q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC PREFACE Radiotherapy is a comprehensive and fast-moving discipline which plays a major role in cancer care Safe and effective radiotherapy requires close collaboration between radiation oncologists, radiation technologists and medical physicists, and all must have an understanding of each others’ disciplines Our aim has been to provide a comprehensive text providing most of the theoretical and practical knowledge that medical physicists need to know, including the essential underlying radiation biology Although principally aimed at practising medical physicists, this book will also be useful to all other professionals involved in radiation therapy, whether they be students (master’s and PhD level), university teachers, researchers, radiation oncologists, or radiation technologists The book is organised into 13 Parts, each dealing with a major self-contained subject area Each part begins with an introduction by the editors and is subdivided into chapters mostly written by a single author References are collected together at the end of each part In order to cover in detail all aspects of radiotherapy physics and biology, a high level of expertise was required Contributions have been brought together from eminent specialists in the field, mostly from Europe, but also some from North America The editors have, where necessary, combined contributions from different authors in order to provide a logical flow—as far as possible details of who wrote what are shown on the title page of each chapter Parts A through C provide the fundamentals of the underlying physics, radiobiology and technology respectively Parts D through H provide the practical information needed to support external-beam radiotherapy: dose measurements, properties of clinical beams, patient dose computation, treatment planning and quality assurance An appendix to Part D gives complementary details to enable a thorough understanding of the methods and data used for absolute dose measurement Part I seeks to capture the exciting new developments in the subject including those in particle therapy, thus providing a basis for the reader to understand the ever expanding literature in this area Parts J and K deal with brachytherapy using sealed and unsealed sources respectively The framework of radiation protection is covered in Part L including an appendix describing the detailed application of UK legislation Part M contains useful tables of physical constants, and electron and photon interaction data In a multi-author book of this length there will inevitably be a certain unevenness of style and level of detail and also some repetition; we see this as a strength rather than a weakness although we as editors have sought to ensure consistency We wish to thank our many authors for their high-class contributions and not least for their patience during the time it has taken to bring together this work It is unavoidable that some chapters are even more up-to-the-minute than others which were written more promptly We would also like to thank Don Chapman and Helen Mayles who have read and commented on some of the chapters q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Finally, we have tried to make the content as international as possible by taking into account different practices and terminology in different parts of the world For example we have used the words Radiation Oncologist and Radiation Technologist to describe the medical staff who prescribe radiotherapy and who operate the treatment machines respectively Colleagues who carry out computer planning are referred to as Dosimetrists It is our hope that our readers will learn as much from reading this book as we have from editing it Philip Mayles Alan Nahum Jean-Claude Rosenwald q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC THE EDITORS Philip Mayles Philip Mayles was born in 1947 He graduated from Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge with a BA in natural sciences in 1968 He completed a master of science degree in radiation physics at St Bartholomew’s Hospital Medical School, following which he joined the staff of Guy’s Hospital, where he worked until 1986 During this time he obtained a PhD from the Faculty of Medicine in London University In 1986 he was appointed head of clinical radiotherapy physics at the Royal Marsden Hospital Surrey Branch under Professor Bill Swindell In 1994 he moved to Clatterbridge Centre for Oncology near Liverpool, as head of the Physics Department During his time there he has overseen the expansion of the Radiotherapy Department from having five linear accelerators with conventional collimators to nine machines all equipped with multileaf collimators and portal imaging devices The department uses modern imaging technology to enable 3D treatment planning for a high proportion of its patients and has been one of the pioneers of intensity modulated radiotherapy and image guided radiotherapy in the UK As chairman of the Radiotherapy Topic Group of the Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine he was instrumental in producing Report 75 on the design of radiotherapy treatment facilities and Report 81 on quality assurance in radiotherapy He has an active interest in research especially in improving the physical basis of radiotherapy treatment and treatment planning In 1992 he and Alan Nahum established the Royal Marsden Course in Radiotherapy Physics which has been running successfully ever since, now under the direction of Margaret Bidmead and Jim Warrington This course provided the inspiration for this book He and his wife, Helen, also a medical physicist, met at Guy’s Hospital, London and have two daughters Alan Nahum was born in Manchester in 1949 He read physics at Worcester College, Oxford University He gained his PhD in 1975 on theoretical radiation dosimetry using Monte Carlo methods at Edinburgh University under the supervision of Professor John Greening Alan then trained and worked as a school science teacher and worked as a gas cutter in a Volvo factory in Arvika, Sweden, before re-entering the medical physics world in 1979 as forskarassistent at the Radiofysik department, University of Umea˚, where he taught and organised courses in radiation dosimetry, worked on ion-chamber response and on dosimetry codes of practice with Professor Hans Svensson, and where his two daughters Rebecka and Marie were born He took a sabbatical (in Spring 1983) in Ottawa at the National Research Council of Canada working with Dave Rogers and Alex Bielajew on Monte Carlo simulation of ion-chamber response He became a docent of Umea˚ University q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Medical Faculty in 1983 He published The Computation of Dose Distributions in Electron Beam Radiotherapy just before leaving Umea˚ In 1985 Alan joined the Joint Department of Physics at the Institute of Cancer Research and Royal Marsden Hospital, Sutton, UK where his interests were redirected towards conformal (radio)therapy and subsequently to radioiological modelling He co-directed (with Ralph Nelson and Dave Rogers) a course on Monte Carlo Transport of Electrons and Photons in Erice, Sicily in 1987 also co-editing a book with this title In 1992 he and Philip Mayles started an annual 2!1-week course in radiotherapy physics which is still running His PhD students at ICR were Charlie Ma, Mike Lee, Richard Knight, Paul Mobit, John Fenwick, Francesca Buffa, Mark Atthey and Margarida Fragoso Postdoctoral scientists on his team included Beatriz Sanchez-Nieto, Frank Verhaegen, Cephas Mubata, Stefano Gianolini and Joa˜o Seco, working on Monte Carlo simulation applied to dosimeter response and treatment planning, on biological modelling, and on building a database for analysis of clinical trials in conformal therapy In 1997 he became Reader in Medical Physics of London University He served as an associate editor for the journal Medical Physics between 1997 and 2004 Alan left the ICR/Marsden in 2001 and after brief spells as a visiting scientist in Philadelphia, Reggio Emilia and Copenhagen, joined Clatterbridge Centre for Oncology, in June 2004, as head of physics research, becoming a Visiting Professor of Liverpool University in 2005 He was a member of the teaching faculty on the ESTRO course on IMRT and other conformal techniques from 1998 to 2005 His main current research is on using TCP and NTCP models in treatment plan optimisation Recreational interests include foreign languages, cooking, cricket and classical music Jean-Claude Rosenwald was born in 1945 in Neuilly, close to Paris After earning an engineering degree in electronics, nuclear physics and computing sciences obtained in Nancy in 1967, he began his career as a computer scientist developing dose calculation programs in brachytherapy at the Institut Gustave Roussy in Villejuif, under the supervision of Andre´e Dutreix He obtained his PhD on this subject in 1976 from the University of Nancy He was appointed medical physicist at the Institut Gustave Roussy from 1971–1975 and then moved in 1976 to the Institut Curie in Paris, as head of the Physics Department In 1996 he obtained an Habilitation `a Diriger les Recherches from the Universite´ Paul Sabattier in Toulouse in recognition of his capacity to coordinate research programmes Altogether, more than 14 PhD and 60 master’s students have undertaken research programmes under his supervision Dr Rosenwald has a particular interest in the use of computers in radiation therapy, has participated in several international conferences, has been a co-author of several reports on this subject and was involved in the development of commercial solutions for treatment planning both for external-beam radiotherapy and brachytherapy He has also promoted the use of proton beams in radiotherapy and played a major role in the development of the Centre de Protonthe´rapie d’Orsay He has contributed to the expansion of the Radiotherapy Department at the Institut Curie, which is one of the leading centres in France, possessing modern equipment and practising modern radiotherapy techniques, based on advanced imaging devices and including intensity modulated radiotherapy, proton therapy and tomotherapy He served as president of the French Society for Medical Physics (today SFPM) from 1979–1982, as chairman of the Scientific Committee of the European Federation of Medical Physics (EFOMP) from 1990–1993 and chaired the Scientific Committee for Medical Physics at the International Conference of Bioengineering and Medical Physics held in Nice in 1997 He is a member of the editorial board of Radiotherapy and Oncology q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CONTRIBUTORS Edwin Aird Jean Chavaudra Medical Physics Department Mount Vernon Hospital Northwood, Middlesex, United Kingdom Service de Physique Me´dicale Institut Gustave Roussy Villejuif, France Gudrun Alm Carlsson Peter Childs Department of Radiation Physics, IMV Linko ăping University Linko ăping, Sweden Pedro Andreo International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna, Austria and Medical Radiation Physics University of Stockholm–Karolinska Institute Stockholm, Sweden Mark Atthey Medical Physics Department CancerCare Manitoba Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada Margaret Bidmead Joint Department of Physics Institute of Cancer Research and Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust London, United Kingdom Alex Bielajew Nuclear Engineering and Radiological Sciences University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan Peter Blake Institute of Cancer Research and Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust London, United Kingdom John N H Brunt Physics Department Clatterbridge Centre for Oncology NHS Foundation Trust Wirral Merseyside, United Kingdom q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Joint Department of Physics Institute of Cancer Research and Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust London, United Kingdom Roger Dale Department of Radiation Physics and Radiobiology Hammersmith Hospitals NHS Trust and Imperial College Faculty of Medicine Charing Cross Hospital London, United Kingdom David Dance Joint Department of Physics Institute of Cancer Research and Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust London, United Kingdom Philip Evans Joint Department of Physics Institute of Cancer Research and Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust London, United Kingdom Maggie Flower Joint Department of Physics Institute of Cancer Research and Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust London, United Kingdom Tony Greener Medical Physics Department Guy’s and St Thomas’s NHS Foundation Trust London, United Kingdom 1380 TABLE M.3w Photons in Muscle, Striated (ICRU) r: 1.040 (g cmK3), Composition (ZKfw): 1–0.101997; 6–0.123000; 7–0.035000; 8–0.729003; 11–0.000800; 12–0.002000; 15–0.002000; 16–0.005000; 16–0.005000 Mass Coefficients (cm2 gK1) Compton Photoelectric PairCTriplet Total Attenuation Energy-Transfer Energy-Absorption Energy Coherent K, L, M sC/r t/r k/r m/r mtr/r men/r Edges (MeV) scoh/r 11 K 12 K 15 K 16 K 19 K 1.34 1.32 1.32 1.28 1.28 1.23 1.11 1.08 1.08 9.95!10K1 9.95!10K1 8.73!10K1 7.48!10K1 7.48!10K1 6.78!10K1 5.35!10K1 4.31!10K1 3.00!10K1 2.24!10K1 1.31!10K1 8.67!10K2 4.59!10K2 2.81!10K2 1.89!10K2 1.36!10K2 7.98!10K3 5.23!10K3 2.39!10K3 1.36!10K3 6.08!10K4 3.43!10K4 q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1.34!10K2 1.52!10K2 1.52!10K2 2.14!10K2 2.14!10K2 2.70!10K2 4.21!10K2 4.65!10K2 4.65!10K2 5.62!10K2 5.62!10K2 7.09!10K2 8.57!10K2 8.57!10K2 9.41!10K2 1.12!10K1 1.25!10K1 1.42!10K1 1.53!10K1 1.68!10K1 1.76!10K1 1.81!10K1 1.81!10K1 1.79!10K1 1.75!10K1 1.68!10K1 1.61!10K1 1.46!10K1 1.34!10K1 1.17!10K1 1.05!10K1 3.76!103 3.12!103 3.13!103 1.85!103 1.85!103 1.27!103 5.66!102 4.63!102 4.68!102 3.12!102 3.21!102 1.84!102 1.07!102 1.10!102 8.12!10 4.18!10 2.41!10 1.00!10 5.01 1.40 5.61!10K1 1.52!10K1 5.96!10K2 2.87!10K2 1.58!10K2 6.14!10K3 2.95!10K3 7.87!10K4 3.12!10K4 8.86!10K5 3.81!10K5 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.76!103 3.13!103 3.13!103 1.85!103 1.85!103 1.27!103 5.67!102 4.64!102 4.69!102 3.13!102 3.22!102 1.85!102 1.08!102 1.11!102 8.20!10 4.24!10 2.46!10 1.04!10 5.39 1.70 8.24!10K1 3.79!10K1 2.69!10K1 2.26!10K1 2.05!10K1 1.82!10K1 1.69!10K1 1.49!10K1 1.36!10K1 1.18!10K1 1.05!10K1 3.753!103 3.122!103 3.127!103 1.846!103 1.847!103 1.263!103 5.648!102 4.625!102 4.667!102 3.110!102 3.196!102 1.831!102 1.067!102 1.095!102 8.074!10 4.155!10 2.399!10 9.968 5.001 1.405 5.668!10K1 1.616!10K1 7.212!10K2 4.358!10K2 3.262!10K2 2.616!10K2 2.545!10K2 2.746!10K2 2.944!10K2 3.167!10K2 3.253!10K2 3.753!103 3.122!103 3.127!103 1.846!103 1.847!103 1.263!103 5.648!102 4.625!102 4.667!102 3.110!102 3.196!102 1.831!102 1.067!102 1.095!102 8.073!10 4.154!10 2.398!10 9.966 5.000 1.404 5.666!10K1 1.615!10K1 7.209!10K2 4.356!10K2 3.261!10K2 2.615!10K2 2.544!10K2 2.745!10K2 2.943!10K2 3.164!10K2 3.249!10K2 (1-g) 1 1 1 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997 0.9997 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9995 0.9994 0.9992 0.9989 PART M: REFERENCE DATA 0.0010 0.001072 0.001072 0.001305 0.001305 0.0015 0.0020 0.002145 0.002145 0.002472 0.002472 0.0030 0.003607 0.003607 0.0040 0.0050 0.0060 0.0080 0.0100 0.0150 0.0200 0.0300 0.0400 0.0500 0.0600 0.0800 0.1000 0.1500 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000 2.20!10K4 1.53!10K4 8.60!10K5 5.50!10K5 3.52!10K5 2.45!10K5 1.38!10K5 6.12!10K6 3.44!10K6 2.20!10K6 1.53!10K6 8.60!10K7 5.51!10K7 2.45!10K7 1.38!10K7 6.12!10K8 3.44!10K8 2.20!10K8 9.58!10K2 8.86!10K2 7.78!10K2 7.00!10K2 6.26!10K2 5.69!10K2 4.86!10K2 3.82!10K2 3.19!10K2 2.75!10K2 2.43!10K2 1.99!10K2 1.69!10K2 1.25!10K2 1.01!10K2 7.33!10K3 5.82!10K3 4.86!10K3 2.05!10K5 1.28!10K5 6.47!10K6 4.02!10K6 2.55!10K6 1.85!10K6 1.16!10K6 6.47!10K7 4.43!10K7 3.35!10K7 2.69!10K7 1.93!10K7 1.50!10K7 9.63!10K8 7.09!10K8 4.63!10K8 3.44!10K8 2.74!10K8 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.74!10K5 9.64!10K5 3.84!10K4 1.11!10K3 1.83!10K3 2.50!10K3 3.10!10K3 4.13!10K3 5.00!10K3 6.64!10K3 7.83!10K3 9.54!10K3 1.07!10K2 1.17!10K2 9.60!10K2 8.88!10K2 7.79!10K2 7.01!10K2 6.27!10K2 5.70!10K2 4.90!10K2 3.93!10K2 3.37!10K2 3.00!10K2 2.74!10K2 2.40!10K2 2.19!10K2 1.92!10K2 1.79!10K2 1.69!10K2 1.65!10K2 1.65!10K2 3.274!10K2 3.259!10K2 3.183!10K2 3.082!10K2 2.947!10K2 2.818!10K2 2.597!10K2 2.279!10K2 2.071!10K2 1.927!10K2 1.823!10K2 1.688!10K2 1.607!10K2 1.509!10K2 1.475!10K2 1.469!10K2 1.488!10K2 1.513!10K2 3.269!10K2 3.254!10K2 3.177!10K2 3.075!10K2 2.938!10K2 2.808!10K2 2.584!10K2 2.260!10K2 2.046!10K2 1.896!10K2 1.787!10K2 1.641!10K2 1.549!10K2 1.424!10K2 1.364!10K2 1.309!10K2 1.280!10K2 1.261!10K2 0.9987 0.9985 0.998 0.9975 0.9969 0.9963 0.9949 0.9917 0.9881 0.9841 0.9801 0.9718 0.9635 0.9435 0.9249 0.891 0.8607 0.8331 PHOTON INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS 0.5000 0.6000 0.8000 1.0000 1.2500 1.5000 2.0000 3.0000 4.0000 5.0000 6.0000 8.0000 10.0000 15.0000 20.0000 30.0000 40.0000 50.0000 1381 q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1382 TABLE M.3x Photons in Skin (ICRP) r: 1.100 (g cmK3), Composition (ZKfw): 1–0.100588; 6–0.228250; 7–0.046420; 8–0.619002; 11–0.000070; 12–0.000060; 15–0.000330; 16–0.001590; 17–0.002670; 19–0.000850; 20–0.000150; 26–0.000010; 30–0.000010 Mass Coefficients (cm2 gK1) Compton Photoelectric PairCTriplet Total Attenuation Energy-Transfer Energy-Absorption K, L, M Energy Coherent sC/r t/r k/r m/r mtr/r men/r (1-g) Edges (MeV) scoh/r 30 L3 30 L2 11 K 30 L1 12 K 15 K 16 K 17 K 20 K 26 K 1.29 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.27 1.27 1.25 1.25 1.22 1.22 1.18 1.06 1.02 1.02 9.45!10K1 9.45!10K1 8.64!10K1 8.64!10K1 8.26!10K1 7.06!10K1 7.06!10K1 6.39!10K1 6.33!10K1 6.33!10K1 5.03!10K1 4.06!10K1 3.28!10K1 3.28!10K1 2.83!10K1 q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1.38!10K2 1.43!10K2 1.43!10K2 1.48!10K2 1.48!10K2 1.56!10K2 1.56!10K2 1.88!10K2 1.88!10K2 2.20!10K2 2.20!10K2 2.77!10K2 4.31!10K2 4.76!10K2 4.76!10K2 5.74!10K2 5.74!10K2 6.73!10K2 6.73!10K2 7.21!10K2 8.70!10K2 8.70!10K2 9.54!10K2 9.61!10K2 9.61!10K2 1.13!10K1 1.26!10K1 1.36!10K1 1.36!10K1 1.43!10K1 3.52!103 3.34!103 3.34!103 3.14!103 3.14!103 2.92!103 2.92!103 2.19!103 2.19!103 1.72!103 1.72!103 1.17!103 5.23!102 4.28!102 4.29!102 2.85!102 2.88!102 1.96!102 2.00!102 1.68!102 9.75!10 9.84!10 7.24!10 7.03!10 7.05!10 3.71!10 2.14!10 1.27!10 1.27!10 8.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.52!103 3.34!103 3.34!103 3.14!103 3.14!103 2.92!103 2.92!103 2.19!103 2.19!103 1.72!103 1.72!103 1.18!103 5.24!102 4.29!102 4.30!102 2.86!102 2.89!102 1.97!102 2.01!102 1.69!102 9.83!10 9.92!10 7.31!10 7.11!10 7.12!10 3.78!10 2.19!10 1.32!10 1.32!10 9.26 3.507!103 3.331!103 3.331!103 3.139!103 3.139!103 2.915!103 2.916!103 2.186!103 2.186!103 1.717!103 1.717!103 1.172!103 5.226!102 4.276!102 4.283!102 2.848!102 2.876!102 1.958!102 1.994!102 1.671!102 9.718!10 9.797!10 7.209!10 7.009!10 7.020!10 3.701!10 2.130!10 1.266!10 1.266!10 8.810 3.507!103 3.331!103 3.331!103 3.138!103 3.139!103 2.915!103 2.916!103 2.186!103 2.186!103 1.717!103 1.717!103 1.172!103 5.226!102 4.276!102 4.283!102 2.848!102 2.876!102 1.958!102 1.993!102 1.671!102 9.717!10 9.796!10 7.208!10 7.008!10 7.019!10 3.701!10 2.129!10 1.265!10 1.266!10 8.808 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 PART M: REFERENCE DATA 19 K 0.0010 0.001020 0.001020 0.001043 0.001043 0.001072 0.001072 0.001194 0.001194 0.001305 0.001305 0.0015 0.0020 0.002145 0.002145 0.002472 0.002472 0.002822 0.002822 0.0030 0.003607 0.003607 0.0040 0.004038 0.004038 0.0050 0.0060 0.007112 0.007112 0.0080 2.22!10K1 2.22!10K1 2.12!10K1 1.24!10K1 8.21!10K2 4.33!10K2 2.65!10K2 1.79!10K2 1.28!10K2 7.52!10K3 4.92!10K3 2.24!10K3 1.27!10K3 5.71!10K4 3.22!10K4 2.06!10K4 1.43!10K4 8.07!10K5 5.17!10K5 3.31!10K5 2.30!10K5 1.29!10K5 5.74!10K6 3.23!10K6 2.07!10K6 1.44!10K6 8.08!10K7 5.17!10K7 2.30!10K7 1.29!10K7 5.74!10K8 3.23!10K8 2.07!10K8 1.52!10K1 1.52!10K1 1.54!10K1 1.69!10K1 1.76!10K1 1.82!10K1 1.81!10K1 1.79!10K1 1.75!10K1 1.68!10K1 1.61!10K1 1.46!10K1 1.34!10K1 1.17!10K1 1.05!10K1 9.56!10K2 8.85!10K2 7.77!10K2 6.99!10K2 6.25!10K2 5.68!10K2 4.85!10K2 3.81!10K2 3.18!10K2 2.75!10K2 2.43!10K2 1.99!10K2 1.69!10K2 1.25!10K2 1.01!10K2 7.32!10K3 5.81!10K3 4.85!10K3 4.92 4.92 4.41 1.23 4.89!10K1 1.32!10K1 5.15!10K2 2.48!10K2 1.36!10K2 5.28!10K3 2.53!10K3 6.73!10K4 2.67!10K4 7.56!10K5 3.24!10K5 1.75!10K5 1.09!10K5 5.50!10K6 3.42!10K6 2.17!10K6 1.57!10K6 9.87!10K7 5.50!10K7 3.77!10K7 2.86!10K7 2.30!10K7 1.65!10K7 1.28!10K7 8.22!10K8 6.05!10K8 3.96!10K8 2.94!10K8 2.34!10K8 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.68!10K5 9.29!10K5 3.70!10K4 1.07!10K3 1.77!10K3 2.41!10K3 3.00!10K3 4.00!10K3 4.84!10K3 6.43!10K3 7.59!10K3 9.25!10K3 1.04!10K2 1.13!10K2 5.29 5.29 4.78 1.52 7.48!10K1 3.57!10K1 2.59!10K1 2.21!10K1 2.02!10K1 1.81!10K1 1.68!10K1 1.49!10K1 1.36!10K1 1.17!10K1 1.05!10K1 9.59!10K2 8.86!10K2 7.78!10K2 7.00!10K2 6.26!10K2 5.69!10K2 4.89!10K2 3.92!10K2 3.36!10K2 2.99!10K2 2.73!10K2 2.39!10K2 2.18!10K2 1.90!10K2 1.76!10K2 1.66!10K2 1.62!10K2 1.61!10K2 4.909 4.910 4.405 1.231 4.953!10K1 1.416!10K1 6.409!10K2 3.964!10K2 3.042!10K2 2.528!10K2 2.501!10K2 2.731!10K2 2.936!10K2 3.161!10K2 3.248!10K2 3.269!10K2 3.255!10K2 3.179!10K2 3.078!10K2 2.943!10K2 2.815!10K2 2.593!10K2 2.273!10K2 2.063!10K2 1.918!10K2 1.813!10K2 1.675!10K2 1.591!10K2 1.488!10K2 1.451!10K2 1.440!10K2 1.455!10K2 1.478!10K2 4.908 4.909 4.404 1.230 4.951!10K1 1.415!10K1 6.407!10K2 3.962!10K2 3.041!10K2 2.527!10K2 2.500!10K2 2.730!10K2 2.934!10K2 3.159!10K2 3.245!10K2 3.265!10K2 3.250!10K2 3.173!10K2 3.071!10K2 2.935!10K2 2.804!10K2 2.580!10K2 2.255!10K2 2.039!10K2 1.888!10K2 1.778!10K2 1.629!10K2 1.535!10K2 1.406!10K2 1.344!10K2 1.286!10K2 1.256!10K2 1.236!10K2 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997 0.9997 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9997 0.9996 0.9996 0.9994 0.9992 0.999 0.9988 0.9985 0.9981 0.9976 0.997 0.9964 0.9951 0.9919 0.9884 0.9846 0.9806 0.9725 0.9644 0.9448 0.9265 0.8931 0.8633 0.8361 PHOTON INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS 30 K 0.009659 0.009659 0.0100 0.0150 0.0200 0.0300 0.0400 0.0500 0.0600 0.0800 0.1000 0.1500 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000 0.5000 0.6000 0.8000 1.0000 1.2500 1.5000 2.0000 3.0000 4.0000 5.0000 6.0000 8.0000 10.0000 15.0000 20.0000 30.0000 40.0000 50.0000 1383 q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1384 TABLE M.3y Photons in Soft Tissue (ICRP) r: 1.000 (g cmK3), Composition (ZKfw): 1–0.104472; 6–0.232190; 7–0.024880; 8–0.630238; 11–0.001130; 12–0.000130; 15–0.001330; 16–0.001990; 17–0.001340; 19–0.001990; 20–0.000230; 26–0.000050; 30–0.000030 Mass Coefficients (cm2 gK1) Compton Photoelectric PairCTriplet Total Attenuation Energy-Transfer Energy-Absorption K, L, M Energy Coherent sC/r t/r k/r m/r mtr/r men/r (1-g) Edges (MeV) scoh/r 30 L3 30 L2 11 K 30 L1 12 K 15 K 16 K 17 K 20 K 26 K 1.29 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.27 1.27 1.25 1.25 1.22 1.22 1.18 1.06 1.03 1.03 9.46!10K1 9.46!10K1 8.66!10K1 8.66!10K1 8.27!10K1 7.08!10K1 7.08!10K1 6.41!10K1 6.35!10K1 6.35!10K1 5.04!10K1 4.07!10K1 3.30!10K1 3.30!10K1 2.84!10K1 q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1.39!10K2 1.44!10K2 1.44!10K2 1.50!10K2 1.50!10K2 1.57!10K2 1.57!10K2 1.90!10K2 1.90!10K2 2.22!10K2 2.22!10K2 2.80!10K2 4.35!10K2 4.80!10K2 4.80!10K2 5.78!10K2 5.78!10K2 6.78!10K2 6.78!10K2 7.27!10K2 8.76!10K2 8.76!10K2 9.60!10K2 9.68!10K2 9.68!10K2 1.14!10K1 1.27!10K1 1.37!10K1 1.37!10K1 1.44!10K1 3.51!103 3.33!103 3.33!103 3.14!103 3.14!103 2.91!103 2.92!103 2.19!103 2.19!103 1.72!103 1.72!103 1.18!103 5.25!102 4.29!102 4.32!102 2.88!102 2.91!102 1.98!102 2.00!102 1.68!102 9.76!10 9.97!10 7.34!10 7.14!10 7.16!10 3.78!10 2.17!10 1.29!10 1.30!10 9.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.51!103 3.33!103 3.33!103 3.14!103 3.14!103 2.91!103 2.92!103 2.19!103 2.19!103 1.72!103 1.72!103 1.18!103 5.26!102 4.30!102 4.33!102 2.89!102 2.92!102 1.99!102 2.01!102 1.69!102 9.84!10 1.01!102 7.41!10 7.21!10 7.23!10 3.84!10 2.23!10 1.34!10 1.34!10 9.44 3.501!103 3.325!103 3.325!103 3.134!103 3.134!103 2.911!103 2.918!103 2.188!103 2.188!103 1.719!103 1.719!103 1.174!103 5.238!102 4.287!102 4.315!102 2.872!102 2.906!102 1.980!102 1.998!102 1.674!102 9.735!10 9.921!10 7.306!10 7.104!10 7.121!10 3.760!10 2.166!10 1.289!10 1.290!10 8.986 3.501!103 3.325!103 3.325!103 3.134!103 3.134!103 2.911!103 2.918!103 2.188!103 2.188!103 1.719!103 1.719!103 1.174!103 5.238!102 4.287!102 4.314!102 2.871!102 2.906!102 1.980!102 1.998!102 1.674!102 9.734!10 9.920!10 7.305!10 7.103!10 7.121!10 3.760!10 2.166!10 1.289!10 1.290!10 8.984 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 PART M: REFERENCE DATA 19 K 0.0010 0.001020 0.001020 0.001043 0.001043 0.001072 0.001072 0.001194 0.001194 0.001305 0.001305 0.0015 0.0020 0.002145 0.002145 0.002472 0.002472 0.002822 0.002822 0.0030 0.003607 0.003607 0.004000 0.004038 0.004038 0.0050 0.0060 0.007112 0.007112 0.0080 2.23!10K1 2.23!10K1 2.13!10K1 1.24!10K1 8.24!10K2 4.35!10K2 2.66!10K2 1.79!10K2 1.29!10K2 7.55!10K3 4.94!10K3 2.25!10K3 1.28!10K3 5.74!10K4 3.24!10K4 2.07!10K4 1.44!10K4 8.11!10K5 5.19!10K5 3.33!10K5 2.31!10K5 1.30!10K5 5.77!10K6 3.25!10K6 2.08!10K6 1.44!10K6 8.12!10K7 5.20!10K7 2.31!10K7 1.30!10K7 5.77!10K8 3.25!10K8 2.08!10K8 1.53!10K1 1.53!10K1 1.55!10K1 1.69!10K1 1.77!10K1 1.82!10K1 1.82!10K1 1.79!10K1 1.76!10K1 1.69!10K1 1.62!10K1 1.46!10K1 1.34!10K1 1.17!10K1 1.05!10K1 9.60!10K2 8.88!10K2 7.80!10K2 7.02!10K2 6.27!10K2 5.70!10K2 4.87!10K2 3.83!10K2 3.19!10K2 2.76!10K2 2.44!10K2 1.99!10K2 1.70!10K2 1.26!10K2 1.01!10K2 7.34!10K3 5.83!10K3 4.87!10K3 5.03 5.03 4.52 1.26 5.03!10K1 1.36!10K1 5.32!10K2 2.57!10K2 1.41!10K2 5.48!10K3 2.63!10K3 7.00!10K4 2.78!10K4 7.88!10K5 3.38!10K5 1.83!10K5 1.14!10K5 5.75!10K6 3.58!10K6 2.26!10K6 1.64!10K6 1.03!10K6 5.75!10K7 3.94!10K7 2.98!10K7 2.40!10K7 1.72!10K7 1.33!10K7 8.57!10K8 6.30!10K8 4.12!10K8 3.06!10K8 2.43!10K8 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.68!10K5 9.30!10K5 3.70!10K4 1.07!10K3 1.77!10K3 2.41!10K3 3.00!10K3 4.00!10K3 4.85!10K3 6.43!10K3 7.60!10K3 9.26!10K3 1.04!10K2 1.13!10K2 5.40 5.41 4.88 1.55 7.63!10K1 3.62!10K1 2.62!10K1 2.23!10K1 2.03!10K1 1.82!10K1 1.69!10K1 1.49!10K1 1.36!10K1 1.18!10K1 1.05!10K1 9.62!10K2 8.89!10K2 7.81!10K2 7.02!10K2 6.28!10K2 5.71!10K2 4.91!10K2 3.94!10K2 3.37!10K2 3.00!10K2 2.74!10K2 2.39!10K2 2.18!10K2 1.90!10K2 1.77!10K2 1.66!10K2 1.62!10K2 1.62!10K2 5.014 5.017 4.503 1.262 5.088!10K1 1.457!10K1 6.582!10K2 4.054!10K2 3.096!10K2 2.554!10K2 2.518!10K2 2.743!10K2 2.947!10K2 3.172!10K2 3.259!10K2 3.280!10K2 3.266!10K2 3.190!10K2 3.089!10K2 2.953!10K2 2.824!10K2 2.602!10K2 2.281!10K2 2.070!10K2 1.924!10K2 1.818!10K2 1.680!10K2 1.596!10K2 1.492!10K2 1.454!10K2 1.443!10K2 1.458!10K2 1.481!10K2 5.013 5.016 4.502 1.261 5.087!10K1 1.456!10K1 6.579!10K2 4.052!10K2 3.095!10K2 2.553!10K2 2.517!10K2 2.742!10K2 2.945!10K2 3.170!10K2 3.256!10K2 3.276!10K2 3.261!10K2 3.184!10K2 3.081!10K2 2.945!10K2 2.814!10K2 2.589!10K2 2.263!10K2 2.046!10K2 1.894!10K2 1.783!10K2 1.634!10K2 1.539!10K2 1.410!10K2 1.347!10K2 1.289!10K2 1.259!10K2 1.239!10K2 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997 0.9997 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9997 0.9996 0.9996 0.9994 0.9992 0.9990 0.9988 0.9985 0.9981 0.9976 0.9970 0.9964 0.9951 0.9920 0.9885 0.9847 0.9807 0.9727 0.9646 0.9451 0.9268 0.8936 0.8639 0.8368 PHOTON INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS 30 K 0.009659 0.009659 0.0100 0.0150 0.0200 0.0300 0.0400 0.0500 0.0600 0.0800 0.1000 0.1500 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000 0.5000 0.6000 0.8000 1.0000 1.2500 1.5000 2.0000 3.0000 4.0000 5.0000 6.0000 8.0000 10.0000 15.0000 20.0000 30.0000 40.0000 50.0000 1385 q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1386 TABLE M.3z Photons in Soft Tissue (ICRU 4-Component) r: 1.000 (g cmK3), Composition (ZKfw): 1–0.101172; 6–0.111000; 7–0.026000; 8–0.761828 Mass Coefficients (cm2 gK1) Compton Photoelectric PairCTriplet Total Attenuation K, L, M Energy Coherent sC/r t/r k/r m/r Edges (MeV) scoh/r 1.33 1.23 1.11 8.69!10K1 6.75!10K1 5.31!10K1 4.28!10K1 2.97!10K1 2.21!10K1 1.28!10K1 8.53!10K2 4.51!10K2 2.76!10K2 1.86!10K2 1.34!10K2 7.83!10K3 5.13!10K3 2.34!10K3 1.33!10K3 5.95!10K4 3.36!10K4 2.15!10K4 1.49!10K4 8.41!10K5 5.39!10K5 3.45!10K5 2.39!10K5 1.35!10K5 5.99!10K6 3.37!10K6 2.16!10K6 q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1.33!10 2.68!10K2 4.19!10K2 7.05!10K2 9.38!10K2 1.11!10K1 1.25!10K1 1.42!10K1 1.53!10K1 1.68!10K1 1.76!10K1 1.81!10K1 1.81!10K1 1.79!10K1 1.75!10K1 1.68!10K1 1.61!10K1 1.46!10K1 1.34!10K1 1.17!10K1 1.05!10K1 9.57!10K2 8.85!10K2 7.78!10K2 7.00!10K2 6.26!10K2 5.69!10K2 4.85!10K2 3.82!10K2 3.18!10K2 2.75!10K2 3.83!10 1.28!103 5.74!102 1.78!102 7.60!10 3.88!10 2.23!10 9.17 4.56 1.26 5.01!10K1 1.34!10K1 5.22!10K2 2.50!10K2 1.37!10K2 5.29!10K3 2.53!10K3 6.70!10K4 2.65!10K4 7.47!10K5 3.20!10K5 1.72!10K5 1.07!10K5 5.42!10K6 3.37!10K6 2.13!10K6 1.55!10K6 9.72!10K7 5.43!10K7 3.73!10K7 2.83!10K7 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.73!10K5 9.57!10K5 3.81!10K4 1.10!10K3 1.82!10K3 2.48!10K3 3.83!10 1.29!103 5.76!102 1.79!102 7.68!10 3.95!10 2.28!10 9.60 4.94 1.56 7.62!10K1 3.60!10K1 2.61!10K1 2.22!10K1 2.02!10K1 1.81!10K1 1.69!10K1 1.49!10K1 1.36!10K1 1.17!10K1 1.05!10K1 9.59!10K2 8.87!10K2 7.79!10K2 7.00!10K2 6.26!10K2 5.70!10K2 4.89!10K2 3.93!10K2 3.37!10K2 3.00!10K2 3.818!10 1.283!103 5.736!102 1.781!102 7.599!10 3.881!10 2.226!10 9.165 4.565 1.267 5.072!10K1 1.439!10K1 6.476!10K2 3.988!10K2 3.053!10K2 2.531!10K2 2.502!10K2 2.733!10K2 2.938!10K2 3.164!10K2 3.250!10K2 3.272!10K2 3.257!10K2 3.182!10K2 3.081!10K2 2.946!10K2 2.817!10K2 2.596!10K2 2.277!10K2 2.069!10K2 1.924!10K2 Energy-Absorption men/r 3.818!10 1.283!103 5.736!102 1.781!102 7.598!10 3.880!10 2.226!10 9.163 4.564 1.266 5.070!10K1 1.438!10K1 6.474!10K2 3.987!10K2 3.051!10K2 2.530!10K2 2.501!10K2 2.732!10K2 2.936!10K2 3.161!10K2 3.247!10K2 3.267!10K2 3.252!10K2 3.175!10K2 3.073!10K2 2.937!10K2 2.806!10K2 2.582!10K2 2.258!10K2 2.044!10K2 1.894!10K2 (1-g) 1 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9997 0.9997 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9995 0.9994 0.9992 0.9989 0.9987 0.9985 0.998 0.9976 0.9969 0.9963 0.9949 0.9917 0.9881 0.9843 PART M: REFERENCE DATA 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0030 0.0040 0.0050 0.0060 0.0080 0.0100 0.0150 0.0200 0.0300 0.0400 0.0500 0.0600 0.0800 0.1000 0.1500 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000 0.5000 0.6000 0.8000 1.0000 1.2500 1.5000 2.0000 3.0000 4.0000 5.0000 K2 Energy-Transfer mtr/r 1.50!10K6 8.42!10K7 5.39!10K7 2.39!10K7 1.35!10K7 5.99!10K8 3.37!10K8 2.16!10K8 2.43!10K2 1.99!10K2 1.69!10K2 1.25!10K2 1.01!10K2 7.32!10K3 5.82!10K3 4.86!10K3 2.27!10K7 1.63!10K7 1.27!10K7 8.16!10K8 6.00!10K8 3.93!10K8 2.92!10K8 2.32!10K8 3.08!10K3 4.11!10K3 4.97!10K3 6.60!10K3 7.79!10K3 9.49!10K3 1.07!10K2 1.16!10K2 2.74!10K2 2.40!10K2 2.19!10K2 1.91!10K2 1.78!10K2 1.68!10K2 1.65!10K2 1.64!10K2 1.821!10K2 1.685!10K2 1.604!10K2 1.505!10K2 1.470!10K2 1.463!10K2 1.481!10K2 1.507!10K2 1.785!10K2 1.638!10K2 1.546!10K2 1.420!10K2 1.360!10K2 1.305!10K2 1.276!10K2 1.256!10K2 0.9802 0.972 0.9637 0.9438 0.9253 0.8915 0.8613 0.8339 PHOTON INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS 6.0000 8.0000 10.0000 15.0000 20.0000 30.0000 40.0000 50.0000 1387 q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1388 TABLE M.4 RADIOACTIVE NUCLIDES USED IN RADIOTHERAPY Compiled by Philip Mayles TABLE M.4 Radioactive Nuclides Used in Radiotherapya Attenuationb Particle or g-Ray Emitted Decay Process Nuclided 198 Au b- Decays toe 198 Hg Half Life 2.6943 d g keV b keV Other KeV 411.8 675.9 960.7 241 Am a 237 Np 432.7 y 5388 5443 5486 5512 5544 a a a a a 26.34 33.19 59.536 69.77 Cf 60 Co a 248 2.645 y Spontaneous fission Various 966.1 d b- 60 5.2718 y Cm Ni 5976.7 a 6075.7 a 6118.3 a 1173.2 1332.5 317.9 q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1st HVL water 0.956 0.008 0.990 66 mmf 2.5 mmg 0.014 0.128 0.852 0.002 0.003 0.024 0.001 0.359 0.006 0.1 mmi 0.1 mmi 110 mmf 13 mmg Air Kerma Rate Constantc mGy hK1 MBqK1 at m 0.0565h 0.002 0.152 0.816 0.999 1.000 1.000 0.309h PART M: REFERENCE DATA 252 Probability 1st HVT lead or b range in perspexk b- 137m /137m IT 137 125 EC IT 125 59.43 d 35.5 27.0n 31.0 131 b- 131 8.04 d 80.2 177.21 284.3 318.1 325.8 364.5 503.0 637.0 642.7 722.9 Cs Ba I I Ba 30.17 y Ba Te Xe 511.5 1173.2 661.7 Xe 192 Ir 81 mmf 6.5 mmf 0.078h 0.067 1.125 0.254 24 mmf 0.025 mmg 0.033h 63 mmf 2.54 mm 0.055 63 mmf 2.5 mmg 0.113h IT 131 11.87 d 163.9 0.026 0.003 0.061 0.001 0.003 0.812 0.004 0.073 0.002 0.018 0.021 0.006 0.074 0.894 0.001 0.004 0.020 b95.2% 192 73.831 d EC 48% 192 205.8 296.0 308.5 316.5 468.1 484.6 588.6 604.4 612.5 0.032 0.287 0.298 0.830 0.477 0.031 0.045 0.081 0.053 247.9 303.9 333.8 606.3 629.7 806.9 131m 0.946 0.054 0.901 Xe Pt Os q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 0.001 0.056 0.416 0.481 1389 79 256 536 672 RADIOACTIVE NUCLIDES USED IN RADIOTHERAPY 137 1390 TABLE M.4 (Continued) Radioactive Nuclides Used in Radiotherapya Attenuationb Particle or g-Ray Emitted Decay Process Nuclided 32 P 103 Pd 103m Rh / 226 Ra Decays toe b- 12 EC IT 103m o S Rh Rh 103 222 Rn Half Life g keV 14.27 d 16.98 d 56.115 m b keV Other KeV 1710.4 1.000 39.756 a 218 Po 1600 y 4784.5 a 4601.9 a 5489.7 a 3.825 d 510 /218Po /214Pb a b- 214 Pb Bi 214 3.06 m 26.9 m 6002.6 a 678 735 1030 241.9 295.2 351.9 /214Bi b- 214 Po 19.9 m q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC mGy hK1 MBqK1 at m 0.9 mml 6.9 mmk 26 mmf 0.04 mmm 0.035h 0.945 0.328 0.056 0.999 0.001 1.000 0.482 0.430 0.056 0.075 0.192 0.369 0.059 0.043 0.085 0.180 0.182 0.076 0.161 0.469 0.050 0.155 0.061 0.041 0.162 0.0525 12 mmg 0.195h 12 mmg 0.195g PART M: REFERENCE DATA 1066 1151 1423 1505 1540 1892 3270 609.3 768.4 1120.3 1238.1 1377.7 1764.5 2204.1 1st HVL water Air Kerma Rate Constantc 0.001 186.0 /222Rn Probability 1st HVT lead or b range in perspexk a b- 210 /210Bi /210Po ba 210 106 bb- 106 Ru /106Rh Pb Bi 210 Po Pb 206 Rh Pd 106 0.0002 s 22.3 y 7687.1 a 16.5 63.0 1161.5 5.01 d 138.4 d 1.008 y 30.1 s 5304.5 a 39.4 428.5 511.9 616.1 621.9 873.5 1050.4 1128.0 1194.5 2112.5 917 1539 1835 1979 2407 2413 3029 3541 1.000 0.82 0.18 1.0 1.0 1.000 0.001 0.212 0.008 0.102 0.005 0.016 0.004 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.005 0.001 0.018 0.101 0.007 0.084 0.781 2.3 mml 15.2 mmk 0.122 34 mmf 0.13 mmm 145 EC 145 340 d 89 b- 89 50.52 d 1492 1.000 0.7 mm 5.9 mm Sr /90Y bb- 90 28.64 y 2.6713 d 546.2 2279.2 1.000 1.000 mm 9.5 mmk (99Mo) /99mTC bIT 99m b- 182 Sm Sr 90 182 Ta Pm Y Y Zr 90 Tc Tc 99 W 114.7 d Various 140.5 67.75 100.1 152.4 222.1 229.3 264.1 Various 0.890 0.408 0.141 0.074 0.074 0.037 0.035 45 mmf 0.17 mm f 1.7 mmm 66 mm 0.16 1391 q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 2.748 d 6.01 h 61.25 RADIOACTIVE NUCLIDES USED IN RADIOTHERAPY /214Po /210Pb 1392 TABLE M.4 (Continued) Radioactive Nuclides Used in Radiotherapya Attenuationb Particle or g-Ray Emitted Decay Process Nuclided Decays toe Half Life g keV b keV 1121.3 1189.1 1221.4 1231.0 90 Y 169 Yb b- 90 EC 169 Zr Tm 2.6713 d 32.01 d Probability 260.4 303.4 326.1 370.8 439.8 482.5 524.4 556.2 592.2 1713.5 0.346 0.161 0.268 0.113 0.293 0.001 0.019 0.006 0.201 0.021 0.394 0.009 0.038 0.018 2279.2 1.000 0.004 0.416 0.026 0.174 0.019 0.115 0.223 0.359 0.017 0.099 1st HVL water mm 43 mm Air Kerma Rate Constantc mGy hK1 MBqK1 at m 9.5 mm f 0.3 mmm 0.027c The most important emissions are shown in bold In the Half-life column “d” and “y” are used for “days” and “years” a Unless indicated otherwise, data are from Longworth et al (1998) While every effort to ensure the accuracy of the data has been made, the table is not intended as a definitive reference q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC PART M: REFERENCE DATA 8.401 63.119 93.613 109.78 118.19 130.52 177.21 197.95 261.07 307.73 Other KeV 1st HVT lead or b range in perspexk c Attenuation is quoted as an indication of penetrative ability and is the approximate value for a point source The HVT in lead gives an indication of the amount of material needed for radiation protection purposes When shielding b-emitters it is better to use a low atomic number material close to the source as lead will produce bremsstrahlung photons which will be more penetrating than the original b-particles When calculating dose rates for radiotherapy purposes the calculation should be based on source strength or air kerma rate at m (see Chapter 53) However, it is sometimes necessary to be able to convert from air kerma rate to MBq for regulatory purposes or to be able to calculate the expected dose rate for a particular activity for radiation protection purposes In such circumstances these values may be used Where data were not available the value has been calculated based on the decay scheme The formula used is: P fi ! Ei ! ðmen =rÞEi ! 3600 GZ i 4pð1 ÿ gÞ where G is the specific g-ray constant (in Gy m2 hK1 BqK1); f is the probability of emission, per disintegration, of a g-ray of energy E (expressed in J); men/r, is the mass energy-absorption coefficient for air in m2 kgK1; 3600 is the number of seconds in an hour Normally E is in MeV and it is therefore necessary to multiply by 1.602!10K13 to convert to joules and, if the activity is in MBq, to multiply by 106 Tables of mass energy-absorption coefficient are usually in cm2gK1 (see Table M.3k) and these must be converted to m2 kgK1 by dividing by 102 If these units are used the formula becomes: P 4:59 fi !Ei ðMeVÞ ! ðmen =rÞEi i mGy m2 hK1 MBK1 GZ q ð1 ÿ gÞ d e f g h i j k l m n o This method may slightly underestimate the air kerma rate because it ignores bremsstrahlung contributions from the bs (Glasgow and Dillman 1979) Isotopes shown with an arrow indicate the daughter of the parent isotope and its associated decay products This is the isotope which results from the initial decay process The HVL for water is very dependent on the measurement conditions For many sources (e.g 192Ir) scattered radiation often compensates for attenuation close to the source so that the dose rate in water is actually higher than in air The data presented here have been calculated based on the linear attenuation coefficients for the individual energies The values presented give an indication of the relative penetration, but should not be given greater weight As discussed in Part J, in brachytherapy the dose rate is principally determined by the inverse square law From Burger (2003) From BIR (1987) a-particles are stopped by less than a millimetre of tissue and so these parameters are not relevant However, there is some g-ray output which requires some shielding (HVT approximately 0.1 mm of lead) From Aird et al (2000) For b-particles the value quoted is calculated from the formula RZ412 E1.265K0.0954InE where E is the maximum energy in MeV and R is expressed in mg cmK2 (Bull 1998) using a density of 1.15 g cmK3 for perspex (PMMA) R is the thickness of perspex required to completely absorb all b-particles Based on nomogram Figure 6.3 in Bull (1998) This value is calculated from the attenuation coefficients in the same way as for the HVL in water (Note f) and similar reservations apply Emissions at 27 keV and 31 keV are characteristic x rays from Te The Radium decay series is very complex and is included for general information only Less important emissions with less than 4% probability have been omitted RADIOACTIVE NUCLIDES USED IN RADIOTHERAPY b 1393 q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ... treatment planning for a high proportion of its patients and has been one of the pioneers of intensity modulated radiotherapy and image guided radiotherapy in the UK As chairman of the Radiotherapy. .. subject and was involved in the development of commercial solutions for treatment planning both for external-beam radiotherapy and brachytherapy He has also promoted the use of proton beams in radiotherapy. .. Scientific Committee for Medical Physics at the International Conference of Bioengineering and Medical Physics held in Nice in 1997 He is a member of the editorial board of Radiotherapy and Oncology