Dorling, D (1991) PhD Thesis: The Visualization of Spatial Social Structure, University of Newcastle upon Tyne Scans of the prints referred to can be found here: http://www.sasi.group.shef.ac.uk/thesis/prints.html The Visualization of Spatial Social Structure Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy to the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, September 1991 by Daniel F L Dorling i ii Abstract A great deal of information about the social geography of Britain is contained within databases such as the census To comprehend this information it needs to be effectively visualized Conventional maps contain an unwanted distortion however, and have been rejected by many as an unsuitable means of showing spatial social structure A more human cartography is developed here to show the events of people's lives and the shape of society This thesis argues that a truer picture is obtained by being able to see the whole, in as much detail as possible, at a glance A total of 179 high resolution prints show original techniques to study many aspects of life in Britain today They include pictures of the distribution of age, sex, birthplace and occupation in 1981, changes in these from 1971, unemployment and house price dynamics throughout the 1980s, general election results from 1955 to 1987 (followed by all local election voting from 1987 to 1990), migration flows from one part of the country to another and daily commuting streams These are of interest for the various methods of visualization used, their content, and the extremely high levels of detail achieved Over ten thousand places are shown in most of the images produced Much of the work involved the creation of computer generated cartograms where each areal unit (up to one hundred thousand to a page) is drawn in proportion to the number of people who live there Colour and complex symbols are used to study several factors simultaneously and visually effective means of showing millions of flows and other changes over time are developed A case study of the distribution of childhood leukaemia in space and time is also undertaken Tables give the detailed results of the last ten general elections (with a basis for dealing with constituency boundary changes) The algorithm to create a detailed cartogram is presented and an index is included iii To Benjamin Dorling iv Contents Abstract Dedication Contents List of Figures List of Prints Preface Acknowledgments ii iii iv vi vii x xiii Introduction: Human Cartography Chapter 1: Envisioning Information 1.1 Visual Thinking 1.2 Pictures Over Time 1.3 Beyond Illustration 1.4 Texture and Colour 1.5 Perspective and Detail 1.6 Pattern and Illusion 1.7 From Mind to Mind 11 11 14 17 19 22 24 26 Chapter 2: People, Spaces and Places 2.1 Which People 2.2 Why Study Places? 2.3 What Are Spaces? 2.4 Drawing Lines 2.5 Picturing Points 2.6 Population Space 2.7 Adding Time 30 30 32 35 37 41 44 46 Chapter 3: Artificial Reality 3.1 Imagining Reality 3.2 Abstract Spaces 3.3 Area Cartograms 3.4 The Nature of Space 3.5 Producing Illusions 3.6 Population Space 3.7 Stretching Spacetime 48 48 50 54 57 60 62 63 Chapter 4: Honeycomb Structure 4.1 Viewing Society 4.2 Who the People Are 4.3 Disparate Origins 4.4 Lost Opportunities 4.5 Work, Industry and Home 4.6 How People Vote 4.7 The Social Landscape 68 68 70 73 76 78 81 84 Chapter 5: Transforming the Mosaic 5.1 Still Images of Change 5.2 Forming the Structure 5.3 Structure Transformed 5.4 Variable Employment 87 87 88 91 95 v 5.5 House Price Inflation 5.6 Reshaping Votes 5.7 Erosion and Deposition 97 98 101 Chapter 6: Cobweb of Flows 6.1 What Flow Is 6.2 What Flows There Are 6.3 Unravelling the Tangles 6.4 Drawing the Vortices 6.5 Commuting Chaos 6.6 Migration Networks 6.7 A Space of Flows 104 104 106 108 110 114 115 118 Chapter 7: On the Surface 7.1 2D Vision, 3D World 7.2 Surface Definition 7.3 Depth Cues 7.4 Landscape Painting 7.5 Surface Geometry 7.6 Travel Time Surface 7.7 Surface Value 122 122 124 127 129 131 133 136 Chapter 8: The Wood and the Trees 8.1 Sculptured Characters 8.2 Circles, Pies and Rings 8.3 Bars and Pyramids 8.4 Flocks of Arrows 8.5 Trees and Castles 8.6 Crowds of Faces 8.7 Information Overload 138 138 140 142 145 147 149 152 Chapter 9: Volume Visualization 9.1 The Third Dimension 9.2 Spaces, Times and Places 9.3 Spacetime Continuum 9.4 Three Dimensional Graphs 9.5 Flows Through Time 9.6 Volume Rendering 9.7 Interactive Visualization 154 154 156 159 163 166 168 170 Conclusion: Another Geography 172 Bibliography 180 Appendices Appendix A: Circular Cartogram Algorithm Appendix B: Parliamentary Constituencies 1955-1987 Continuity Appendix C: Parliamentary Constituencies 1955-1987 Results Appendix D: Average Housing Price by Constituency 1983-1989 Appendix E: Scottish Ward to Postcode Sector Look-up Table Appendix F: Local Government Wards, 1981 and 1987 233 234 238 259 275 285 291 Index 317 vi List of Figures Figure 1: Creating the Graphics 16 Figure 2: Printing in Colour 20 Figure 3: Recording the Places 28 Figure 4: Drawing the Maps 31 Figure 5: Storing the Geometry 35 Figure 6: The Areal Hierarchy 38 Figure 7: The Mercator Projection 52 Figure 8: The Algorithm at Work 59 Figure 9: Deriving a Constant 61 Figure 10: Many-dimensional Cartograms 64 Figure 11: Storing the Census 70 Figure 12: Working Definitions 78 Figure 13: Two-dimensional Smoothing 80 Figure 14: Linking the Censuses 90 Figure 15: How Closely Connected? 91 Figure 16: Measuring the Changes 93 Figure 17: Storing the Flows 105 Figure 18: A Significant Flow 111 Figure 19: Drawing Overlapping Arrows 112 Figure 20: The Electoral Triangle 126 Figure 21: The Perspective Projection 128 Figure 22: Travel Time Surface 135 Figure 23: Areal Interpolation 139 Figure 24: Trees and Pyramids 144 Figure 25: Constructing Face Glyphs 150 Figure 26: Three-dimensional Smoothing 160 Figure 27: The Electoral Tetrahedron 163 Figure 28: Three-dimensional Structure 167 Figure 29: References Over Time 232 vii List of Prints I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV XXVI XXVII XXVIII XXIX XXX XXXI XXXII XXXIII XXXIV XXXV XXXVI XXXVII XXXVIII XXXIX XL XLI XLII XLIII XLIV XLV XLVI XLVII XLVIII XLIX L LI LII LIII LIV LV LVI LVII LVIII Two images from the infinity of the Mandelbrot set (Colour) Land use close-up of Northern Britain (Colour) Journey to work flows of over ten people between wards from the 10% sample The changing distribution of housing by price, attributes and sales, 1983-1987 Migration flows between all regions in 1976 — flows sorted by contiguity order Yearly migration flows between English and Welsh wards 1980/1981 The changing distribution of age and gender in Britain 1971-1981 (Colour) Voting composition on the electoral cartograms of Northern Britain (Colour) Voting composition on the electoral cartograms of Southern Britain (Colour) The distribution of employment by industry, status and gender (Colour) 10 Stills from a conventional animation of the computer (Colour) 11 Stills from a ray-traced animation of the computer (Colour) 12 Ray-traced surfaces of the Mandelbrot and Julia sets 13 Visualizing Fourier transforms — the art in the science (Colour) 14 A maze of colour — the detail a low resolution image can show (Colour) 15 Visualization of the Mandelbrot set — magnification and generalization (Colour) 16 Travel time from the Tyneside road network (Colour) 17 Three alternative colour schemes and keys (Colour) 18 The concentration of British born place of birth (Colour) 19 The distributions of population, age, gender and children in London (Colour) 20 The distributions of place of birth in London (Colour) 21 The distributions of employment, occupation and graduates in London (Colour) 22 The distribution of broad industrial groups in Britain, 1987 (Colour) 23 The changing distribution of broad industrial groups, 1984-87, increases (Colour) 24 The changing distribution of broad industrial groups, 1984-87, decreases (Colour) 25 The change in employment by industry, status and gender, 1984-1987 (Colour) 26 Political swing on the electoral cartograms of Northern Britain (Colour) 27 Political swing on the electoral cartograms of Southern Britain (Colour) 28 The distribution of voting in English and Welsh local elections (Colour) 29 Land use in Britain by 1km square grid (Colour) 30 Level II European Regions — annotated base map shaded by unemployment rate 31 Counties and Scottish Regions — annotated base map shaded by unemployment rate 32 Family Practitioner Committee Areas — annotated base map shaded by unemployment rate 33 Local Education Authorities — annotated base map shaded by unemployment rate 34 “Functional Cities” — annotated base map shaded by unemployment rate 35 Local Labour Market Areas — annotated base map shaded by unemployment rate 36 Travel-to-work Areas — annotated base map shaded by unemployment rate 37 Local government districts — annotated base map shaded by unemployment rate 38 Parliamentary Constituencies — annotated base map shaded by unemployment rate 39 Amalgamated Office Areas — annotated base map shaded by unemployment rate 40 Postcode Areas — coloured at random (Colour) 41 Postcode Districts — coloured at random (Colour) 42 Postcode Sectors — coloured at random (Colour) 43 The British mainland rail network on an equal land area projection 44 The British mainland rail network on an equal population projection 45 The British primary road network on an equal land area projection 46 The British primary road network on an equal population projection 47 Experiments with area cartograms (Colour) 48 Continuous area cartograms of the British population (Colour) 49 County boundaries showing bridges which maintain ward continuity 50 The evolution of a cartogram of population by County 51 The County population cartogram with arrows representing topology 52 Local authority districts on an equal land area projection indexed for identification 53 Local authority districts — indexed list in alphabetical order 54 Local authority districts cartogram indexed for identification 55 Parliamentary Constituencies on an equal area projection indexed for identification 56 Parliamentary Constituencies — indexed, list in alphabetical order 57 Parliamentary Constituency cartogram indexed for identification 58 viii LIX LX LXI LXII LXIII LXIV LXV LXVI LXVII LXVIII LXIX LXX LXXI LXXII LXXIII LXXIV LXXV LXXVI LXXVII LXXVIII LXXIX LXXX LXXXI LXXXII LXXXIII LXXXIV LXXXV LXXXVI LXXXVII LXXXVIII LXXXIX XC XCI XCII XCIII XCIV XCV XCVI XCVII XCVIII XCIX C CI CII CIII CIV CV CVI CVII CVIII CIX CX CXI CXII CXIII CXIV CXV CXVI CXVII CXVIII CXIX Census wards — 1981 resident population area cartogram The concentration of unemployment by ward The distribution of unemployment by ward Counties and Scottish regions — four colour map Counties and Scottish Regions on the enumeration district cartogram Enumeration district population cartogram 1981 equal population grid squares 1981 population enumeration district cartogram showing the national grid The changing distribution of total population in Britain, 1971-1981 The distribution of age and gender in Britain, 1981 (Colour) The concentration of age and gender in Britain, 1981 (Colour) The distribution of children by age in Britain, 1981 (Colour) The distribution of Irish born in Britain, 1981 The distribution of British born place of birth, 1981 (Colour) The distribution of Overseas born place of birth, 1981 (Colour) The concentration of Overseas born place of birth, 1981 (Colour) The distribution of employment in Britain, 1981 (Colour) The concentration of employment in Britain, 1981 (Colour) The distribution of occupation in Britain, 1981 (Colour) The concentration of occupation in Britain, 1981 (Colour) The distribution of graduates in Britain, 1981 (Colour) The distribution of housing price in Britain, 1983 The distribution of voting in the 1987 British general election (Colour) The map of voting in the 1987 British general election (Colour) The distribution of first placed parties in the 1987 British general election (Colour) The distribution of second placed parties in the 1987 British general election (Colour) The distribution of non-voting in the 1987 British general election The distribution of voting composition in the 1987 British local elections (Colour) The changing distribution of British born place of birth, 1971-1981 The changing distribution of overseas born place of birth, 1971-1981 (Colour) The changing distribution of employment in Britain, 1971-1981 (Colour) The space/time trend of unemployment in Britain by office areas, 1978-1990 The space/time trend of unemployment in Britain by counties, 1978-1990 The changing distribution of occupation in Britain, 1971-1981 (Colour) The distribution of housing price inflation in Britain, 1983/1984 The distribution of housing price inflation in Britain, 1984/1985 The distribution of housing price inflation in Britain, 1985/1986 The distribution of housing price inflation in Britain, 1986/1987 The distribution of housing price inflation in Britain, 1987/1988 The distribution of housing price inflation in Britain, 1988/1989 The distribution of housing price in Britain, 1989 Voting composition by constituency, 1955-1987 (Colour) The distributions of first placed party, 1955-1987 (Colour) The distributions of second placed party, 1955-1987 (Colour) The distributions of non-voting by constituency, 1955-1987 Migration flows between all regions in 1976, sorted by contiguity order Migration flows between metropolitan counties and other areas, 1975-1976 Daily commuting flows on an equal land area projection in 1981 Daily commuting flows on an equal population projection in 1981 Daily commuting flows as a proportion of destination employees Daily commuting flows as a proportion of destination residents Daily commuting flows on an equal area projection by occupation, 1981 (Colour) Daily commuting flows in population space by occupation, 1981 (Colour) Migration flows between family practitioner areas of in 200 people Migration flows between family practitioner areas of in 300 people Migration flows between family practitioner areas of in 500 people Migration flows between family practitioner areas of in 1000 people Migration flows between family practitioner areas of in 2000 people Migration flows between family practitioner areas of in 2777 people Migration flows between family practitioner areas on an equal area projection Migration flows between English and Welsh counties on an equal area projection 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 ix CXX Yearly migration flows on an equal area projection by occupation, 1981 (Colour) CXXI Yearly migration flows in population space by occupation, 1981 (Colour) CXXII The use of contours and colour to depict surface height (Colour) CXXIII The use of contours without colour to depict surface height CXXIV British population surface showing the 1987 general election results (Colour) CXXV British population two-way surface of the 1987 general election results (Colour) CXXVI The distribution of voting composition in the 1987 British general election (Colour) CXXVII The national constituency voting compositions, 1955-1987 (Colour) CXXVIII 1981 County council elections — English voting composition CXXIX 1985 County council elections — English voting composition CXXX 1989 County council elections — English voting composition CXXXI 1981 County council elections — English voting composition surface CXXXII 1985 County council elections — English voting composition surface CXXXIII 1981/1985 County council elections — changing English voting composition surface CXXXIV 1989 County council elections — English voting composition surface CXXXV 1985/1989 County council elections —changing English voting composition surface CXXXVI 1981/85/89 County council elections —changing English voting composition surface CXXXVII The distribution of unemployment in Britain 1981— shown as a surface CXXXVIII The changing distribution of first place party in Britain, 1983-1987 (Colour) CXXXIX The changing distribution of first place party in Britain, 1955-1987 (Colour) CXL The space/time trend of unemployment in Britain, 1978-1990 CXLI The detailed national composition of industry in Britain, 1981 CXLII The changing national composition of industry in Britain, 1984-1987 CXLIII The distribution of employment by industry, status and gender, 1987 CXLIV The change in employment by industry, status and gender, 1984-1987 CXLV The changing distribution of voting composition in Britain, 1983-87 (Colour) CXLVI The changing distribution of voting composition in Britain, 1955-87 (Colour) CXLVII The distribution of housing by price, attributes and sales, 1987 CXLVIII The distribution of housing by price, attributes and sales, 1987 (Colour) CXLIX The changing distribution of housing by price, attributes and sales, 1983/1987 (Colour) CL Chernoff faces showing all permutations of five levels of four features CLI The distribution of voting, housing, employment and industry in 1983 (Colour) CLII The distribution of voting, housing, employment and industry in 1987 (Colour) CLIII The change in voting, housing, employment & industry, 1983-1987 (Colour) CLIV The distribution of population by county in 1981 (Colour) CLV Population change in Britain by district, 1961-1991 (Colour) CLVI The space/time trend of unemployment in Britain by cubes, 1978-1990 CLVII The space/time trend of unemployment in Britain by rings, 1978-1990 CLVIII The distribution of years of highest house price inflation in Britain, 1983 to 1989 CLIX The distribution of childhood leukaemia in Britain, 1966-1983 (Colour) CLX Six views of the childhood leukaemia spacetime distribution, 1966-1986 CLXI Key to cancer types shown by spheres in the spacetime diagrams (Colour) CLXII The distribution of childhood cancers in Euclidean spacetime (Colour) CLXIII The distribution of childhood cancers in spacetime 1968-1979 (Colour) CLXIV The distribution of childhood cancers in spacetime 1980-1991 (Colour) CLXV The distribution of childhood cancers in Teesside spacetime, from the east (Colour) CLXVI The distribution of childhood cancers in Teesside spacetime, from the west (Colour) CLXVII The 1988 district election results: Scottish voting composition tetrahedron CLXVIII A schematic representation of four party voting compositions CLXIX The 1988 district election results: Scottish voting composition unfolded CLXX Four perspective views of the 1988 Scottish district elections composition (Colour) CLXXI A ray-traced image of the 1988 Scottish district elections composition (Colour) CLXXII The ward cartogram drawn using Theisson polygons CLXXIII The Transformed map of voting in the 1987 British general election (Colour) CLXXIV Transforming the political map of northern Britain to population space (Colour) CLXXV Transforming the political map of southern Britain to population space (Colour) CLXXVI The distribution of non-voting by voting composition in the 1987 general election CLXXVII The distribution of non-voting in constituencies by voting composition, 1955-1987 CLXXVIII The distribution of occupation in Britain, 1981, after binomial smoothing (Colour) CLXXIX The distribution of voting composition in British local elections 1987-1990 (Colour) 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 x Preface This dissertation is about new ways of presenting and understanding some of the vast amounts of information which have been collected about our society It is based on the premise that huge numbers of figures, incomprehensible in themselves, could contain a lot of information that is distorted, even lost, in conventional statistical analysis and cartographic display This work has used the hopes and ideas of numerous sources as to how to visualize information about society more effectively Recent dramatic increases in computer capability have allowed me to create images which would not have been conceivable two or three years ago The approach has been experimental I often had little idea what an image would look like on screen or paper until it was actually produced The illustrations presented here are only a small selection of those created Many ideas and several themes are contained in this thesis The text describes the rationale for, and development of, a new way of visualizing information in geographical research Through the pictures the methods are illustrated; mistakes, techniques and discoveries shown From the footnotes, which are largely quotations from a disparate literature, the origins of many of the ideas can be found Time and again the suggestions of others to move in these directions are cited Through technical asides some of the practical realities of the work are described Through the illustrations and their legends, a picture of what has been happening to Britain in recent years unfolds Many of the pictures justify an extended discussion, but I have aimed to keep the commentary brief I have not included much detail about the computer software I have written and used because much of that is dependant on a novel (but inexpensive) hardware configuration and progress is so rapid that such knowledge is of only transient value Print CLXX Four perspective views of the 1988 Scottish district elections composition (Colour) 910 wards drawn as coloured tetrahedrons whose volume is in proportion to the total vote are projected inside the large equilateral tetrahedron showing fourparty voting composition in Scotland (Botchel J.M & Denver D.T., 1988), four different views are shown — software by author on an Archimedes computer and Ace Computing Colour can be a useful cue in seeing inside threedimensional structures Here the tetrahedrons representing the wards are shaded by the colour of the party on their facet opposite the party’s apex The view is lit towards the SLD apex The perspective projection produces greater magnification of near wards, unfortunately These frames can only give a slight impression of what could be understood if the pattern could be interactively manipulated on a computer screen Fourth print from a series of five Print CLXXI A ray-traced image of the 1988 Scottish district elections composition (Colour) 910 wards drawn as coloured tetrahedrons whose volume is in proportion to the total vote are projected inside the large equilateral tetrahedron showing fourparty voting composition in Scotland (Botchel J.M & Denver D.T., 1988), a single ray-traced view is shown — software by author on an Archimedes computer and Ace Computing This image shows something of the empty hemisphere in the core of the four-way distribution.The line of tetrahedrons in the foreground represents seats contested only by the SNP and Conservative parties The lines of other two party distributions can also be discerned The existing software used could not ray-trace this image at a greater resolution, which would have been desirable It took many hours to just achieve this picture Fifth print from a series of five Print CLXXII The ward cartogram drawn using Theisson polygons Theisson polygons constructed around the centroids of 10,444 census wards from the 1981 census equal population cartogram — software by author on an Archimedes computer and E.S.R.I on a Sun computer One way of subdividing space when, for instance, only centroids are known, is to drawn Theisson polygons around the points Traditional geographic information systems often cannot cope with overlapping or empty spaces, but must have a mutually exclusive set of polygons on which to operate The resulting image is quite elegant, and the problem of the coastal boundary is well illustrated Print CLXXIII The Transformed map of voting in the 1987 British general election (Colour) One frame taken from the end of an animation showing the 633 mainland parliamentary constituencies, coloured by the mix of voting in 1987, having been transformed from an equal land area to equal population projection — software by author on an Archimedes computer This illustration shows an alternative method of producing area cartograms Here the actual boundaries of the constituencies have been transformed using the enumeration district cartogram as a template This was done to allow a film of the process to be made, to which this was the final frame It also produces a more continuous area cartogram, if that is desired, but at the added cost of introducing a complex set of boundaries into the image Print CLXXIV Transforming the political map of northern Britain to population space (Colour) Seven frames taken from an animation showing just under half of the 633 mainland parliamentary constituencies, coloured by the mix of voting in 1987, being transformed from an equal land area to equal population projection — software by author and Ace Computing Notice how much the map changes from green and blue domination to almost total red and purple The yellow (Liberal and SNP) regions of highland Scotland still stand out, but partly because the transformation is not perfect in the Western Isles Print CLXXV Transforming the political map of southern Britain to population space (Colour) Seven frames taken from an animation showing just over half of the 633 mainland parliamentary constituencies, coloured by the mix of voting in 1987, being transformed from an equal land area to equal population projection — software by author and Ace computing Here the distorting impression given by the original map is made clear See how that, as the true picture is revealed, the red, blue and green polarization becomes apparent The division of the southern half of the country into green and blue areas — around red and purple places — is made clear A bright slice of yellow still remains to remind us of the now squashed Celtic fringe Print CLXXVI The distribution of non-voting by voting composition in the 1987 general election 650 parliamentary constituencies projected onto the electoral triangle (with Northern Ireland shown separately), shaded by the level of turnout — software by author on an Archimedes computer It is clear that the highest turnout is to be found in the Conservative party’s most marginal seats, although a few bright spots can be seen in some Labour strongholds Northern Ireland is almost totally bereft of political will; the next largest concentration is to be found in areas of Labour control such as London Print CLXXVII The distribution of non-voting in constituencies by voting composition, 19551987 705 consistent parliamentary constituencies projected onto the electoral triangles of ten elections (with Northern Ireland shown separately in later years), shaded by the level of turnout — software by author on an Archimedes computer The pattern of turnout can be seen to be clearly related to how marginal a seat is In the 1950s and 60s a white streak cuts vertically through the mass of constituencies on the Conservative/Labour boundary In 1970 the safest Conservatives and Labour seats also had a high turnout During the 1970s the composition is seen to change, and the pattern of turnout alters to reflect this swing By the 1980s most seats with low abstention rates are held by the Conservative party — but not particularly firmly — being fought on two fronts Print CLXXVIII The distribution of occupation in Britain, 1981, after binomial smoothing (Colour) Three colour mixing of 129,211 census enumeration districts smoothed by ten passes of a binomial filter on an equal population cartogram — software by author on an Archimedes computer Here the image is, perhaps, made clearer by smoothing In places the blue and yellow colours have run into each other and produced a green which does not reflect reality In central London the algorithm has failed along the cliff between the most and least prosperous places, so here it is shown as a white ring around a blue core The filter works best where the underlying pattern is most amenable to being smoothed Print CLXXIX The distribution of voting composition in British local elections 1987-90 (Colour) Results are given in Rallings M & Thrasher C 1987, 1988 and 1990a and Botchel J.M & Denver D.T 1988, for 10,756 local government wards which are transferred to the 10,444 census wards shown here on the equal population cartogram — software by author on an Archimedes computer Data for all local areas in the entire country was collected to construct this picture of politics at the local level in Britain at the end of the 1980s The addition of Scotland shows how different that nation’s political outlook is to much of the rest of the country The SNP votes are not represented on the political triangle, and hence the labour majority is somewhat over-represented The picture is complete and the pattern it shows lies above and beneath the structures of many of the other images which have been shown here The Visualization of Social Spatial Structure 317 Index A Abstract Spaces Aesthetics Africa Age Aggregation Agricultural labours Air travel Airlines Algorithm Alliance Amalgamation America Animation Arrows Art Artificial life Artificial realities Asia Aspatial Atlas Australia 50 60 75, 94 6, 70, 72, 84, 92 40, 73, 89,145,158 78 53 135 41, 59, 61-62, 67, 174, 233-234 259 9, 32, 90, 118, 276 177 23, 25, 129, 156, 161, 164, 169 90, 100, 108 116, 120, 145-147, 152 176 173 48-49, 170, 176 75, 94 36 53 55 B Bar charts Barrier Bars and Pyramids Best fitting constituencies Binocular Bivariate Black box techniques Black-spots Blurred Boundaries Bridges Britain Building societies By-elections 144, 147-148, 163 32 142 238 23 21 172 77 10 41, 58, 66, 68, 70, 72, 88-90, 100, 117, 156, 238, 291 60 6, 10, 28, 30- 37, 46, 58, 60-61, 68-70, 72, 81, 84-85, 94, 96, 103, 107, 113-114, 119, 149, 158, 169, 178, 179, 292 81, 97, 233, 275-276 99 C Camera Canada Cancer Registry Caribbean Cartogram Cartography Catchments Cave paintings Celtic fringe Census Census cartography Census of employment Census Office Censuses Change in flows Charcoal stick Chart Chernoff Childhood leukaemia Children Chinese wall Choropleth Circles, Pies and Rings Circular cartogram Cities City structure Class Coastline Cobweb Cohort Colour Colour blind Communication Communities Commuting Comparing angles Computer graphics Computer hardware Computer intelligence Conservative Party Constituencies Constraints Contact lenses Contiguity Contiguous cartogram Contour diagram Conurbations Convex hulls 13, 128, 133, 161 55 233 75 6, 54-64, 82, 91, 100, 114-115, 158, 171, 174, 234 1, 9, 15, 174 109 14 96, 158 4, 9, 28, 44, 70, 89, 93, 107, 117, 285, 291 104 96 233 30 106 29 143 149-151 159, 169 76, 92-93, 102 50 8, 71 140 234 3, 37 114 78, 84 58, 61 27, 104-105 46 8, 20-21, 24-26, 72, 74, 80, 82, 114, 122, 130, 138 24 13-14, 27 2, 34, 37, 46, 84 34, 40, 108, 133114, 137, 292 141 15, 170 175 173 82, 84, 99, 164, 259 38, 55,150 58, 62, 84 170 60-61 66, 112, 117 57, 59 127, 130, 168 91 127 Index County council Crofters Crowds of Faces 318 83 77 149, 152 D Data archive Denominator Dependant Deprivation Depth cues Detail Deviation from expected Dimensions Direction Disability Disease Distance Distortion District elections Dithered Divisions Drape Dynamics 233, 259 113 76 45 127-128 58, 68 158 33, 146, 155 108, 113, 116, 132 84 56, 84, 153, 155, 159 65, 132-133, 136 5, 48, 58, 134 83 72, 90 13, 37, 45, 72, 77, 81, 88, 137, 151, 178 8, 136 104 E Economic spacetime Education Elderly Elections Electoral graphs Electoral system Electoral tetrahedron Electoral triangle Electorate Employment England Enumeration districts Envisioning Epidemiology Equations Estates Estuary Euclidean space Europe Extrapolate Eye Eye-mind system 169 107 72, 76, 92 6, 55, 81, 83, 146147, 259 169 99 164 146, 151 150 76, 95, 101, 147, 150, 158 32, 74 43-44, 70, 76 11 56 12, 16, 28 84, 291 60 57, 6,1132, 135, 162 32 276 19, 21 22 F Faces Family practitioner areas Fishnet Flatland Flocks of arrows Flow mapping Flows Flows of money Flows through time Focusing Foremen Forming the structure Four dimensions Fractal lands Functional regions 27, 149, 151 120, 166 128 138, 172 27, 145 109 8, 35, 40, 103-104, 111-116, 120, 131 121 166 19-20 78 88 155 176 39-40 G Gender General elections Generalization Geographic information systems Geology Geometric mean Geometry Gestalt Ghettoes Glasgow Globe Glyphs Goggles Government Graphics Graphs Greater Manchester Green vote Grid mapping 36, 70-72, 92 30, 98, 146, 150, 155, 233 22, 79, 90, 92, 144 4, 177 80, 96, 101 118, 275 24, 132, 137, 153154 56, 141 84 63, 171, 238 2, 134, 171 140, 142-145, 147149, 152 170 39, 81, 83 3, 174, 178 8, 15, 27, 124-125, 129, 144, 163 238 82, 165 42 H Headwaters Health Height Highland Scotland Holidays Holographic image Home Counties Hospitals House price slump House prices 109 84 130 94 107 169 77, 97 107 98 7, 97, 150, 147, 233, 275 The Visualization of Social Spatial Structure 319 Housewives Housing Human cartography Human geography Hyper-tetrahedron 76 34, 81, 97, 102, 147, 149, 153 1-2, 5-6, 9, 34, 62, 84, 86, 157, 292 165 I Icons Ill-health Illusion Illustration Image processing Imagination Immigration Income Industrial structure Industries Inequality Inflation Information Information overload Injustice Ink-jet Inner cities Insets on maps Interactive graphics Interactive visualization Ireland Isometric projection 14 85 11, 24, 131, 155 17-18, 25, 131 177 18, 48, 151 74-76, 83-84 85, 179 131, 136, 145, 150, 171, 292 78, 80, 83, 85, 9697, 108, 143, 147, 153, 285 33, 42, 88, 157, 177, 179 81, 97-98 18, 26 152 177 179 158 55 24 25, 170 74-75, 94 127 J Japanese Jerusalem Joblessness Jobs 177 53 77 102 K Kaleidoscopes Kingdoms Knowledge 74, 176 52 17, 173 L Labour party Lace-work Landscape painting Leukaemia Liberal party Liberal Democrats Life chances Life expectancies Life lines 82-83, 99, 164, 259 45 129 162 82, 84, 99-100, 259 82 84 84 3, 9, 66, 162 Lifetime migrants Lighting Linear cartogram Liverpool Local elections Local government district Local government wards Local voting Localities Logarithmic scales London 94 128, 169 64-65 120, 158 83, 233, 292 285 291 285 34, 42, 74 125 32, 53, 62-63, 75, 77, 79, 94-97, 120, 135, 158, 238 M Managers Mandelbrot Maps Markets Matrices Measures Mecca Medical scan Medieval projections Mercator Metric Microcomputer Migration 78 124, 129 2-3, 10, 14, 27-28, 51-52, 77, 177, 179 81, 149 106, 110, 132 72 53 155 54 52 5, 133 234 2, 7, 30, 34, 40, 74, 86, 93-94, 101, 103, 107, 116-117, 137, 147, 292 118, 131, 169 27, 48 110 Migration streams Models Modifiable areal unit problem Molecules 48 Motorways 63, 136 Mountains 3, 52 Multi-dimensional 138, 153, 163 Multi-dimensional scaling 134 Multivariate 139, 141-142, 153 Multivariate analysis 138 N Nation states National Health Service central register National Information System Nationalists Neighbourhoods Neighbours Net flows Network Night time population 157 107, 120, 166 291 82, 164, 259 33-34, 41, 46, 72, 84, 109 36 117, 120 115, 136, 165 107 Index NOMIS Norrland Northern Ireland Nuffield Election Studies 320 233 179 32, 238 259 O Occupation Oceans Oil wells One world projections Open-minded Opportunities Origins Other parties Outliers Owner occupied Ownership 78, 79-80, 97 53 50 53 172 76, 84, 95 73 259 150 148 84, 85 P P.C.A Parallax Parallel architecture Parliament Parliamentary Constituencies Part-postcode-sectors Pascal Patterns 260 128 234 83 99, 233, 238, 259 285 234 4, 8, 19, 24, 73, 76, 87, 90 Peninsulas 61 Perspective 22, 24-25, 168 Perspective projection 127 Picture 3, 14, 28, 46, 90, 93 Pie charts 140 Places 30, 32, 34, 38, 45, 60, 62, 108, 136, 156 Polarization 103 Political landscape 99 Political power 179 Politics 101 Polygon 142 Poor 3, 38, 45 Population 7, 54, 89 Population cartogram 54-56, 58, 62, 71, 92, 113, 136, 162, 166, 285 Population pyramids 73, 143 Population space 5, 44, 62, 65, 162 Postcode sector table 285 Postcode sectors 43, 275 Poverty 77 Power 45, 84 Press association numbers 238 Printing 16, 25 Privilege 84 Producing illusions 60 Professionals Projection pursuit Projections Propensity to move Property Prosperity Publishing Pyramids 78-79 163 2, 52-53, 56, 131, 164 113 84 77, 169 178 73, 144 Q Quartiles 72 R Race Railway network Ray-tracing Redistributions of seats Regions Religious Rendering Residential Resolution Retina Retired Rhonda Valley Rich Rivers Road network Rotating tetrahedron Rotation 84 7, 60, 63 128-129 89, 100, 238 37, 77 14, 52-53 16 108 19 22 76 291 38, 85 52 7, 60, 63 171 128, 130, 140 S Satellite images Scales Scatter-plots School Science Scotland Scottish local elections Scottish wards Sculptured Characters Sea-slug Sedgefield Service sector Settlements Sexes Shares Shopping Shortest path Significant flow Smoothing Social control Social Democratic party Social history Social landscape 72 127 33-34, 107, 292 176 32, 63, 74, 164, 233, 291 83, 171, 233 285 138 174 238 39, 80 7, 33 6, 92 84 107, 292 117 110 79, 90 177 82 86 69, 71, 73, 78, 80, 321 The Visualization of Social Spatial Structure 83-85, 94-95, 101, 103 Social order 155 Social patterns 45 Social science 1, 7, 18, 106, 175 Social security 85 Social structure 1, 6-7, 11, 30-31, 34-35, 44, 67, 84, 104-105, 107, 119, 121, 158 Society 13, 27, 37 South East 66 Space 8-9, 30, 33, 35, 46, 49, 57, 86, 96, 156, 161-162 Space of Flows 118 Spacetime 9, 46, 63, 66, 95, 153-155, 157-158, 160, 167, 169 Spacetime cartogram 171 Spacetime continuum 46, 159 Spacetime flows 166 Spatial apparitions 36 Spatial congestion 151 Spatial scale 178 Spatial structure 13, 36 Speed of light 162 Spheres 160 Statistical analysis 15, 18, 68, 112, 172 Statistical graphics 1, 15, 125 Stereo vision 23, 163, 170 Still Images 87 Stockbrokers 77 Structure 68 Structure transformation 91 Students 76 Suburbs 33, 84 Surface 8, 122-125, 129, 132-133, 137, 161 Surface colour 130 Surface definition 124 Surface geometry 131 Surface value 136 Swings of votes 99-100, 145 Three-dimensional net Time 165 7, 9, 33, 46, 64, 86, 93, 96, 146, 154, 156, 161-162, 171 Time-slices 161 Topological relationships 57, 59, 234 Total electorate 259 Tower blocks 292 Transformation 5, 17, 48, 57-59 67, 87, 125 Translucence 168-169 Transparency 18, 128 Travel time 65, 136 Travel time surface 133, 135 Travel to work 107, 109, 113, 115 Tree symbols 12, 138, 141 Triangle inequality 132 Triangular graph 126 Trivariate 21, 131 Turnout 101, 150 U Unemployment Unionists United Kingdom Units of space Unskilled workers V Valleys Variable employment Vector fields Venice Vertical scale Viewing society Villages Visual perception Visual thinking Visualization T Tactical voting Technocratic control Television Temporal discontinuities Territory Tetrahedron Texture and colour Thiessen polygons Third dimension Three-dimensional 164 177 177 2, 64, 88 68 163-164, 171 19 59 154 23, 47, 66, 122-123, 127-130, 154-169 76-77, 83, 95-96, 98, 106, 122, 131, 141142, 157-159, 169, 285, 292 82 32 89 78 Volume Volume cartogram Volume Rendering Volume Visualization Vortices Voting 94 95 115 53 123 68 2, 33, 37, 84, 291 173 11 5-6, 9, 15-18, 24-25, 48-49, 59, 67, 82, 86, 122, 124, 130131, 136, 138, 151, 156, 168, 172, 175 8, 153 66, 162 168 154 110 6, 30, 36, 83, 86-87, 98, 100, 102, 106, 126, 131, 147, 150151, 153, 164 ... the foundation, for the generation of new graphics to form pictures of people, with their rivers of roads down which they flow, and mountains of cities up which they climb The theory of how the. .. than the atolls of the Pacific It is probably true that of all the degrees of latitude and longitude shown on the map, only the equator and the poles are on the mental map and, therefore, the other... frown upon the isolation of single items They preserve the continuity of the real world They show things in their surroundings and therefore call for more active discernment on the part of the user,