatial data infrastructures, Spatial extensification, 36 Spatial heterogeneity, 223 Spatial information, 5, Spatial metrics, 221, 225 Spatial mismatch, 38 Spatial resolution, 121–123, 125–127, 131, 132, 135, 136, 220, 222, 225, 237–238 Spatial structure, Spatial unit of analysis, 39, 43 Spatial variance texture, 226 Spectra, 47–62 Spectral angle mapping, 174, 177 Spectral bands, 48–49, 56–57, 61 Spectral libraries, 170–171 Spectral mixture analysis (SMA), 40, 43, 129, 134, 172, 175, 177, 273–275, 279–280 Spectral properties, Spectral resolution, 121, 122, 124–127, 135, 136, 220–221 Spectral separability, 54–57 Sprawl/urban sprawl, 13–22, 24–28 Suburban, 1–8, 13–21, 23, 25, 27–28 Supervised classification, 225 Surface temperature, 7–8, 222, 235–237 352 Surface temperature/emissivity, 221 Sustainability, 17, 21 Système Probatoire d’ Observation de la Terre (SPOT), 221 T Temporal resolution, 121, 122, 125–126, 136, 220, 238 Ternary diagram, 85, 87–88, 94, 110, 111 Terra satellite, 221–222 Texture, 128–131 Thematic Mapper (TM), 220 Thermal-infrared region, 220–222, 224 Transport, 14–15, 18–19, 21–22, 25 Transportation, 36 U United Kingdom, 149, 152, 155 Unsupervised ISODATA algorithm, 226 Urban, 1–8, 13–29, 33, 43, 85–113, 219–238 Urban agglomerations, Urban areas, 141–162 Urban attributes, 67, 71–72 Urban climatology, 222 Urban cluster, 332–334, 341, 342 Urban core, 231, 236–237 Urbane, 33 Urban ecology, Urban environment, 3, 6–8 Urban environmental conditions, 267–283 Urban Environmental Monitoring Project, 221 Urban extent, 8, 329, 330, 333, 335 Urban forms, Urban fringe, 231–232 Urban growth, 2–3, 5, 8, 13–18, 29, 289, 290, 292, 294–299, 309, 310 Urban heat island, 222, 237, 270, 272, 276–279 Index Urbanization, 220, 223, 238, 245, 246, 248, 253, 255, 256, 260, 261, 263 Urbanizing landscape, Urban material, 49, 51–54 Urban monitoring, 72, 80 Urbanness, 33, 37–39, 41–43 Urban objects, 67–82 Urban planning and management (UPM), 6, 67–70, 80, 81 Urban remote sensing (URS), 3, 5–8 Urban-rural dichotomy, 39 Urban-rural divide, 34 Urban-rural gradient, 39 Urban sprawl, Urban surface temperature, 276 Urban transition, 34, 35 Urban vegetation, 7–8, 267, 269–275, 280 V Vegetation, 40, 41 Vegetation-impervious surface-soil (V-I-S) model, 6, 40, 41, 85–113 Vietnam, 34 Visible (VIS) region, 49, 51, 58, 220–226 W Water/shade, 40, 41 Wavelet transform, 193, 196–198, 201, 202, 205, 207 Wilderness areas, 40 X Xeric, 225, 229 ... for the analysis of urban status and dynamics Remote Sensing for Urban and Suburban Areas Remote sensing in urban areas is by nature defined as the measurement of surface radiance and properties... between urban land cover and urban land use, and how the inherent heterogeneous structure of urban morphologies is statistically represented between hard and soft classifications 1 Urban and Suburban. .. state -of- the-art knowledge in the growing field of urban remote sensing Remote Sensing of Urban and Suburban Areas has been primarily assembled to introduce scientists and practitioners to this emerging