^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ This eBook Is Provided By www.PlentyofeBooks.net Plenty of eBooks (Free eBooks & Tutorials) is a free eBooks links library where you can find and download free books in almost any category without registering For More Free eBooks & Tutorials Visit www.PlentyofeBooks.net Uploaded By samsexy98 Enjoy !!! ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Handbook of Modern Sensors Fourth Edition Jacob Fraden Handbook of Modern Sensors Physics, Designs, and Applications Fourth Edition Jacob Fraden jacob@fraden.com ISBN 978-1-4419-6465-6 e-ISBN 978-1-4419-6466-3 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-6466-3 Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: 2010932807 # Springer ScienceỵBusiness Media, LLC 2010 All rights reserved This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Preface Since publication of the previous, the 3rd edition of this book, the sensor technologies have made a remarkable leap ahead The sensitivity of the sensors became higher, the dimensions – smaller, the selectivity – better, and the prices – lower What have not changed, are the fundamental principles of the sensor design They still are governed by the laws of Nature Arguably one of the greatest geniuses ever lived, Leonardo Da Vinci had his own peculiar way of praying It went like this, “Oh Lord, thanks for Thou don’t violate Thy own laws.” It is comforting indeed that the laws of Nature not change with time, it is just that our appreciation of them becomes refined Thus, this new edition examines the same good old laws of Nature that form the foundation for designs of various sensors This has not changed much since the previous editions Yet, the sections that describe practical designs are revised substantially Recent ideas and developments have been added, while obsolete and less important designs were dropped This book is about devices commonly called sensors The invention of a microprocessor has brought highly sophisticated instruments into our everyday life Numerous computerized appliances, of which microprocessors are integral parts, wash clothes and prepare coffee, play music, guard homes, and control room temperature Sensors are essential components in any device that uses a digital signal processor The processor is a device that manipulates binary codes generally represented by electric signals Yet, we live in an analog world, where such devices function among objects that are mostly not digital Moreover, this world is generally not electrical (apart from the atomic level) Digital systems, however complex and intelligent they might be, must receive information from the outside world Sensors are the interface devices between various physical values and electronic circuits that “understand” only a language of moving electrical charges In other words, sensors are eyes, ears, and noses of silicon chips In the course of my engineering work, I often felt a strong need for a book which would combine practical information on diversified subjects related to the most important physical principles, design and use of various sensors Surely, I could find almost all I had to know by surfing Internet or browsing library bookshelves in search for texts on physics, electronics, technical magazines, manufacturer’s v vi Preface catalogues and websites However, the information is scattered over many publications, and almost every question I was pondering required substantial research work Little by little, I have been gathering practical information on everything, which in anyway was related to various sensors and their applications to scientific and engineering measurements Soon, I realized that the information I collected might be quite useful to more than one person This idea prompted me to write this book and this 4th edition is the proof that I was not mistaken In setting my criteria for selecting various sensors for the new edition, I attempted to keep the scope of this book as broad as possible, opting for many different designs described briefly (without being trivial, I hope), rather than fewer treated in greater depth This volume attempts (immodestly perhaps) to cover a very broad range of sensors and detectors Many of them are well known, but describing them is still useful for students and those who look for a convenient reference It is the author’s intention to present a comprehensive and up-to-date account of the theory (physical principles), design, and practical implementations of various (especially, the newest) sensors for scientific, industrial, and consumer applications The topics included in the book reflect the author’s own preferences and interpretations Some may find a description of a particular sensor either too detailed or too broad or, on the contrary, too brief In most cases, the author tried to strike a balance between a detailed description and simplicity of coverage It is clear that one book cannot embrace the whole variety of sensors and their applications, even if it would be called something like “The Encyclopedia of Sensors.” This is a different book and the author’s task was much less ambitious Here, an attempt has been made to generate a reference text, which could be used by students, researchers interested in modern instrumentation (applied physicists and engineers), sensor designers, application engineers and technicians whose job is to understand, select and/or design sensors for practical systems The prior editions of this book have been used quite extensively as desktop references and textbooks for the related college courses Comments and suggestions from the sensor designers, professors, and students prompted me to implement several changes and correct errors I am deeply grateful to those who helped me to make further improvements in this new edition I owe a debt of gratitude and many thanks to Drs Ephraim Suhir and David Pintsov for assisting me in mathematical treatment of transfer functions and to Drs Todd E Mlsna and Sanjay V Patel for their invaluable contribution to the chapter on chemical sensors Even though the book is intended for the scientific and engineering communities, as a rule, technical descriptions and mathematic treatments not require a background beyond a high school curriculum Simplicity of description and intuitive approach were the key requirements that I set for myself while working on the manuscript My true goal was not to pile up a collection of information but rather to entice the reader into a creative process As Plutarch said nearly two millennia ago, “The mind is not a vessel to be filled but a fire to be kindled .” San Diego, California April, 2010 Jacob Fraden Contents Data Acquisition 1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 1.2 Sensor Classification 1.3 Units of Measurements References 1 11 12 Sensor Characteristics 2.1 Transfer Function 2.1.1 Mathematical Model 2.1.2 Functional Approximations 2.1.3 Polynomial Approximations 2.1.4 Sensitivity 2.1.5 Linear Piecewise Approximation 2.1.6 Spline Interpolation 2.1.7 Multidimensional Transfer Functions 2.2 Calibration 2.2.1 Computation of Transfer Function Parameters 2.2.2 Linear Regression 2.3 Computation of Stimulus 2.3.1 Computation from Linear Piecewise Approximation 2.3.2 Iterative Computation of Stimulus (Newton Method) 2.4 Span (Full-Scale Full Scale Input) 2.5 Full-Scale Output 2.6 Accuracy 2.7 Calibration Error 2.8 Hysteresis 2.9 Nonlinearity 2.10 Saturation 2.11 Repeatability 2.12 Dead Band 2.13 Resolution 13 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 19 20 22 25 26 26 28 30 31 31 34 35 36 37 38 38 38 vii viii Contents 2.14 Special Properties 2.15 Output Impedance 2.16 Output Format 2.17 Excitation 2.18 Dynamic Characteristics 2.19 Environmental Factors 2.20 Reliability 2.21 Application Characteristics 2.22 Uncertainty References 39 40 40 41 41 45 47 49 50 52 Physical Principles of Sensing 53 3.1 Electric Charges, Fields, and Potentials 54 3.2 Capacitance 60 3.2.1 Capacitor 62 3.2.2 Dielectric Constant 63 3.3 Magnetism 67 3.3.1 Faraday Law 69 3.3.2 Solenoid 71 3.3.3 Toroid 72 3.3.4 Permanent Magnets 72 3.4 Induction 73 3.5 Resistance 77 3.5.1 Specific Resistivity 79 3.5.2 Temperature Sensitivity 80 3.5.3 Strain Sensitivity 84 3.5.4 Moisture Sensitivity 85 3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 86 3.6.1 Ceramic Piezoelectric Materials 89 3.6.2 Polymer Piezoelectric Films 93 3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 96 3.8 Hall Effect 103 3.9 Thermoelectric Effects 106 3.9.1 Seebeck Effect 106 3.9.2 Peltier Effect 111 3.10 Sound Waves 113 3.11 Temperature and Thermal Properties of Materials 116 3.11.1 Temperature Scales 117 3.11.2 Thermal Expansion 118 3.11.3 Heat Capacity 120 3.12 Heat Transfer 121 3.12.1 Thermal Conduction 122 3.12.2 Thermal Convection 125 3.12.3 Thermal Radiation 126 Appendix Table A.19 (continued) Material 649 n wavelength (mm) note Polystyrene 1.55 Pyrex 7740 1.47 0.589 Good thermal and optical properties Quartz 1.54 1.59 5.58 Chemically resistant Sapphire (Al2O3) Silicon 3.42 5.0 Windows in IR sensors Silver Bromide (AgBr) 2.0 10.6 Corrosive Silver Chloride (AgCl) 1.9 20.5 Corrosive Water [20 C] 1.33 ZnSe 2.4 10.6 IR windows, brittle a Available from Amorphous Materials, Inc Garland, TX 75042 b TEMPAX® is a registered trademark of Schott Glasswerke, Mainz, Germany Table A.20 Characteristics of C-Zn and Alkaline cells (from Powers RA (1995) Batteries for low power electronics Proc IEEE83(4):687–693) Battery Wh/L Wh/kg Drain rate Shelf life Carbon-Zinc 150 85 Low-medium years Alkaline 250 105 Medium-high years Table A.21 Lithium-manganese dioxide primary cells (from Powers RA (1995) Batteries for low power electronics Proc IEEE 83(4):687–693) Construction Voltage Capacity Rated d.c current Pulse current Energy density (mAh) (mA) (mA) (W h/L) Coin 30–1,000 0.5–7 5–20 500 Cyl Wound 160–1,300 20–1,200 80–5,000 500 Cyl Bobbin 650–500 4–10 60–200 620 Cyl “D” cell 10,000 2,500 575 Prismatic 1,150 18 490 Flat 3/6 150–1,400 20–125 290 Table A.22 Typical characteristics of “AA”-size secondary cells System Volts Capacity (mAh) Rate (C)a W h/L W h/kg Cycles Loss/Mo (%) NiCad 1.2 1,000 10 150 60 1,000 15 Ni-MH 1.2 1,200 175 65 500 20 Pb Acid 400 80 40 200 500 225 90 1,200 Li Ion (CoO2) 3.6 800 0.5 280 130 200 Li/MnO2 a Discharge rate unit, C, (in mA) is equal numerically to the nominal capacity (in mA h) 650 Appendix Table A.23 Miniature secondary cells and batteries Manufacturer Part Type Size Avex Corp Bensalem, PA 800-345-1295 GN National Electric Inc Pomona, CA 909-598-1919 GP Batteries USA, San Diego, CA 619–674–5620 Gould, Eastlake, OH 216–953–5084 House of Batteries Inc., Huntington Beach, CA 800–432–3385 Maxell Corp., Fairlawn, NJ 201–794–5938 Moli Energy Ltd., Maple Ridge, BC, Canada, 604–465–7911 Plainview Batteries, Inc., Plainview, NY 516–249–2873 Power Coversion, Inc., Elmwood Park, NJ 201–796–4800 Power Sonic Corp., Redwood City, CA, 415–364–5001 Rayovac Corp., Madison, WI 608–275–4690 Renata U.S., Richardson, TX 214–234–8091 Sanyo Energy (U.S.A.), San Diego, CA, 691–661–7992 Saft America, Inc., San Diego, CA, 619–661–7992 Tadiran Electronics, Port Washington, NY, 516–621–4980 GN-360 RAM AA Capacity (mAh) 1.4 NiCd 15.5Â19 mm 60 3.6 1.10 2/3AA, AA, 2/3 AF, 4/5AF 600–2,500 1.2 2–7 120 2.71 GreenNiMH Charge 3C120M LiMnO2 3Â4Â0.12 cm Voltage Price $ (appx) 1.5 Green Cell NiMH AA, 4/5A, 7/5A 1,200–2,500 1–2 3.50–12 MHRAAA AAA 410 NiMH 1.2 MOLICEL Li-ion 18(dia)Â65 mm 1,200 3.0–4.1 25 PH600 NiMH 48Â17Â7.7 mm 600 1.2 MO4/11 LiMnO2 1/2AA 1,000 3.3 5–8 PS-850AA NiCd AA 850 1.2 1.75 Renewal RAM AA; AAA 1,200; 600 1.5 from 0.50 CR1025 Li 10 mm 25 3.0 0.50 Twicell NiMH 10.4Â44.5 Â67 mm 450 1.2 3.85 VHAA NiMH AA 1,100 1.2 2.95 Li 1/AA-DD packs 370 mAh to 336 30 Ah 1ỵ (continued) Appendix Table A.23 (continued) Manufacturer Part 651 Type Size Capacity (mAh) 900 Voltage Price $ (appx) 3.7 12–15 Aluminum nitrade (AlN) 1,200 4.9 170–200 Silicon carbide (SiC) 2,800 4.4 70 – – 150 4.1 14.0 5–10 3.8 15.4 500 3.8 – – 8.8 40 – Toshiba America, LSQ8 Li-ion 8.6Â3.4 Deerfield, IL, Â48 mm 800–879–4963 U3VL Li 25.8Â44.8Â16.8 3,600 3.0 4.60 Ultralife Batteries, Inc., Newark, NJ, 315–332–7100 NiMH AAA-F 300–8,000 1.2 0.80ỵ Varta Batteries, Inc., Elmsford, NY 9145922500 Note: Li-ion Lithium-ion, LiMnO2 Lithium manganese dioxide, NiCd Nickel-cadmium, NiMH Nickel-metal hydride, RAM Rechargeable alkaline manganese Table A.24 Electronic ceramics (between 25 and 100 C) Beryllia Boron 96% nitrade Alumina (BeO) (BN) (Al2O3) 2,000 1,000 280 Hardness, Knopp (kg/mm2) Flexural Strength (105 N/m2) 3.0 1.7–2.4 0.8 Thermal conductivity 21 250 60 (W/(m K)) 7.1 8.8 0.0 Thermal expansion (10À6/K) Dielectric strength (k V/mm) 8.3 19.7 37.4 Dielectric loss (10À4 tan delta 3–5 4–7 at 1MHz) Dielectric constant, k 10 7.0 4.0 (at 10 MHz) Table A.25 Properties of glasses Sodalime Modulus of elasticity (106 psi) 10.2 1,285 Softening temperature ( F) Coefficient of thermal 8.5–9.4 expansion (10À6 in/in  C) Thermal conductivity 7.0 (BTU—in/h ft2  F) 0.089 Density (lb/in3) Electrical resistivity 12.4 (Log10Ω cm) Refractive index 1.525 Borosilicate 9.0 1,510 3.2–3.4 Lead glass Silicon (Si) 8.5–9.0 932–1,160 9–12.6 Alumosilicate 12.5–12.7 1,666–1,679 4.1–4.7 Fused silica 10.5 2,876 0.56 96% Silica 9.8 2,786 0.76 7.8 5.2 9.0 9.3 10.0 0.081 14 0.103–0.126 0.091–0.095 0.079 17 17 17 0.079 17 1.473 1.540–1.560 1.530–1.547 1.459 1.458 Table A.26 Comparison of IR Transmitting Glasses Produced by AMI Property AMTIR‐1 AMTIR‐2 Composition Ge‐As‐Se As‐Se Transmission Range mm 0.7–12 1.0–14 Ref Index @ 10mm 2.4981 2.7613 DN/DT C  10À6 @ 10mm 72 Knoop Hardness 170 110 Therm Exp  10À6/ C 12 22.4 Thermal Condx (cal/gm sec C) 10À4 5.3 0.072 0.068 Specific Heat (cal/gm  C) Density gm/cm3 4.4 4.66 Rupture Mod (psi) 2700 2500 Young’s Mod ( 106 psi) 3.2 5.6 Shear Mod ( 106 psi) 1.3 1.03 Poisson’s Ratio 0.27 0.29 Softening Point  C 405 188 Glass Trans Temp (Tg  C) 368 167 300 150 Upper Use Temp  C Dispersion Values À mm 202 171 À 12 mm 109 149 AMTIR‐4 As‐Se 1.0–12 2.6431 À23 84 27 5.3 0.086 4.49 2358 2.2 0.85 0.297 131 103 90 186 235 AMTIR‐3 Ge‐Sb‐Se 1.0–12 2.6027 91 150 14 5.3 0.066 4.67 2500 3.1 1.2 0.26 295 278 250 159 110 175 172 AMTIR‐5 As‐Se 1.0–12 2.7398