ENCYCLOPEDIA OF IMAGING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, VOLUME Joseph P Hornak John Wiley & Sons, Inc ENCYCLOPEDIA OF IMAGING SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND VOLUME ENCYCLOPEDIA OF IMAGING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Editor Joseph P Hornak Rochester Institute of Technology Editorial Board Christian DeMoustier Scripps Institution of Oceanography William R Hendee Medical College of Wisconsin Jay M Pasachoff Williams College William Philpot Cornell University Joel Pokorny University of Chicago Edwin Przyblowicz Eastman Kodak Company John Russ North Carolina State University Kenneth W Tobin Oak Ridge National Laboratory Mehdi Vaez-Iravani KLA-Tencor Corporation Editorial Staff Executive Publisher: Janet Bailey Publisher: Paula Kepos Executive Editor: Jacqueline I Kroschwitz Senior Managing Editor: John Sollami Senior Associate Managing Editor: Shirley Thomas Editorial Assistant: Susanne Steitz ENCYCLOPEDIA OF IMAGING SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND VOLUME Joseph P Hornak Rochester Institute of Technology Rochester, New York The Encyclopedia of Imaging Science and Technology is available Online in full color at www.interscience.wiley.com/eist A Wiley-Interscience Publication John Wiley & Sons, Inc This book is printed on acid-free paper Copyright  2002 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York All rights reserved Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4744 Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, E-Mail: PERMREQ@WILEY.COM For ordering and customer service, call 1-800-CALL-WILEY Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: Encyclopedia of imaging science and technology/[edited by Joseph P Hornak] p cm ‘‘A Wiley-Interscience publication.’’ Includes index ISBN 0-471-33276-3 (cloth:alk.paper) Image processing–Encyclopedias Imaging systems–Encyclopedias I Hornak, Joseph P TA1632.E53 2001 2001046915 621.36 03–dc21 Printed in the United States of America 10 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF IMAGING SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND VOLUME L LASER-INDUCED FLUORESCENCE IMAGING volume Knowledge of the laser spectral characteristics, the spectroscopy of the excited material, and other aspects of the fluorescence collection optics is required for quantifying the parameter of interest A typical PLIF setup is shown schematically in Fig In this example, taken from Ref 1, an ultraviolet laser probes a flame A spherical lens of long focal length and a cylindrical lens together expand the beam and form it into a thin sheet The spherical lens is specified to achieve the desired sheet thickness and depth of focus This relates to the Rayleigh range, to be discussed later An alternate method for planar laser imaging is to use the small diameter, circular beam typically emitted by the laser and scan it Alternate sheet formation methods include combining the spherical lens with a scanned-mirror system and other scanning approaches Fluorescence excited by the laser is collected by a lens or lens system, sometimes by intervening imaging fiberoptics, and is focused onto a camera’s sensitive surface In the example, this is performed by a gated intensified charge-coupled device (ICCD) STEPHEN W ALLISON WILLIAM P PARTRIDGE Engineering Technology Division Oak Ridge National Laboratory Knoxville, TN INTRODUCTION Fluorescence imaging is a tool of increasing importance in aerodynamics, fluid flow visualization, and nondestructive evaluation in a variety of industries It is a means for producing two-dimensional images of real surfaces or fluid cross-sectional areas that correspond to properties such as temperature or pressure This article discusses three major laser-induced fluorescence imaging techniques: • Planar laser-induced fluorescence • Phosphor thermography • Pressure-sensitive paint Background Since its conception in the early 1980s, PLIF has become a powerful and widely used diagnostic technique The PLIF diagnostic technique evolved naturally out of early imaging research based on Raman scattering (2), Mie scattering, and Rayleigh scattering along with 1-D LIF research (3) Planar imaging was originally proposed by Hartley (2), who made planar Raman-scattering measurements and termed the process Ramanography Two-dimensional LIF-based measurements were made by Miles et al (4) in 1978 Some of the first applications IC C D Since the 1980s, planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) has been used for combustion diagnostics and to characterize gas- and liquid-phase fluid flow Depending on the application, the technique can determine species concentration, partial pressure, temperature, flow velocity, or flow distribution/visualization Phosphor thermography (PT) is used to image surface temperature distributions Fluorescence imaging of aerodynamic surfaces coated with phosphor material for thermometry dates back to the 1940s, and development of the technique continues today Imaging of fluorescence from pressuresensitive paint (PSP) is a third diagnostic approach to aerodynamic and propulsion research discussed here that has received much attention during the past decade These three methodologies are the primary laser-induced fluorescence imaging applications outside medicine and biology As a starting point for this article, we will discuss PLIF first because it is more developed than the PT or PSP applications Pu ls co an er nt d ro le r F2 PC CL SL PLANAR LASER-INDUCED FLUORESCENCE ar PD Bo xc Planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) in a fluid medium is a nonintrusive optical diagnostic tool for making temporally and spatially resolved measurements For illumination, a laser beam is formed into a thin sheet and directed through a test medium The probed volume may contain a mixture of various gaseous constituents, and the laser may be tuned to excite fluorescence from a specific component Alternatively, the medium may be a homogenous fluid into which a fluorescing tracer has been injected An imaging system normal to the plane of the imaging sheet views the laser-irradiated Dy e la se r Nd :Y AG la se r F1 Figure Representative PLIF configuration 861 862 LASER-INDUCED FLUORESCENCE IMAGING of PLIF, dating to the early 1980s, involved imaging the hydroxyl ion, OH− , in a flame In addition to its use for species imaging, PLIF has also been employed for temperature and velocity imaging General reviews of PLIF have been provided by Alden and Svanberg (3) and Hanson et al (5) Reference also provides recent information on this method, as applied to engine combustion Overall, it is difficult to state, with a single general expression, the range and limits of detection of the various parameters, (e.g., temperature, concentration, etc.), because there are so many variations of the technique Single molecules can be detected and temperature measured from cryogenic to combustion ranges, depending on specific applications General PLIF Theory The relationship between the measured parameter (e.g., concentration, temperature, pressure) and the fluorescent signal is unique to each measured parameter However, the most fundamental relationship between the various parameters is provided by the equation that describes LIF or PLIF concentration measurements Hence, this relationship is described generally here to clarify the different PLIF measurement techniques that derive from it The equation for the fluorescent signal in volts (or digital counts on a per-pixel basis for PLIF measurements) is formulated as SD = (VC fB NT ) · ( where = o 12,L B12 Iν ) · · η 4π · GR tL AN,F AN + Qe + W12 + W21 + QP and where SD : VC : fB : NT : 12,L : B12 : Iνo : : η: : G: R: tL : AN,F : AN : Qe : Qp : W12 : W21 : Measured fluorescent signal Collection volume, i.e portion of laser irradiated volume viewed by detection system Boltzmann fraction in level Total number density of probe species Overlap fraction (i.e., energy level line width divided by laser line width) Einstein coefficient for absorption from energy level l to level Normalized laser spectral irradiance Fluorescent quantum yield Collection optics efficiency factor Solid angle subtended by the collection optics gain of camera (applicable if it is an intensified CCD) CCD responsivity Temporal full width half-maximum of the laser pulse Spectrally filtered net spontaneous emission rate coefficient Net spontaneous emission rate coefficient Fluorescence quenching rate coefficient Predissociation rate coefficient Absorption rate coefficient Stimulated emission rate coefficient The individual terms in Eq (1) have been grouped to provides a clear physical interpretation of the actions represented by the individual groups Moreover, the groups have been arranged from left to right in the natural order that the fluorescent measurement progresses The first parenthetical term in Eq (1) is the number of probe molecules in the lower laser-coupled level This is the fraction of the total number of probe molecules that are available for excitation The second parenthetical term in Eq (1) is the probability per unit time that one of the available molecules will absorb a laser photon and become electronically excited Hence, following this second parenthetical term, a fraction of the total number of probed molecules has become electronically excited and has the potential to fluoresce More detailed explanation is contained in Ref The fluorescent quantum yield represents the probability that one of the electronically excited probe molecules will relax to the ground electronic state by spontaneously emitting a fluorescent photon within the spectral bandwidth of the detection system This fraction reflects the fact that spectral filtering is applied to the total fluorescent signal and that radiative as well as nonradiative (e.g., spontaneous emission and quenching, respectively) decay paths are available to the excited molecule In the linear fluorescent regime and in the absence of other effects such as predissociation, the fluorescent yield essentially reduces to (1) ≈ AN,F (AN + QE ) so that the fluorescent signal is adversely affected by the quenching rate coefficient Within the third parenthetical term in Eq (1) represents the net efficiency of the collection optics This term accounts for reflection losses which occur at each optical surface The next term, /4π , is the fraction of the fluorescence emitted by the electronically excited probe molecules that impinges on the detector surface (in this case, an ICCD) is the finite solid angle of the collection optics This captured fluorescence is then passed through an optical amplifier where it receives a gain G The amplified signal is then detected by a given spectral responsivity R The detection process in Eq (1) produces a time-varying voltage or charge (depending on whether a PMT or ICCD detector is used.) This time-varying signal is then integrated over a specific gate time to produce the final measured fluorescent signal Using Eq (1), the total number density NT , of the probed species, can be determined via a PLIF measurement of SD provided that the remaining unknown parameters can be calculated or calibrated Investigation of the different terms of Eq suggests possible schemes for PLIF measurements of temperature, velocity, and pressure For a given experimental setup (i.e., constant optical and timing parameters) and total number density of probe molecules, all of the terms in Eq (1) are constants except for fB , 12,L , and Qe The Boltzmann fraction fB varies in a known manner with temperature The degree and type of variation LASER-INDUCED FLUORESCENCE IMAGING with temperature is unique to the lower laser-coupled level chosen for excitation The overlap fraction 12,L varies with changes in the spectral line shape(s) of the absorption transition and/or the laser Changes in velocity and pressure produce varying degrees of Doppler and pressure shift, respectively, in the absorption spectral profile (7–9) Hence, variations in these parameters will, in turn, produce changes in the overlap fraction The electronic quenching rate coefficient varies with temperature, pressure, and major species concentrations Detailed knowledge of the relationship between the variable of interest (i.e., temperature, pressure, or velocity) and the Boltzmann fraction fB and/or the overlap fraction 12,L can be used in conjunction with Eq (1) to relate the PLIF signal to the variable of choice Often ratiometric techniques can be used to allow canceling of terms in Eq (1) that are constant for a given set of experiments Specific examples of different PLIF measurement schemes are given in the following review of pertinent literature PLIF Temperature Measurements The theory behind PLIF thermometric measurements is the same as that developed for point LIF Laurendeau (10) gives a review of thermometric measurements from a theoretical and historical perspective Thermometric PLIF measurement schemes may be generally classified as monochromatic or bichromatic (two-line) Monochromatic methods employ a single laser Bichromatic methods require two lasers to excite two distinct molecular rovibronic transitions simultaneously In temporally stable environments (e.g., laminar flows), it is possible to employ bichromatic methods with a single laser by systematically tuning the laser to the individual transitions In bichromatic PLIF thermometric measurements, the ratio of the fluorescence from two distinct excitation schemes is formed pixel-by-pixel If the two excitation schemes are chosen so that the upper laser-coupled level (i.e., exited state) is the same, then the fluorescent yields (Stern–Volmer factors) are identical This is explained by Eckbreth in Ref 11, an essential reference book for LIF and other laser-based flow and combustion diagnostic information Hence, as evident from Eq (1), the signal ratio becomes a sole function of temperature through the ratio of the temperature-dependent Boltzmann fractions for the two lower laser-coupled levels of interest Monochromatic PLIF thermometry is based on either the thermally assisted fluorescence (THAF) or the absolute fluorescence (ABF) methods In THAF-based techniques, the temperature is related to the ratio of the fluorescent signals from the laser-excited level and from another higher level collisionally coupled to the laser-excited level Implementing of this method requires detailed knowledge of the collisional dynamics, that occur in the excited level (9) In ABF-based techniques, the field of interest is uniformly doped or seeded, and fluorescence is monitored from a single rovibronic transition The temperatureindependent terms in Eq (1) (i.e., all terms except fB , ) are determined through calibration The 12,L , and temperature field may then be determined from the fluorescent field by assuming a known dependence of 863 the Boltzmann fraction, the overlap fraction, and the quenching rate coefficient on temperature PLIF Velocity and Pressure Measurements PLIF velocity and pressure measurements are based on changes in the absorption line-shape function of a probed molecule under the influence of variations in velocity, temperature, and pressure In general, the absorption lineshaped function is Doppler-shifted by velocity, Dopplerbroadened (Gaussian) by temperature, and collisionally broadened (Lorentzian) and shifted by pressure (10) These influences on the absorption line-shape function and consequently on the fluorescent signal via the overlap fraction of Eq (1) provide a diagnostic path for velocity and pressure measurements The possibility of using a fluorescence-based Dopplershift measurement to determine gas velocity was first proposed by Measures (12) The measurement strategy involved seeding a flow with a molecule that is excited by a visible, narrow-bandwidth laser The Doppler shift could be determined by tuning the laser over the shifted absorption line and comparing the spectrally resolved fluorescence to static cell measurements By probing the flow in two different directions, the velocity vector along each propagative direction could be determined from the resulting spectrally resolved fluorescence For another early development, Miles et al (4) used photographs to resolve spatially the fluorescence from a sodiumseeded, hypersonic nonreacting helium flow to make velocity and pressure measurements The photographs of the fluorescence at each tuning position of a narrowbandwidth laser highlighted those regions of the flow that had a specific velocity component Although this work used a large diameter beam rather than a sheet for excitation, it evidently represents the first two-dimensional, LIF-based imaging measurement Another important method that is commonly used for visualizing flow characteristics involves seeding a flow with iodine vapor The spectral properties are well characterized for iodine, enabling pressure and velocity measurements (13) PLIF Species Concentration Measurements The theory for PLIF concentration measurements is similar to that developed for linear LIF using broadband detection The basic measurement technique involves exciting the specific rovibronic transition of a probe molecule (seeded or naturally occurring) and determining the probed molecule concentration from the resulting broadband fluorescence Unlike ratiometric techniques, the fluorescent signal from this single-line method retains its dependence on the fluorescent yield (and therefore the electronic quenching rate coefficient) Hence, the local fluorescent signal depends on the number density the local probe molecule, of the Boltzmann fraction, the overlap fraction, and the electronic quenching rate coefficient Furthermore, the Boltzmann fraction depends on the local temperature; the overlap fraction depends on the local temperature and pressure; and the electronic quenching rate coefficient depends on the local temperature, pressure, 864 LASER-INDUCED FLUORESCENCE IMAGING and composition This enhanced dependence of the fluorescent signal complicates determining of probed species concentrations from PLIF images The difficulty in accurately determining the local electronic quenching rate coefficient, particularly in reacting environments, is the primary limitation to realizing quantitative PLIF concentration imaging (5) Nevertheless, methodologies for PLIF concentration measurements in quenching environments, based on modeling (1) and secondary measurements (2), have been demonstrated Useful fundamental information can be obtained from uncorrected, uncalibrated PLIF ‘‘concentration’’ images Because of the species specificity of LIF, unprocessed PLIF images can be used to identify reaction zones, mixing regimes, and large-scale structures of flows For instance, qualitative imaging of the formation of pollutant in a combustor can be used to determine optimum operating parameters The primary utility of PLIF concentration imaging remains its ability to image relative species distributions in a plane, rather than providing quantitative field concentrations Because PLIF images are immediately quantitative in space and time (due to the high temporal and spatial resolution of pulsed lasers and ICCD cameras, respectively), qualitative species images may be used effectively to identify zones of species localization, shock wave positions, and flame-front locations (5) The major experimental considerations limiting or pertinent to the realization of quantitative PLIF are spatial cutoff frequency of the imaging system; selection of imaging optics parameters (e.g., f number and magnification) that best balance spatial resolution and signal-level considerations; image corrections implemented via postprocessing to account for nonuniformities in experimental parameters such as pixel responsivity and offset and laser sheet intensity; and spatial variation in the fluorescent yield due to the electronic quenching rate coefficient Laser Beam Control A distinctive feature of planar LIF is that the imaging resolution is controlled by the camera and its associated collection optics and also by the laser beam optics For instance, the thinner a laser beam is focused, the higher the resolution This section is a simple primer for lens selection and control of beam size The most important considerations for the choice of lenses are as follows A simple lens will process light, to a good approximation, according to the thin lens equation, 1 + = , so si f SO Objective distance Si Image distance Figure Simple lens imaging Laser beam Cylindrical lens Line focus Figure Line focus using a cylindrical lens in space whose magnification M = −si /so If two lenses are used, the image of the first lens becomes the object distance for the second For a well-collimated beam, the object distance is considered infinity, and thus the image distance is simply the focal length of the lens There is a limit on how small the beam may be focused, and this is termed the diffraction limit This minimum spot size w is given in units of length as w = (1.22f λ)/D, where λ is the wavelength of the light and D is the collimated beam diameter If the laser beam is characterized by a divergence α, then the minimum spot size is w = f α To form a laser beam into a sheet, sometimes termed ‘‘planarizing’’, a combination of two lenses, one spherical and the other cylindrical, is used The spherical lens controls the spread, and the cylindrical lens controls the sheet thickness The result is illustrated in Fig A laser sheet may be formed by combining spherical and cylindrical lenses; the cylindrical lens is used to achieve the desired sheet height, and a spherical lens is used to achieve the desired sheet thickness and Rayleigh range Rayleigh range, a term that describes Gaussian beams (e.g., see Ref 9), is the propagative distance required √ on either side of the beam waist to achieve a radius of times the waist radius The Rayleigh range zo , is defined as π · w2o /λ, where wo is the waist radius that is used as a standard measurement of the waist-region length (i.e., length of the region of minimum and uniform sheet thickness) In general, longer focal length lenses produce longer Rayleigh ranges In practice, lens selection is determined by the need to make the Rayleigh range greater than the lateral imaged distance In general, because longer focal length lenses produce wider sheet-waist thicknesses, the specified sheet thickness and lateral image extent must be balanced PHOSPHOR THERMOGRAPHY Introduction (2) where so is the distance from an object to be imaged to the lens, si, , is the distance from the lens to where an image is formed, and f is the focal length of the lens, as shown in Fig In practice, this relationship is useful for imaging laser light from one plane (such as the position of an aperture or template) to another desired position As conceived originally, phosphor thermography was intended foremost to be a means of depicting twodimensional temperature patterns on surfaces In fact, during its first three decades of existence, the predominant use of the technique was for imaging applications in aerodynamics (14) The method was termed ‘‘contact thermometry’’ because the phosphor was in contact with the surface to be monitored The overall approach, however, INDEX Parietal lobe, 569 Parseval’s theorem, 1105 Particle accelerators, 970 Particle beam measurement, 975 Particle detector imaging, 1154–1169 Particle form factor, 252 Particle image velocimetry (PIV), 391, 413–416 Particle polarization, 252 Particle sizing, in holography, 510 Passband sampling, 50, 56–61, 65 Passive matrix liquid crystal displays, 956 Pathogen dispersal, geologic imaging, 656–659 Pattern classification, 358–371 Pattern recognition, 350–353, 371–373 human vision and, 522, 559, 565 in search and retrieval systems, 625, 633 Pattern scanning, 573–574 Pattern spectrum, 442 Pattern spectrum density (PSD), 442 Pauli exclusion, in silver halide, 1272 Pediatric medicine, force imaging, 422 PEDOT polymer, 819–820, 823 Peel apart films, 828 Pendellousung effect, 282, 286 Penetration depth, in scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM), 1129–1130 Perceptron, pattern recognition using, 371–373 Perceptual redundancy and compression, 151 Perfect reflecting diffuser, 528 Perforations, film, 1025–1026, 1045, 1050 Period of wave, 212 Periodic functions, 1102–1105 Permeability, ground penetrating radar, 467 Permittivity, 212, 225, 466, 467 Persistence of vision, 1021–1022, 1050 Perspecta sound, 1050 Perspective, 1328, 1330, 1345–1347 Persulfate bleaches, 139 Perturbing spheres, in RF magnetic field mapping, 1223–1224 Perylenes, 1179, 1181 Phase, 241 Phase contrast imaging, in scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM), 1230 Phase contrast microscope, 265–266, 1106, 1116, 1128–1130 Phase object approximation, 278 Phase of wave, 213 Phase retarders, 233 Phase shift, 238–239, 1094, 1130 Phase transfer function (PTF), 1094 Phase velocity, 213, 228 Phasor diagrams, 241 Phasors, 246 Phenols, 133 Phenylenediamine (PPD) developer, color photography, 130 Phosphor primaries, 104 Phosphor screen, CRT, 31, 44–46, 173, 380 PhosPhor thermography, 864–867 Phosphoresence, 255 Photo-induced discharge curve (PIDC), 301–302, 318 Photobook, 623, 627 Photoconductivity, 1169–83 Photoconductors, 300–302, 310–312, 1169–83, 1190, 1200–05 Photodetectors, 49–61, 68, 70, 75, 80, 1087, 1090, 1172–1174, 1190–1191, 1198–1201 quantum well infrared photodetectors (QWIP), 807 Photodetectors, 1183–1208 Photodiodes, 1172–1174, 1190–1191, 1198–1201 Photodynamic therapy (PDT), in endoscopy, 339 Photoelastic materials, force imaging, 420 Photoelectric detectors, 1169 Photoelectric effect, 211, 255–256 Photoemission, 1169–1170 Photoemulsion microcrystals, SIMS analysis, 484–486 Photofinish photography, 500–501 Photogrammetry, 737–739, 1327 Photographic color display technology, 1208–1222 Photography, 456, 1344–58 art conservation and analysis using, 661–682 color (See Color photography) digital, 141–142 electro- (See Electrophotography) in forensic and criminology research, 709–714 high-speed imaging (See High-speed photographic imaging) instant (See Instant photography) in medical imaging, 754 motion picture (See Motion pictures) mug shots, 715–716 in overhead surveillance systems, 773–802 1535 photofinish photography, 500–501 process screen photography, 1051 quality metrics and, 598–616 in search and retrieval systems, 616–637 silver halide detectors and, 1259–1309 still, 1344–1358 stroboscopic, 493–494 surveillance imaging using, 714–715 synchroballistic photography, 500–501 Photointerpretation, 774 Photolithography, 383, 384 Photoluminescence, 255 Photometer, 185–186, 1050 Photomicrography, 855, 1106, 1124, 1137–1138 Photomultiplier, 1062, 1183–1208 Photomultiplier tubes (PMT), 873 Photon absorbers, in infrared imaging, 806 Photon counting, lidar, 873–874 Photon flux, 215 Photons, 211, 214–215, 223 Photopic luminous efficiency function, 555 Photopic vision, 515 Photopigments, 101, 563 Photopolymers, holography, 509 Photoreceptors, 49, 50, 58, 65, 71, 72, 513–517, 549–552, 558–562, 746–747, 1178–1183 in copiers, 1175–1183 Photoreconnaissance, 774 Photostat, 299 Photothermographic imaging, 851–853 Phototransistors, 1172–1174 Photovoltaics, 1190, 1204 Phthalocyanines, 1179, 1181 Physical vapor deposition (PVD), 383 PicHunter, 632 Pickup coils, in RF magnetic field mapping, 1224 Pictorial interface, in search and retrieval systems, 618 Pictrography 3000/4000, 852–853 Pictrostat 300, 852–853 Pictrostat Digital 400, 852–853 Piezoelectric effect, 420 Piezoelectric sensors, 423–424 Piezoelectric transducers, 1233, 1234 Pigment epithelium, 513 Pigments, infrared light, 668–672 Pin photodiodes, 1173 Pin registration, 1050 Pin scorotron, in electrophotography, 303 1536 INDEX Pincushion distortion, 42–43, 93 Pinhole camera, 1072–1073 Piston transducers, 8–9, 1424–26 Pitch, 1050 Pitch, film, 1026 Pivaloylacetanilides, 134–135 Pixel detectors, particle detector imaging, 1167–1168 Pixel independence, cathode ray tube (CRT), 176, 179–181 Pixels, 1050 in cathode ray tube (CRT), 173 feature extraction using, 357 feature measurement and, 343–344 image processing and, 575–578 PixTech, 376 Planar Doppler velocimetry (PDV), flow imaging, 415–416 Planar imaging, flow imaging, 390–391, 397 Planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF), 391, 408–409, 411–416, 861–864 Planar neutron radiography, 1067 Planar sources, continuous, 7–8 Planck distribution, 804 Planck, Max, 211 Planck’s constant, 287, 288, 394, 1184, 1273, 1476 Planck’s equation, 525, 782 Planck’s function, 759 Planck’s law, 683 Planckian radiation (See also Blackbody radiation), 525 Plane of incidence, 233, 234 Plane of vibration, 231 Plasma displays, display characterization, 185 Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), 384 Plasma frequency, 227, 231 Plasma sheet and cusp, ENA imaging, 1010–1012 Plasma wave generators, terahertz electric field imaging, 1403 Plasmasphere, extreme ultraviolet imaging (EUV), 1005–1006 Plasmatrope, 1022 Plateau, Joseph A., 1022 Platinum silicide Schottky barrier arrays, 1201 PMOS, scanning capacitance microscope (SCM), 22 p–n junctions, scanning capacitance microscope (SCM) analysis, 22 Pockels cells, high-speed photography, 492–493 Pockels effect, 233, 1394, 1397 Pocket Camera instant films, 847 Podobarograph, force imaging, 421 Point of denotation (POD), in search and retrieval systems, 621–622, 630 Point of subjective equality (PSE), 609 Point spread function (PSF), 55, 1082, 1085–1092, 1097, 1098, 1099 flow imaging and, 399, 402 human vision and, 542, 543 image processing and, 596 in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 987 in medical imaging, 750 in overhead surveillance systems, 784 telescopes, 688 in ultrasonography, 1421–1423 Poisson probability, 53 Poisson’s equation, 26–27 Polachrome, 848 Polacolor, 834, 840, 843–844 Polarization, 212, 223, 226, 227, 231–233, 235, 241, 250, 251, 252, 255, 257 art conservation and analysis using, 666–668 in forensic and criminology research, 719 in ground penetrating radar, 468 in high-speed photography, 492–493 in holography, 509 in human vision, 550–551 in lidar, 873 in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 978, 996 in meteorological research, 772 in microscopy and, 1116, 1131–1132, 1134 modifying materials vs., 233 in radar, 1453, 1468 reflectance and, 237 in terahertz electric field imaging, 1397 in three-dimensional imaging, 1330, 1331 Polarization and Directionality of Earth’s Reflectance (POLDER), 772 Polarization angle, 237 Polarization diversity radar, 772, 1468–69 Polarization rotators, holography, 509 Polarizing filter, 1050 Polaroid, 127, 829, 831–833, 844–849, 1331 Polaroid sheet, 233 Polavision, 848 Polyaromatic hydrocarbons, 1179 Polyester film, 1023, 1039, 1050 Polyethylene terephthalate films, 1023 Polymer degradation, EPR imaging, 296 Polymer films, gravure printing, 461 Polymer light emitting diodes (PLED), 817, 820–822 Polymer light emitting logo, 819–820 Polymeric research, scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) for, 1255–1256 Polyvinylcarbazole (PVK), 301, 823–825, 1178 Population inversion, 223 Position of objects, feature measurement, 345–347 Positive film, 1051 Positron emission tomography (PET), 210, 220, 743, 1407, 1324–1326 Postdevelopment processes, silver halide, 1303 Postproduction phase, in motion pictures, 1034, 1051 Potential well (POW) Scorotron, in electrophotography, 303 POV Ray software, 707 Powder cloud development, in electrophotography, 312 Power amplification, radar and over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, 1151 Power consumption, in field emission displays (FED), 388 Power K, 1078 Power law, human vision, 747 Power spectral density (PSD), 52, 53, 61–75, 80 Power, optical, 1074 Poynting vector, 213 PPP NEt3 polymer, 820–822 Prandtl number, flow imaging, 404 Precipitation, in silver halide, 1266 Predictive coding (DPCM), compression, 153, 155 Preproduction, in motion pictures, 1031–1032 Presbyopia, 540 Pressure effects flow imaging and, 411–416 force imaging and, 420, 421, 424–426 planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) in, 863 pressure sensitive paint, 867–868 Pressure garments, force imaging, 420 Pressure sensitive paint, 867–868 Primary colors, 102, 104, 126–127, 358, 531–534, 1051 Principal maxima, 245 INDEX Principal planes, 1078 Principle of superposition, 239–240 Print film, 1024, 1051 Printed edge numbers, 1051 Printer lights, 1051 Printers, 300 cyclic color copier/printers, 328 direct thermal printers, 196 display characterization in, 183 dots per inch (DPI) in, 602 drive mechanisms in, 193 dye sublimation, 189–190, 194–195 in dye transfer printing, 188–197 electrosensitive transfer printers, 195 image-on-image or REaD color printing, 328–329 laser printers, 195–196, 302, 306–310 light sensitive microcapsule printers, 195 micro dry process printers, 195 in motion pictures, 1022 quality metrics and, 598–616 REaD color printing, 328–329 tandem color printers, 328 thermal transfer printers, 189 wax melt, 190–191, 195 wet gate, 1055 Printing, 454–463, 1051 Printing press, 455 Prisms, 495–496, 1073, 1106 Prisoner’s problem, 160 Process screen photography, 1051 Processing, 1051 Processing chemicals (See also Developers), in holography, 509 Processing of images (See Image processing) Product theorem, Production phase, in motion pictures, 1032 Production supervisor, 1051 Progressive scanning, 146–147 Projection, image formation, 571–574 Projection film, 1023 Projection matrix, in tomography, 1407 Projection speed, 1051 Projection theorem, in tomography, 1406 Projectors, 184–185, 1022, 1035–1038, 1330 Prontor shutters, 1351 Propagation of waves, 220–231 in ground penetrating radar, 466, 467–469 in radar and over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, 1147, 1453–1454 Propagative speed, in ultrasonography, 1415 Proportionality, Grassmann’s, 531 Proportioned bandwidth, television, 1367 Protanopia, 522–523 Protein Data Bank (PDB), 699 Proteins (See Biochemistry) Proton/electron auroras, far ultraviolet imaging, 1016–1020 Proximity sensors, for lightning locators, 907 Pseudocolor display, 120–121 Pseudostereo imaging, 1330 Psychological quality metrics, 614–615 Psychometrics in quality metrics, 609–610 Psychophysical quality metrics, 607, 614–615 Ptychography, 262 Pulfrich technique, in three-dimensional imaging, 1333–1334 Pull down claw, 1027, 1051 Pulse code modulation (PCM), 67, 150 Pulse echo imaging, in ultrasonography, 1412 Pulse wave mode, in scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM), 1232–1234 Pulse width modulation (PWM), 383 Pulsed EPR imaging, 293 Pulsed repetition frequency (PRF), 872, 1452 Pump, laser, 223, 391 Punch-through bias, particle detector imaging, 1166 Pupil, 112–113, 514, 519, 540–543, 547, 553–554, 558 Pupil functions, 1086–1087 Pupil rays, 1081 Purple Crow lidar, 871 Push-broom scanners, 806 PUSH three-dimensional imaging, 1334 Push processing, 1051 Pyrazolin, 135 Pyrazolinone, 135 Pyrazolotriazole, 133, 135–136 Pythagoras’ theory, 1094 Q Q switching, 391–392, 508 QBIC, 618–630 Quad tree, in search and retrieval systems, 629 1537 Quad tree method, thresholding and segmentation, 645–646 Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), 149 Quadrature mirror filter (QMF), 622 Quadrature modulation, 1365–1366 Quality metrics and figures of merit, 598–616, 1081–1085, 1357–1358 human vision and, 543–544 in medical imaging, 748–754 in overhead surveillance systems, 789 PSF and, 1089–90 in tomography, 1409–1410 in ultrasonography, 1420–1424 Quantitative imaging, flow imaging, 391, 397 Quantitative SPECT, 1322–1324 Quantitative structure determination, in transmission electron microscopes (TEM), 273–274 Quantization, 61, 64, 211 compression, 154 digital watermarking and, 150 electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) imaging for, 287 flow imaging and, 402 liquid crystal displays (LCDs), 184 television, 1375 video, 1388 Quantization index modulation (QIM), digital watermarking, 170–171 Quantization noise, 62, 63, 64, 68, 69, 80 Quantum detection efficiency/quantum efficiency, 691, 748, 1190 Quantum electrodynamics (QED), 256, 259 Quantum mechanical cross section, 255–256 Quantum nature, 214–218 Quantum sensitivity, in silver halide, 1282, 1284–1285 Quantum step equivalence (QSE), 786 Quantum terahertz biocavity spectroscopy, 1403 Quantum theory, 211, 214–218, 253, 1170 Quantum well arrays, 1205 Quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIP), 807, 1190, 1205 Quantum yield, 255, 862 Quarter wave plates, 233 Quasi 3D, scanning capacitance microscope (SCM), 25–26 1538 INDEX Query by color, in search and retrieval systems, 621–622 Query by example, in search and retrieval systems, 620–621, 624, 628, 630 Query by sample, in search and retrieval systems, 624 Query by sketch, in search and retrieval systems, 618, 627, 630 Quinone, instant photography, 837–839 Quinonedimine (QDI) developer, color photography, 130 R R 190 spool, 1051 R 90 spool, 1051 Radar, 1450–1474 airborne, 1471–1473 bistatic, 772 cathode ray tube (CRT) in, 47 coordinate registration, 1144 Doppler (See Doppler radar) Doppler shift, 1145 dwells, 1146 equatorial anomaly, 1144 geologic imaging and, 648 ground penetrating, 463–476 group range, 1144 lidar vs., 869–870 magnetic storms vs., 1145 measurements in, 764–765 meteorology, 757–773 microwave radar ducting, 1141 mobile systems, 1471–73 National Imagery Interpretability Rating Scale (NIIRS), 795–800 over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, 1141–1153 in overhead surveillance systems, 775–802 polarization diversity radar, 772, 1468–1469 range folding, 1145 scattering, 1145–1146 shortwave fadeout, 1145 skip zone, 1141 sporadic E, 1144 spotlights, 1146 storm tracking, 765–769 surface wave radar, 1141 synthetic aperture radar (SAR), 356, 789 terminators, 1145 traveling ionsopheric disturbance (TID), 1144 weather radar, 1450–1474 wind profiling radar, 1469–1471 Radar cross section (RCS), 1145 Radar reflectivity factor, 765, 1453, 1454–1458 RADARSAT, 649 Radial velocity, 764 Radiance, 61, 524–525, 530, 785, 968, 1081, 1092 Radiance field, 51–54 Radiant heat transfer, in electrophotography, 325 Radiated fields, lightning locators, 909–914 Radiation, lightning locators, 911–912 Radiation belts, energetic neutral atom (ENA) imaging, 1006–1010 Radiation damping, 226 Radiation oncology, in medical imaging, 744 Radiation pressure, in transmission electron microscopes (TEM), 214 Radiation zone, 220 Radiative lifetime, 254 Radiators, non-planar, impedance boundaries, Radio astronomy, 210 Radio frequency (RF), 220, 909 Radio interferometry, lightning locators, 946–947 Radio waves, 218, 230, 242, 803 astronomy science and, 682, 693 Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA), 693 lightning locators, 890 RF magnetic field mapping, 1223–27 Radiography, 1057–71, 1067 Radiometric IR imaging systems, 804 Radiometry, 524, 810 Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), 759, 760–761 Along Track Scanning Radiometer (ATSR), 772 Multiangle Imaging Spectroradiometer (MISR), 772 in overhead surveillance systems, 783 Radiosity, 804 Radiotracers, SPECT imaging, 1310–1314 Radon transform, in tomography, 1404–1406 Raggedness, 604 Rainbow schlieren, flow imaging, 412 Ram Lak filters, in tomography, 1405 Raman scattering, 259–260, 391, 411, 874, 882–885 Ramsden disk, 1111, 1120 Ramsden eyepiece, 1120 Random dot autostereogram, in three-dimensional imaging, 1336 Range folding, 1145 Range normalized signal strength (RNSS), lightning locators, 937 Range of use magnification, 1121 Rangefinders, 1350–1351 Rank ordering, quality metrics, 607–608 Ranking operations, image processing, 578–580, 583 RasMol software, 707 Raster, 31, 35, 42–43, 1051 Raster effect, 72 Raster3D, 707 Rate conversion, television, 1380 Rating techniques, quality metrics, 608–609 Raw stock, 1051 Ray tracing, 1076 finite, 1083 paraxial, 1074–1075, 1078, 1083, 1085 Rayleigh criterion, 245–246, 249 Rayleigh function, 94 Rayleigh–Gans–Debye scattering, 251–252 Rayleigh range, flow imaging and, 392 Rayleigh resolution limit, 1082, 1087 Rayleigh scattering, 252–253, 257–259, 391 flow imaging and, 410, 411, 412, 416 human vision and, 548 lidar and, 874, 876–880 flow imaging and, 415 Reach-through bias, particle detector imaging, 1166 REaD color printing, 328–329 Read noise, flow imaging, 395, 396 Reagents, instant photography, 828–829 Real time, 1051 Real time imaging, ultrasonography, 1428–1429 Receivers lidar and, 872–873 radar and over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, 1147, 1151 Reception, in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 979–980 Receptive field, human vision, 563 Reciprocity failure, silver halide, 1286–1288 Reciprocity law, 1051 Recombination, in silver halide, 1275, 1281 Recommended practice, 1051 INDEX Reconstruction of image algebraic reconstruction technique (ART), 1407–1408 in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 987–988 SPECT imaging, 1316–1321 in tomography, 1407–1408 wavelet transforms in, 1448 Reconstructive granulometries, 441–442 Recording systems, 504–505, 873 Rectangular piston, baffled, 8–9 Red green blue (RGB) system, 105–106, 531–534 in cathode ray tube (CRT), 173, 174 in color image processing, 101–102 in color photography, 123–142 in feature recognition and object classification in, 358 HSI conversion in, 112–114 image processing and, 578, 580 in motion pictures, 1052 in search and retrieval systems, 619 in television, 147–148 in thresholding and segmentation, 641 Redshift (See also Doppler shift), 686, 772 Reduction dye release, in instant photography, 839–840 Reduction printing, 1051 Reduction sensitization, silver halide, 1293 Redundancy, compression, 155 Reed Solomon coding, 1390 Reel 3D Enterprises, 1333 Reel band, 1051 Reference carriers, television, 1365 Reference white, 102 Reflectance, 50–53, 61, 68, 236–237, 527–530, 558, 610, 611, 803, 1072 in forensic and criminology research, 717 in scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM), 1235–1244 Reflected light microscopy, 1124–1127 Reflecting prisms, 1073 Reflection, 233–239, 267, 527–529, 1072, 1075 Bragg, 244 conducting surface, 239 ground penetrating radar and, 464–466, 468 holography in, 508 human vision and, 553–554, 561 in scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM), 1235–1244 in ultrasonography, 1415–1416 Reflection coefficient, in scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM), 1235–1244 Reflection grating, X-ray telescopes, 1505–06 Reflection holograms, 508 Reflective liquid crystal displays, 965–966 Reflectivity factor, radar, 1453, 1454–1458 Reflex cameras, 1345 Reflex radiography, art conservation and analysis using, 675–676 Refraction, 233–239, 1075, 1131–1132 dispersion vs., 234–235 ground penetrating radar and, 468 index of (See Index of refraction) in motion pictures, 1051 Refractive error, 548 Refractive index (See also Index of refraction), 512, 1075, 1079, 1109, 1453 Region growing, thresholding and segmentation, 643–645 Regional gravity anomaly, gravity imaging, 448 Regions of influence, feature recognition and object classification, 370–371 Register tolerances, cathode ray tube (CRT), 37 Registration of image, in three-dimensional imaging, 1331 Regularization parameters, in tomography, 1407 Regularized least squares, in tomography, 1408 Rehabilitation, force imaging, 422, 424 Rehalogenating bleaches, 138 Reich, Theodore, 456 Relative aperture, 1081 Relative colorimetry, 533 Relative dielectric permittivity (RDP), 467 Relative edge response (RER), 800 Relative neighborhood graph (RNG), 370–371 Relative quantum efficiency (RQE), silver halide, 1296–1298 Relaxation parameters, in tomography, 1408 Release print, 1023, 1051 Rem jet backing, 1051 Rembrandt Intaglio Printing Co., 456 1539 Remote sensing, 210, 356 geologic imaging and, 648–650 lidar and, 869, 870 in overhead surveillance systems, 780, 782 in three-dimensional imaging, 1327 Remote Sensing Act, 1992, 780 Rendering, 1051 Repetitive flash (stroboscopic) photography, 493–494 Reset noise, flow imaging, 396 Residual gravity anomaly, 448 Residual index, in biochemical research, 699 Resin coated (RC) paper, 1210–1211 Resolution, 60, 71, 75, 84, 1073, 1082, 1087, 1100–1103, 1357, 1358 Abbe numbers in, 1100–1102 amplitude, 151 astronomy science and, 686–688 cathode ray tube (CRT), 32, 33–34 charged particle optics, 86–100 in charged particle optics, 94–100 compression and, 151 detector, 790–793 electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) imaging for, 292 in endoscopy, 334–336 flow imaging and, 398–405 in forensic and criminology research, 712–713 ground penetrating radar and, 469–471 High-Energy Neutral Atom Imager (HENA), 1010 human vision and, 561 liquid crystal displays (LCDs), 184, 858–859 in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 987 in magnetospheric imaging, 1010 in medical imaging, 750–752 microscopy and, 1106 in motion pictures, 1051 in overhead surveillance systems, 789–790, 792–794 photoconductors, 1181–82 Rose model and medical imaging, 753–754 scanning capacitance microscope (SCM), 19 in scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM), 1229, 1244–1245 spatial, 151 television, 1362 temporal, 151 in tomography, 1410 1540 INDEX Resolution, (continued ) in transmission electron microscopes (TEM), 263, 266 in ultrasonography, 1421–1424 wavelet transforms in, 1448 X-ray fluorescence imaging and, 1482–1484 Resolution limit, 1073, 1087 Resolving power, 1051, 1358 Resonance, 226, 228–233, 287 Resonance curve, 226 Resonance lidar, 883–885 Resonant coils, RF magnetic field mapping, 1223–1227 Resonant fluorescence, 259 Resonant frequency, 228 Resonators, 223 Response time, in field emission displays (FED), 387 Responsitivity, 54–56 human vision and color vision, 529–531 photodetectors and, 1187 Restoration of images (See Image restoration) Restoring force, 225 Reticulation, 1051 Retina, 65, 513–519, 522, 543, 547, 549, 552, 558–564, 746–747 Retinal image size, 1328 Retinex coding, 61, 65, 75–83 Retrace lines, television, 1362 Retrofocus, 1354 Return beam vidicon (RBV), in overhead surveillance systems, 779 Reversal film, 139, 1052 Reversal process, 1052 Reverse modeling, scanning capacitance microscope (SCM), 27 Reverse perspective, 1330 Reynolds number, flow imaging, 404, 410, 412 RF coils, in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 999 RF magnetic field mapping, 1223–27 RF spoiling, in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 992–993 Rheinberg illumination, 1128 Rhodopsin, 517, 561, 747 Ring current, energetic neutral atom (ENA) imaging, 1006–1010 Ring imaging, particle detector imaging, 1162 Ring imaging Cerenkov counters (RICH), 1162 Ring opening single electron transfer (ROSET) dye release, 840, 851 Ringing, 75 Rise time, in lightning locators, 913 Ritchey-Chretein mirrors, 783 Ritter von Stampfer, Simon, 1022 Robustness, 74 Rocking curve, 280, 282 Rods, 122, 513–519, 530–531, 551–554, 558, 560–561, 562, 746–747 Roget, Peter Mark, 1022 Roller charging, in electrophotography, 303 Ronalds, 299 Rontgen, Wilhelm C., 1475 Root mean square (rms) aberration, 1090 Root mean square (rms) granularity, 140 ROSAT telescopes, 1507 Rose model, in medical imaging, 753–754 Rotating drum and mirror cameras, 496–497 Rotating mirror framing cameras, 497–498 Rotating mirrors, in three-dimensional imaging, 1343 Rotating prism cameras, 495–496 Rotation, 167, 1052 Rotation, molecular, 216 Rotational frequency, in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 979 Rotational mapping, in RF magnetic field mapping, 1225 Rotogravure, 454–463 Rough cut, 1052 RS strings, in search and retrieval systems, 629 Run-length encoding, 516 Ruska, Ernst, 261 Rutherford scattering, particle detector imaging, 1157 S Saddle coils, deflection yoke, 41–42 Safety acetate film, 1023, 1024, 1052 SAFIR lightning locators, 914, 945–950 Sampling, 56, 61 compression, 153 digital watermarking and, 150 human vision and, 552, 554, 560 lightning locators, 918–921 in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 986–987 passband, 50, 56–61, 65 thresholding and segmentation in, 640 Sampling lattice, 50, 54, 57, 58, 59, 65, 71 Sanyo three-dimensional display, 1340–41 Satellite imaging systems, 350, 356 Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), 759, 760–761 Advanced Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS), 650, 787 Along Track Scanning Radiometer (ATSR), 772 Applications Technology Satellite (ATS), 757 Array of Low Energy X Ray Imaging Sensors (ALEXIS), 905, 929 cloud classification, 761–764 Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP), 890–904, 929 Earth Observing System (EOS), 772 Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS), 778–779 Fast On Orbit Recording of Transient Events (FORTE), 890–904, 929 feature recognition and object classification in, 352–353 geologic imaging and, 647–661 Geostationary Meteorological Satellite (GMS), 760 Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES), 760, 778 gravity imaging and, 444–454 IKONOS satellite, 780 image processing and, 589 IMAGE, 1018 imaging satellite elevation angle (ISEA) in, 791 in overhead surveillance systems, 773–802 infrared in, 758 Landsat, 778, 787 Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS), 890–904, 929, 932–935 lightning locators, 890, 928–935 magnetospheric imaging, 1002–1021 measurement in, 758–759 meteorology, 757–773 Meteorological Satellite (METEOSAT), 760 Multiangle Imaging Spectroradiometer (MISR), 772 multiangle viewing instruments, 772 multispectral image processing and, 101 NIMBUS, 778 oceanography, 760 INDEX Optical Transient Detector (OTD), 890–904, 929–932 Polarization and Directionality of Earth’s Reflectance (POLDER), 772 Systeme Probatoire d’Observation de la Terre (SPOT), 779–780 Television and Infrared Observational Satellite (TIROS), 757, 777 Thematic Mapper, 648, 653, 654, 657, 779 time delay integration (TDI), 1018 Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), 660, 771–772, 890–904, 929, 932–935, 1473 X-ray Evolving Universe Satellite, 1509 Saturation, 103, 111, 117, 119, 578, 580, 618, 994–995, 1043, 1052 Sawtooth irradiance distribution, 1092 Scaling, digital watermarking, 167 Scaling factors, television, 1367 Scaling methods, quality metrics, 607–608 Scalograms, 1444 Scan a Graver, 456, 461 Scanned probe microscopy (SPM), 1248 Scanners, 574 art conservation and analysis using, 663 calibration of, 603 in forensic and criminology research, 709 in infrared imaging, 804, 805–806 in meteorological research, 769 multispectral, 360 in overhead surveillance systems, 779 push broom type, 806 quality metrics and, 602–603 whisk broom type, 806 Scanning, 1072 high-definition TV (HDTV), 147 image formation in, 571, 573–574 interlaced, 146–147 k space, 574 odd and even field, 146 pattern, 573–574 progressive, 146–147 television, 146–148, 1359, 1362, 1366–1367 ultrasonography, 1413–1415 X-ray fluorescence imaging and, 1478–1479, 1482 Scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM), 1128–1148 Scanning capacitance microscope (SCM), 16–31 Scanning capacitance spectroscopy, 21 Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM), 1248–1259, 1248 Scanning electron microscope (SEM), 23, 87–88, 262, 274–278, 477, 1243 Scanning evanescent microwave microscope (SEMM), 28 Scanning ion microscopy (SIM), 477 Scanning Kelvin probe microscope (SKPM), 16, 28 Scanning lines, television, 1359 Scanning microwave microscope (SMWM), 16, 28 Scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM), 87, 93, 262, 276–278 Scanning transmission ion microscope (STIM), 479 Scattering, 51, 242, 244, 249–253, 256–260, 282, 283, 285, 286, 391, 1072 in biochemical research, 698 flow imaging and, 397–398, 410, 411, 415–416 ground penetrating radar and, 471 holography in, 504 human vision and, 548, 549 image formation in, 571 lidar and, 874–875 multiple coulombic scattering (MCS), 1157 in overhead surveillance systems, 785 particle detector imaging and, 1157 radar, 1145–1146, 1451 Rutherford scattering, 1157 in scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM), 1243 SPECT imaging, 1323–1324 in transmission electron microscopes (TEM), 269 in ultrasonography, 1415–1416 Scattering angle, 250 Scattering plane, 251 Scene, 1052 Scherzer defocus, 272 Schlieren images, 405–408, 412, 501–504 Schottky diode, 19, 1172–1174, 1190, 1201 Schottky thermal field emitter, in charged particle optics, 90 Schulze, Johnann Heinrich, 1345 1541 Science (See also Astronomy; Biochemistry; Medicine and medical research), 742 Scientific Working Group on Imaging Technologies (SWGIT), 719, 741 Scintillation, 688, 1158, 1313–1314 Scintillation cameras, SPECT imaging, 1313–1314 Scintillation tracking devices, particle detector imaging, 1158–1168 Scintillator detectors, in neutron imaging, 1062–1064 Scintillators, in radiographic imaging, 1067, 1068 Scope, 1052 Scorotron charging, in electrophotography, 303 Scorotrons, 1176 Scotopic (rod) vision, human, 122, 515, 747 Scotopic luminous efficiency function, 555 Scrambling, 60 Screened images, 455 Screw threads, microscopy, 1116 Scrim, 1052 Script, 1052 Sealing glass (frit), in field emission displays (FED), 387 Seaphone three-dimensional display, 1339–1340 Search and retrieval systems, 616–637 Search engines, in search and retrieval systems, 633 SECAM standards, 146–148, 1052, 1367–1371 Second order radiative process, 256 Secondary electron (SE) imaging, in scanning electron microscopes (SEM), 275–276 Secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS), 477–491 Secondary maxima, 245 Security, digital watermarking, 159–161 Segmentation, 615 in color image processing, 119–120 human vision and, 568–569 image processing and, 587 in search and retrieval systems, 622, 625 Seidel polynomials, 542 Selection rules, atomic, 253 Selectivity, human vision, 565–567 Selenium, 300, 301, 1170 Sellers, Coleman, 1022 1542 INDEX Semiconductor detectors, 1064–65, 1163–1165, 1168 Semiconductors, 22–23, 1183–1208 Semigloss surfaces, 528 Sensitivity, 1052 astronomy science and, 688–690 in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 983 in radar and over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, 1147 silver halide, 1261, 1282, 1284–1285 in SQUID sensors, 14 Sensitivity or speed of film, 124, 139 Sensitization, in photographic color display technology, 1215–1216, 1288–1293 Sensitizers, color photography, 124–125 Sensitometer, 1052 Sensitometry, silver halide, 1262 Sensors, 101, 356 active pixel sensors (APS), 1199–1200 capacitance, 17–18 CMOS image sensors, 1199–1200 force imaging and, 420, 422–424 monochrome image processing and, 100 in overhead surveillance systems, 787–789 scanning capacitance microscope (SCM), 17–18 Separation light, 1052 Separation masters, 1052 Sequence, 1052 Sequential color TV, 1365 Sequential frequency modulation, 1367–1368 Series expansion methods, in tomography, 1406–1409 Serrations, television, 1360 Set, 1052 Set theory, 430 Setup level, television, 1362 70 mm film, 1025 Sferics, 890 Shading, 3, 58, 65, 82, 1328 Shadow mask, 31, 36–38, 44, 47, 173, 825–826 Shadowgraphs, 405–408, 501, 743 Shadowing, 1328 Shadows, 51, 53, 58, 75, 82 Shallow electron trapping (SET) dopants, 1215 Shannon’s law, 49, 63 Shannon’s theory of information, 99 Shape analysis-based search and retrieval systems, 625–628 Shape factor, 357–358 Shape of objects, in feature measurement, 347–350 Sharpness, 71, 75, 81, 140, 1052, 1347, 1357 in color photography, 137 in high-speed photography, 492 in image processing, 590–591 quality metrics and, 598–616 silver halide and, 1304 Sheet-fed gravure, 460 Shielding, ground penetrating radar, 468 Shore A scale, gravure printing, 459 Short, 1052 Shortwave broadcast, radar and over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, 1142 Shortwave fadeout, 1145 Shot, 1052 Shot noise, flow imaging, 395 Show Scan, 1031 Shutter, 492–493, 1027–1028, 1036, 1052, 1351–1352 Shuttle Imaging Radar, 649 Shuttle Radar Topographic Mapping Mission (SRTM), 660 Sibilance, 1052 SiC, scanning capacitance microscope (SCM) analysis, 22 Sidebands, television, 1362, 1366, 1389 Signal coding (See also Encoding), 49–51, 61–62, 84 Signal detection, particle detector imaging, 1168 Signal-induced noise (SIN), lidar, 873 Signal levels, television, 1361–1362 Signal processing, in digital watermarking, 161, 171 in human vision and color vision, 516–518 in radar and over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, 1147, 1151–1152 signal propagation model, lightning locators, 937 signal to noise ratio, 50 signal to noise ratio (SNR), 60, 64–66, 74, 81, 84 in charged particle optics, 99 electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) imaging for, 289 in flow imaging, 393, 394–397 in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 987, 996 in medical imaging, 749 in overhead surveillance systems, 794–795 in radar and over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, 1147, 1150 silver halide, 1303 in sound systems, 1388 in tomography, 1410 in X-ray telescopes, 1497 Signal transduction, in scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM), 1249–1253 Silicon dioxide, scanning capacitance microscope (SCM) analysis, 23 Silicon drift detectors, particle detector imaging, 1167 Silicon nitride, scanning capacitance microscope (SCM) analysis, 23 Silicon photoconductors, 1204–1205 Silicon technology, 384–385 Silicon transistors, scanning capacitance microscope (SCM) analysis, 23 Silicon Video Corp (SVC), 377 Silver assisted cleavage dye release, instant photography, 840, 851 Silver clusters and development, silver halide, 1280–1281 Silver Dye Bleach, 127 Silver halide, 140, 1259–1309, 1345, 1356–1357 art conservation and analysis using, 661–662 in color photography, 123, 125–126, 129–130 detectors using, 1259–1309 in holography, 509 in instant photography, 827, 830–833 in motion pictures, 1052 in photographic color display technology, 1208–1222 secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) analysis of, 484–486 Silver nitrate, 1345 Silver oxide, 381 SIMION, 482 Simulated images, in transmission electron microscopes (TEM), 271–273 Simulations, 769–771, 1282, 1327 Simultaneous autoregressive (SAR) model, 623–624 Single electron transfer dye release, 840, 851 Single frame exposure, 1052 Single hop mode, radar and over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, 1141 Single lens reflex cameras, 1349–1350 Single perforation film, 1052 Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), 743, 1310–1327 Single pixel image processing, 575–576 INDEX Single poSitive imaging, gravure printing, 461 Single station lightning locators, 907–908 Single system sound, 1052 16 mm film, 1024–1025, 1052 Size distributions, 442 Size of image, 1074–77 Size of objects, 343–344, 686–688 Sketch interface in search and retrieval systems, 618 Skin depth, 229, 230 Skip frame, 1052 Skip zone, 1141 Skunk Works, 775, 776 Sky waves, 912 Slew rate, cathode ray tube (CRT), 179–180 Slides, microscope, 1124 Slitting, 1052 Slow motion, 1052 Smith, Willoughby, 1170 Smoothing, 577, 580–583, 593, 598–616, 755–756 Snell’s law, 234, 238, 468, 1076 Snellen chart, human vision, 747 Sobel operator, image processing, 582 Society for Information Display (SID), 818 Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE), 102, 1052, 1374 Sodium arc lamps, 222 Sodium double, 222 Sodium lidar, 884–885 Soft, 1053 Soft light, 1053 Soil moisture mapping, geologic imaging, 656–659 Solar wind, magnetospheric imaging, 1002–1021 Solid state detectors (SSD), 1007, 1477 SOLLO lightning locators, 905, 908, 909 Sound drum, 1053 Sound editing, in motion pictures, 1035 Sound effects, 1053 Sound gate, 1053 Sound head, 1037–38, 1053 Sound navigation and ranging (SONAR), 1412 Sound pressure level (SPL), Sound recorder, 1053 Sound speed, in motion pictures, 1028–1029 Sound sprocket, 1053 Sound systems in motion pictures, 1031, 1033, 1037 in television, 1362, 1365, 1388–1389, 1388 Sound track, 1053 Sounding, radar and over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, 1142 Source points, 251 Space-based imaging technology, astronomy science, 691 Space exploration, magnetospheric imaging, 1002–1021 Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF), 690, 691–692 spacers, in field emission displays (FED), 381–382, 386 Spallation Neutron Source (SNS), 1057 Sparrow resolution limit, 1087 Spatial domain, image processing, 577, 594 Spatial filters, 509, 1100 Spatial frequency, 248, 559–562, 565–566, 1098, 1103 Spatial frequency response (SFR), 50, 56–61, 62, 63, 66, 68, 70–74, 72, 79, 80 Spatial homogeneity, in cathode ray tube (CRT), 181–182 Spatial parallelism, 562, 564 Spatial relationship, in search and retrieval systems, 628–630 Spatial resolution, 151 in medical imaging, 750–752 in microscopy, 1136 in overhead surveillance systems, 789–790 in scanning capacitance microscope (SCM), 19 in X-ray fluorescence imaging, 1482–84 Spatial response (SR), 50, 54–56, 68, 78, 79, 80 Spatial uniformity, in ultrasonography, 1424 Spatial visual processing, human vision, 558–570 Special effect, 1034, 1053 Specimens, microscopy, 1108–1109 Speckle, in ultrasonography, 1420–1421 Spectra, microscopy, 1108 Spectra instant film, 847 Spectral filters, 55, 872 Spectral imaging, feature recognition and object classification, 356–357 Spectral lines, velocity analysis using, 685–686 Spectral luminosity function (SLF), 554–555 Spectral power density/distribution (SPD), 100, 524–527, 618 1543 Spectral purity, radar and over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, 1147 Spectral radiant exitance, 222 Spectral radiant flux density, 222 Spectral response, in feature recognition and object classification, 358 Spectral sensitization, silver halide, 1294–1299 Spectrometer, 239, 244, 481–482, 650, 787, 970, 1403 Spectroradiometer, 185–186, 524 Spectroscopy, 571 Constellation X mission, 1509 electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) imaging for, 289 in endoscopy, 338 high-resolution secondary ion mass, 477–491 quantum terahertz biocavity spectroscopy, 1403 terahertz electric field imaging and, 1393–1404 Spectrum, 57, 1053 Specular surfaces, 234 Speed, 1053 Speed of film, 124, 139, 1023 Speed of light, 224–225 Spherical aberration, 92, 98, 1088–1089, 1117, 1123 Spherical waves, 214 Spherics, 890 Spider stop, microscopy, 1128 Spin angular momentum, 217 Spin density, in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 983–984 Spin echo in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 981, 992 in RF magnetic field mapping, 1125–1126 Spin states, atomic, 217 Spindt emitters, 385 Spindt technique, 385 Splice, 1053 Splicer, 1053 Splicing tape, 1053 Spline fits, thresholding and segmentation, 644–645 Split and merge techniques, thresholding and segmentation, 645–646 Splitters, holography, 509–509 Spontaneous emission, 253–254 Spontaneous Raman scattering, 411 Spool, 1053 Sporadic E, 1144 Sports medicine, force imaging, 422 SPOT high-resolution visible (HRV) imaging systems, 649, 655 1544 INDEX Spotlight, 1053 Spotlights, radar, 1146 Sprockets, in projectors, 1036, 1053 Sputtering, 383, 478 Square root integral (SQRI), quality metrics, 606 Squarilium, 1179 SQUID sensors, analog and digital, 9–15 Stabilization of dyes, 831, 841–842 Staircase patterns, 75 Standard definition TV (SDTV), compression, 157 Standard illuminants, CIE, 103–104 Standard Observer, 618 Standards converters, television, 1373 Stanford Research Institute, 375 Stanford, Leland, 1022 Static electricity, 1053 Stationarity, 1085–1086 Statistical redundancy and compression, 150–156 Steadicam, 1031 Steering, 4–5 Stefan–Boltzmann law/constant, 222, 804 Steganography, digital watermarking and vs., 160 Step response function (SRF), 402 Stereo display technologies, 1327–1344 Stereo pairs, in three-dimensional imaging, 1329–1330 Stereo window, 1329 StereoGraphics three-dimensional imaging, 1333 StereoJet three-dimensional imaging, 1332 Stereolithography three-dimensional imaging, 1327 Stereomicroscope, 1106 Stereophonic, 1053 Stereoscopic vision, 566 Stiffness matrix, 627 Stiles–Crawford effect, 58, 513, 542, 552–554 Stiles–Holladay approximation, 548 Still photography, 491–494, 1344–58 Stimulated echo, in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 983 Stimulated emission, 223, 253, 254–255 Stock, 1053 Stop, 1053 Stop motion, 1053 Stops, 1354 Storage and retrieval systems art conservation and analysis using, 661–682 in forensic and criminology research, 716–717 Methodology for Art Reproduction in Color (MARC), 664 in motion pictures, 1038–39 Visual Arts System for Archiving and Retrieval of Images (VASARI), 663–664 Storage systems, secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS), 482–484 Storm tracking, 655–656, 765–769 Storyboard, 1053 Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA), 692–693 Streak cameras, 499–500 Strehl ratio, 543, 544, 1090 Strike filtering, gravity imaging, 452 Strip cameras, 500 Strip scintillation detectors, particle detector imaging, 1165–67 Stripe, magnetic, 1053 Stroboscopic photography, 492, 493–494 Structural dilation, 433 Structural erosion, 432–433 Subband/wavelet coding, compression, 154 Subcarriers, television, 1362, 1365 Subclustering, in feature recognition and object classification, 367–370 Subjective quality metrics, 602, 606–610 Sublimation printers, 189–190, 194–195 Subtraction, image processing, 590 Subtraction, Minkowski, 432, 612 Subtractive color, 833–841, 1053 Subtractive color matching, 102 Subtractive color mixing, 127–128, 139 Sulfite developer, color photography, 130 Sulfonamidonaphthol, 837, 838 Sulfonamidophenol, 838 Sulfoselenide, 301 Sulfur plus gold sensitization, silver halide, 1292–1293 Sulfur sensitization, silver halide, 1289–1292 Super xxx films, 1025 Super Panavision, 1053 Superadditivity, silver halide, 1303 Superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs), 9–15, 976 Superconductors, 9–15, 484, 486–487, 1106 Superposition, 239–240 Superscope, 1053 Supersensitization, silver halide, 1298–1299 Supersonic flow, flow imaging, 409 Supertwisted nematic (STN) liquid crystal displays, 961–962 Surface acoustic waves (SAW), in scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM), 1236–1243 Surface stabilized ferroelectric LCD (SSFLC), 965 Surface wave radar, 1141 Surround function, 77, 79 Surround speakers, 1054 Surveillance et Alerte Foudre par Interferometrie Radioelectriquie (See SAFIR) Surveillance imaging in forensic and criminology research, 709, 714–715 overhead, 773–802 radar and over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, 1141–1153 SVGA video, in field emission displays (FED), 382 Swan, J.W., 455 Sweetening, 1054 Swell, 1054 Swiss PdbViewer, 708 SX70 instant film, 844–847 Symmetry, in compression, 152 Sync pulse, 1054, 1360 Sync sound, in motion pictures, 1033 Synchroballistic photography, 500–501 Synchronization high-speed photography and, 493 in motion pictures, 1054 in television, 1360, 1375 Synchronizer, 1054 Synchrotron radiation (SR), 221, 1476 Synthetic aperture radar (SAR), 356, 648, 789 Systeme Probatoire d’Observation de la Terre (SPOT), 779–780 T T-grain emulsion, 1054 T1/T2 relaxation, MRI, 983–984, 988–991 Tail ends, 1054 Take, 1054 Tamper detection, digital watermarking, 159 Tandem color printing, 328 Tape splice, 1054 Tapetum, 513 Taylor procedure, Taylor series, 227 Technicolor, 1024 Technirama, 1031, 1054 INDEX Techniscope, 1054 Telecine, 1054 Telemacro lens, 1354–1355 Telephotography, 59 Telephoto lens, 1347, 1354 Telescopes (See also Astronomy), 210, 1072 Apollo Telescope Mount, 1507 astronomy science and, 682–693 Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA), 693 Chandra Observatory, 1508 Constellation X Observatory, 693, 1509 Einstein Observatory Telescope, 1507 Giant Segmented Mirror Telescope, 693 Kirkpatrick Baez telescopes, 1502–1503 lidar and, 871–872 limitations on, 688, 690–691 liquid mirror telescopes (LMT), 872 mirrors for, 691 multilayer telescopes, 1503 Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST), 693 in overhead surveillance systems, 783 ROSAT telescopes, 1507 Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF), 690, 691–692 Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA), 692–693 Terrestrial Planet Finder, 693 thin mirror telescopes, 1501–1502 TRACE telescopes, 1507–1508 Very Large Array Radio Telescope, 693 Wolter, 1499–1501 X-ray Evolving Universe Satellite, 1509 X-ray interferometric telescopes, 1503–1504 X-ray telescope, 1495–1509 XMM Newton telescope, 1508 Television (See also Motion pictures; Video), 59, 1021 ATSC Digital Television Standard for, 1359, 1382–1389 black-and-white, 1359 broadcast transmission standards, 1359–1393 cathode ray tube (CRT) using, 47 chromaticity in, 148 component systems in, 148–150 compression in, 150–157 digital watermarking and, 146–148 digitized video and, 149–150 high-definition (HDTV), 41, 42, 47, 147, 151, 153, 157, 1039, 1047, 1382, 1390 image aspect ratio in, 147 image intensity in, 147–148 interlaced scanning in, 146–147 luminance in, 148 National Television System Committee (NTSC) standards for, 146–149 National Television Systems Committee (NTSC), 1359–1393 PAL standard for, 146–149, 1359–1393 progressive scanning in, 146–147 red green blue (RGB) system in, 147–148 scanning in, 146–148 SECAM standard for, 146–148, 1359–1393 standard definition TV (SDTV), 157 trichromatic color systems in, 147–148 Television and Infrared Observational Satellite (TIROS), 757, 777 Temperature photodetectors and, 1188–1190 in scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM), 1230 Temperature calculation, in infrared imaging, 814–815 Temperature effects, flow imaging, 411–416 Temperature mapping, in infrared imaging, 812–815 Temperature measurement, planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF), 863 Temperature, color, 103, 525 Tempone, 289 Temporal dependencies, 180, 184 Temporal homogeneity in cathode ray tube (CRT), 182 Temporal lobe, 569 Temporal resolution, 151, 1424 Terahertz electric field imaging, 1393–1404 Terminator, radar, 1145 TERRA, 659 Terrain correction, gravity imaging, 448 Terrestrial Planet Finder, 693 Test patterns, quality metrics, 603 Tetramethyl ammonium hydroxide (TMAH), 384 1545 Texas Instruments, 376–377 Text tag information, in search and retrieval systems, 617 Textile presses, 456 Textural gradient, 1328 Texture, in search and retrieval systems, 622–625 Texture processing, image processing, 583–584 Theatres, 1038 Thematic Mapper, 648, 653, 654, 657, 779 Thermal emission, 1176, 1184–1187 Thermal field emitter (TFE), 90 Thermal head, in dye transfer printing, 191–193 Thermal imaging, 810–811 Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner (TIMS), 650 Thermal radiation, 356 Thermal signatures, 803 Thermal sources, 222 Thermal transfer process, 189, 853 Thermally assisted fluorescence (THAF), 863 Thermionic emission, 223 Thermofax, 299 Thermograms, 802–817 Thermographic imaging, 851–854 Thermography, 802–817, 864–867 Thermoplastics, 509 Thiazolidine, 840, 841 Thickness extinction contours, 282 Thin-film technology, 383–384 in field emission displays (FED), 377, 379, 383–384 in liquid crystal displays, 957 in scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM) analysis for, 1228 Thin lens conjugate equation, 1078 Thin mirror telescopes, 1501–1502 Thin objects, in transmission electron microscopes (TEM), 270–271 Think Laboratories, 461 Thinker ImageBase, 617 Thiols, 135 Thiopyrilium, 1179 Thiosulfate bleaches, 139 35 mm film, 1022, 1024, 1054 Thomson scattering, 249–250, 256 Thread, 1054 Three-dimensional imaging, 1054, 1072, 1327–1344 in biochemical research, 694–708 Doppler radar and, 1465–1468 flow imaging and, 416–417 force imaging and, 424 ground penetrating radar and, 472–475, 476 human vision and, 566 1546 INDEX Three-dimensional imaging, (continued ) in meteorological research, 772 in ultrasonography, 1433 Thresholding, 590, 584–589, 637–638 Thresholds, quality metrics, 609–610 Throw, 1054 Thunderstorm Sensor Series (TSS), 907, 922 Thunderstorms (See Lightning locators) Thyristor flash systems, 1348–1349 Tidal correction, gravity imaging, 447 Tight wind, 1054 Tilting, 4–5 Time delay and integration (TDI), 785, 1018 Time domain waveform analysis, 912–914 Time–energy uncertainty principle, 259 Time lapse, 1054 Time of arrival (TOA) lightning locators, 906–907, 935, 941–945 Time of flight imaging, 989–991, 1015–1016 Time parallel techniques, in three-dimensional imaging, 1331 Time projection chamber (TPC), particle detector imaging, 1160 Time sequence maps, electroencephalogram (EEG), 201–204 Time slice imaging, ground penetrating radar, 472–475 Time Zero film, 846–847 Timing, 184, 1054 Timing layer, in instant films, 832 Titanyl phthalocyanine (TiOPc), 1180–1181 Todd AO, 1031, 1054 Toe, 1054 Tomography, 1404–1411 flow imaging and, 416 ground penetrating radar and, 475–476 image formation in, 571 low resolution electromagnetic tomography (LORETA), 204–208 in medical imaging, 743 in radiographic imaging, 1068 single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), 1310–1327 terahertz electric field imaging and, 1399–1400 Tone, 598–616, 1054 Tone burst wave mode, in scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM), 1231, 1233 Toner, in electrophotography, 301, 312, 313–315, 325–329 Top hat transforms, 430 Topographic imaging technology, 199–201 TOPS software, 708 Toroidal coils, deflection yoke, 41–42 Total internal reflectance (TIR), 238–239 Total scattering cross section, 250 Tournachon, Gaspard Felix, 773 TRACE telescopes, 1507–1508 TRACKERR, 1158 Tracking, radar and over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, 1148, 1152 Trailer, 1055 Trajectories, particle detector imaging, 1157 Trajectory effects, gravity imaging, 444 Tranceivers in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 999 in terahertz electric field imaging and, 1399–1400 Transducers, 1, 1418–1419, 1424–1429 Transfer function, 264, 575 Transfer process, in electrophotography, 322–324, 322 Transverse electromagnetic modes (TEM), 392 Transform coding, compression, 153–154 Transformation, compression, 153 Transfusion, in electrophotography, 322 Transistors, scanning capacitance microscope (SCM) analysis, 23 Transition, 1055 Transitions, atomic, 215 Translation invariant operators, 431–436 Transmission, 527–529, 548–550, 561, 1404 Transmission electron microscopes (TEM), 23, 87, 93, 262–274 Transmission grating, X-ray telescopes, 1505 Transmission holograms, 507–508 Transmission line model (TLM), 937 Transmittance, 51, 54, 58, 236–237, 527–529, 783, 803, 1072, 1095 Transmitters, lidar, 871–872 Transparency views, in three-dimensional imaging, 1333 Transverse chromatic aberration, 545 Transverse electric or magnetic waves, 235 Transverse magnification, 1076 Transverse viewing, in three-dimensional imaging, 1336 Transverse waves, 212 Trapping, scanning capacitance microscope (SCM) analysis, 23 Traps, silver halide, 1273–75 Traveling ionsopheric disturbance (TID), 1144 Traveling matte, 1055 Trellis coding, 1390 TREMBLE lightning locators, 909 Triangle, 1055 Triangulation, 571, 572–573, 908 Triarylmethyl radicals, 289 Triboelectrification, 944 Trichromatic color theory, television, 147–148 Trichromatic color vision, 567 Trichromatic receptors, human vision and color vision, 519 Tricolor image processing systems, 101–102 Triiodide, 1213 Trims, 1055 Trinitron electron gun, 40 Triphenylamine, 1179 Tripods, 1030 Tristimulus values, 102, 148, 531–534, 537 Tritanopia, 522–523 Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), 660, 771–772, 890–904, 929, 932–935, 1473 Truck, 1055 Trucks, 1030 True color mode, cathode ray tube (CRT), 174 TSUPREM4 calibration, 28 Tube length, microscopy, 1115 Tungsten filaments, 222 Tungsten light, 1055 Tunics of human eye, 746 Turbulent flow, flow imaging, 405 Twinning, silver halide, 1266–1267 Twisted nematic (TN) liquid crystal displays, 959–961 Two-beam dynamic theory for crystals, 281–284, 281 Two-dimensional Fourier transforms, 1104–1105 Two-dimensional imaging backlight systems for, 1339 ground penetrating radar and, 471–472 in infrared imaging, 809 INDEX in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 983, 987–988 in search and retrieval systems, 623, 628–630 terahertz electric field imaging and, 1398 Two-point resolution limit, 1087 Two-positive imaging, gravure printing, 461 Two-scale relations, 1446 Two-slit interference, 242–243 Type 500/600 instant films, 847 Type C videotape, 1055 Type K/T/U/Y or Z core, 1055 University of Chicago, secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) in (UC SIM), 478–479 Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), 780 Unsharp masks, in forensic and criminology research, 725 Unsqueezed print, 1055 Upatnieks, J., 504 Upward continuation, gravity imaging, 451 Useful yield, secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS), 477 UVW and U*V*W* coordinate systems, 108 U U space representation, 5–6 U2 aerial surveillance planes, 775–776 UC SIM, 478–484 Ultra high-frequency (UHF) television, 1362 Ultra Panavision, 1031 Ultramicroelectrodes (UME), 1248–1259 Ultrasonic cleaner, 1055 Ultrasonography, ultrasound, 1412–1435 in endoscopy, 338–340 image formation in, 571, 573 in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) vs., 983 in medical imaging, 745 in scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM), 1228 Ultraviolet radiation, 218, 219, 239, 356, 1055 art conservation and analysis using, 661, 668–672 electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) imaging for, 296 extreme ultraviolet imaging (EUV), 1005–06 far ultraviolet imaging of proton/electron auroras, 1016–1020 fluorescence microscopy, 1135–37 gravure printing, 461 photodetectors and, 1196 radar and over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, 1143 Ultraviolet catastrophe, 211 Uncertainty principle, 215, 259 Uncrossed viewing, in three-dimensional imaging, 1336 Undulator magnet, 221 Uniform Chromaticity Scale (UCS), 535 Universal leader, 1055 V V number (See also Abbe number), 234 Vacuum and wave equation, 212 Value, 103 Valve rollers, 1055 Van Allen belts, energetic neutral atom (ENA) imaging, 1006–1010 Van Dyke Company, 456 Variable area sound track, 1055 Variable density sound track, 1055 Variable length coding, 1388 Varifocal mirrors, in three-dimensional imaging, 1342–1343 Vectograph three-dimensional imaging, 1331 Vector quantization, compression, 154, 633 Vegetation, geologic imaging, 653 Velocimetry, 413–416 Velocity effects, 228, 764 flow imaging and, 413–416 planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) in, 863 spectral line analysis of, 685–686 Verifax, 299 Versatec, 299 Vertical derivatives, gravity imaging, 452 Vertical disparity, in three-dimensional imaging, 1329 Vertical interval time code (VITC), 1055 Very high-frequency (VHF) television, 1362 Very Large Array Radio Telescope, 693 Vesicular films, art conservation and analysis using, 662 Vestigial sideband (VSB) television, 1362, 1389 1547 VGA video, in field emission displays (FED), 382 Vibration, molecular, 216 Vibrational relaxation, 255 Video (See also Motion pictures; Television), 1385–1388 authentication techniques, 740 cameras for, 1029–31 component video standards, 1380–82 compressed video, 1385–86 digital (See Digital video) Digital Video Broadcast (DVB), 1392 in forensic and criminology research, 709–714 format conversion in, 720–722 group of pictures (GOP) in, 1386 high-speed photography and, 498–499 I, P, and B frames in, 1387 photoconductors cameras, 1174 Polachrome, 848 Polavision, 848 surveillance imaging using, 714–715 Video assist, 1031 VideoDisc, 16 Videophone, 156–157, 156 Videotape editing, 1035 Viewer, 1055 Viewfinders, 1029, 1346 Viewing angle, 387, 967 Viewing distance, 1347 ViewMaster, 1330, 1331 Vignetting, 1055 Virtual image, 1040, 1328, 1330 Virtual phase CCD (VPCCD), 1198 Virtual states, 259 Virtual transitions, 258–259 Visible light, 356, 1072 Visible Human Project, search and retrieval systems, 616–617 Visible light, 218, 219, 665–666, 782, 803, 1393 Vision tests, 747 VisionDome, 1335–1336 VistaVision, 1031 Visual angle, human vision, 747 Visual areas, 516, 518, 563, 565, 569 Visual Arts System for Archiving and Retrieval of Images (VASARI), 663–664 Visual cortex, 65, 72, 563–570 Visual field, human vision, 566 Visual field mapping, in magnetic field imaging, 975 Visual information rate, 50, 73–74 Visual magnification, 1077 Visual quality, 74–75 Visualization technology, 773, 1327 1548 INDEX VisualSEEk, 618, 621–622, 624, 627, 629, 630 Vitascope, 1022 Voice over, in motion pictures, 1033, 1055 Voids, 604 Volcanic activity, geologic imaging, 651 Volume grating, holography, 508 Volume imaging, holography, 507–508 Volume Imaging Lidar, in meteorological research, 769 Volumetric displays, in three-dimensional imaging, 1341–1343 von Ardenne, Manfred, 262 von Laue interference function, 279 von Uchatius, Franz, 1022 VORTEX radar, 1471 VREX micropolarizers, in three-dimensional imaging, 1334–1335 W Wall eyed, in three-dimensional imaging, 1330 Warm up, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), 184 Waste management, geologic imaging, 656–659 Water Cerenkov counters, particle detector imaging, 1162 Watermarking, digital (See Digital watermarking) Watershed transforms, 430, 587, 646 Watts, 524 Wave aberration, 542–544 Wave equation, in transmission electron microscopes (TEM), 212 Wave fronts, 212, 243, 1083, 1084, 1086, 1090 Wave number, 213 Wave propagation, 220–231 in ground penetrating radar, 466, 467–469 Wave vector transfer (Q), 251 Wave vs particle behavior of light, 210–211 Waveform monitors, television, 1361 Waveform repetition frequency (WRF), radar and over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, 1147, 1150 Waveforms, 212, 285, 1147, 1150–1151 Waveguides, radar, 1452 Wavelength, 212, 1072, 1109 Wavelength analysis, 448 Wavelet coding, compression, 154 Wavelet transforms, 1444–1450 Wavelets, 243, 622 Wax melt printers, 190–191, 195 Weak beam images, in transmission electron microscopes (TEM), 270 Weather radar, 1450–74 Weave, 1055 Web-fed presses, gravure printing, 459–460, 459 Weber–Fechner law, 747 Weber fractions, quality metrics, 611 Weber’s law, 611 Wedgewood, Josiah, 1345 Weighting, amplitude, Wet-gate printer, 1055 WHAT IF software, 708 Whisk broom scanners, 806 White, 219 White balance, 520 White field response, flow imaging, 397 White light, 219 White point normalization, 533 White uniformity, cathode ray tube (CRT), 35 White, reference, 102 Whole field imaging, 1072 Wide-angle lens, 1347, 1354 Wide-screen, 1031, 1055 Wien displacement law, 222, 803 Wiener filters, 49, 69, 71, 73, 76, 80, 167, 1322 Wiener matrix, 60 Wiener restoration, 68, 70–71, 74–75, 82 Wiggler magnet, 221 Wild, 1055 Wind profiling radar, 1149, 1469–1471 Winding, 1055 Window thermal testing, using infrared imaging, 815 Wipe, 1055 Wire chamber scintillation tracking, 1159–1162, 1168 WKB approximation, in charged particle optics, 89 Wold components, in search and retrieval systems, 623 Wollaston prisms, 1106 Wolter telescopes, 1499–1501 Work print, 1056 Working distance, microscopy, 1116 WorkWall three-dimensional imaging, 1335 World Geodetic System, 445 Wright, Wilbur, 773 Write black, in electrophotography, 317 Write gates, SQUID sensors, 13–14 Write white, in electrophotography, 317 Wynne, Klass, 1400–01 X X-ray analysis (EDX), 262, 478 X-ray astronomy, 219 X-ray crystallography, 696–699 X-ray diffractometers, 244 X-ray Evolving Universe Satellite, 1509 X-ray fluorescence (XRF), 676–677, 1475–1495 X-ray interferometric telescopes, 1503–04 X-ray telescope, 239, 1495–1509 X-ray telescopes, 239 X-ray transform, 1404 X-rays, 210–211, 218, 219, 221, 224, 239, 242, 249, 256–260, 272, 350, 590, 803, 1067, 1393 Array of Low Energy X Ray Imaging Sensors (ALEXIS), 905, 929 art conservation and analysis using, 672–680 astronomy science and, 683, 688 in biochemical research, 694, 696–699, 705 Bragg reflection in, 244 image formation in, 572 in medical imaging, 743, 745, 748, 752–753, 756 non-silver output in, 676 phosphor thermography, 865 photodetectors and, 1197 radar and over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, 1143 sources of, 1477 in tomography, 1404 X-ray Evolving Universe Satellite, 1509 X-ray fluorescence imaging, 1475–1495 X-ray interferometric telescopes, 1503–1504 X-ray telescope, 1495–1509 Xenon arc, 1056 Xenon lamps, 1037 Xerography (See also Electrophotography), 299, 1174 Xeroradiography, 312 Xerox copiers, 574 Xerox Corporation, 299 Xerox Docu Tech, 300, 302, 303 XMM Newton telescope, 1508 XYZ coordinate system, 107, 532, 537, 619 INDEX Y Z Yellow, 1056 Yellow couplers, color photography, 134 YIQ coordinate system, 106–107, 149 Young, Thomas, 242–243 Yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) laser, 391 YUV coordinate system, 106–107, 149 Z contrast imaging, 277 Z dependence, 478 Zeeman effect, 217, 218 Zeeman states, 217 Zeiss, Carl, 1106 Zernicke moments, 627 Zernike polynomials, 542–543 Zernike, Frits, 1106, 1128 1549 Zero frame reference mark, 1056 Zero padding, 68 Zero power (afocal) systems, 1074, 1079 Zinc oxide, 381 Zoetropic effect, 1022 Zoom in/out, 1056 Zoom lens, 1029 Zoylacetanilides, 134 Zweiton, 1365 Zwitterions, 124–125 ... measurement of LIDAR 883 55 50 NO2(ν1) Cross section (10−30 cm2 sr −1) 45 C6H6(ν1) 40 35 CH4 30 CCl4 25 NO2( 2) 20 15 SF6 NH3 10 O2 CO2(ν1) NO 500 1000 H2 H2O O3 H2S SO2 1500 C2 H2 CO N2 20 00 25 00 3000.. .ENCYCLOPEDIA OF IMAGING SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND VOLUME ENCYCLOPEDIA OF IMAGING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Editor Joseph P Hornak Rochester Institute of Technology Editorial Board... Imaging systems–Encyclopedias I Hornak, Joseph P TA16 32. E53 20 01 20 01046915 621 .36 03–dc21 Printed in the United States of America 10 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF IMAGING SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND VOLUME L LASER-INDUCED