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National Algal Biofuels Technology Review Bioenergy Technologies Office June 2016 National Algal Biofuels Technology Review U.S Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Bioenergy Technologies Office June 2016 Review Editors: Amanda Barry,1,5 Alexis Wolfe,2 Christine English,3,5 Colleen Ruddick,4 and Devinn Lambert5 2010 National Algal Biofuels Technology Roadmap: eere.energy.gov/bioenergy/pdfs/algal_biofuels_roadmap.pdf A complete list of roadmap and review contributors is available in the appendix Suggested Citation for this Review: DOE (U.S Department of Energy) 2016 National Algal Biofuels Technology Review U.S Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Bioenergy Technologies Office Visit bioenergy.energy.gov for more information Los Alamos National Laboratory Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education National Renewable Energy Laboratory BCS, Incorporated Bioenergy Technologies Office This report is being disseminated by the U.S Department of Energy As such, the document was prepared in compliance with Section 515 of the Treasury and General Government Appropriations Act for Fiscal Year 2001 (Public Law No 106-554) and information quality guidelines issued by the Department of Energy Further, this report could be “influential scientific information” as that term is defined in the Office of Management and Budget’s Information Quality Bulletin for Peer Review (Bulletin) This report has been peer reviewed pursuant to section II.2 of the Bulletin Cover photo courtesy of Qualitas Health, Inc BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE Preface Thank you for your interest in the U.S Department of Energy (DOE) Bioenergy Technologies Office’s (BETO’s) National Algal Biofuels Technology Review This 2016 update to the 2010 National Algal Biofuels Technology Roadmap is a review of algal biofuels research at every step of the supply chain It addresses several research areas highlighting advances, outlining unknowns, and discussing opportunities for advancement Domestic renewable energy provides potential solutions to priorities for the United States, such as decreasing dependence on foreign oil, revitalizing rural America by creating new jobs across many sectors of the economy, and reducing carbon emissions Through strategic investments and close coordination with partners in industry, academia, national laboratories, and other agencies, DOE is committed to developing and demonstrating transformative and revolutionary bioenergy technologies for a sustainable nation Algae have significant potential to support an advanced biofuels industry The goal of the BETO Advanced Algal Systems Program is to develop cost-effective algal biofuels production and logistics systems The program focuses on supporting the growth of the emerging domestic algae industry and its interest in commercialization for fuels and products, specifically by reducing costs of production and ensuring the sustainability and availability of resources DOE revived its investment in algal biofuels in 2009 in response to the increased urgency of lowering greenhouse gas emissions and producing affordable, reliable renewable energy, as well as the increasing recognition that we will not achieve these goals via any single technology pathway Since then, BETO has invested in a variety of research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) projects that tackle the most impactful barriers associated with the scaleup of commercial algal biofuels BETO is proud of the progress of our partners, and has the pleasure of highlighting many of their projects within this review, along with the work of the broader research community The National Algal Biofuels Technology Review, as a summary of algal biofuels research and development to-date, serves as one reference to inform the implementation of the BETO strategy to achieve the vision of a thriving and sustainable bioeconomy fueled by innovative technologies This review is intended to be a resource for researchers, engineers, and decision-makers by providing a summary of algal biofuel research progress to date and the challenges that could be addressed by future RD&D activities We hope this review fosters and informs participation from all stakeholders as the next steps are taken to advancing an algal biofuels industry together DOE looks forward to continuing its work with diverse partners in the development of renewable energy options that provide the greatest benefits in the years to come Jonathan L Male Director, Bioenergy Technologies Office U.S Department of Energy Preface i FROM ALGAE TO BIOFUELS An Integrated Systems Approach to Renewable Energy that Is ALGAE FEEDSTOCKS CULTIVATION Microalgae and cyanobacteria can be cultivated via photoautotrophic methods (where algae require light to grow and create new biomass) in open or closed ponds or via heterotrophic methods (where algae are grown without light and are fed a carbon source, such as sugars, to generate new biomass) Macroalgae (or seaweed) has different cultivation needs that typically require open off-shore or coastal facilities Designing an optimum cultivation system involves leveraging the biology of the algal strain used and inegrating it with the best suited downstream processing options Choices made for the cultivation system are key to the affordability, scalability, and sustainability of algae to biofuel systems Fermentation Tanks MICROALGAE CYANOBACTERIA MACROALGAE Closed Photobioreactors Algae as feedstocks for bioenergy refers to a diverse group of organisms that include microalgae, macroalgae (seaweed), and cyanobacteria (formerly called “blue-green algae”) Algae occur in a variety of natural aqueous and terrestial habitats ranging from freshwater, brackish waters, marine, and hyper-saline environments to soil and in symbiotic associations with other organisms Understanding, managing, and taking advantage of the biology of algal strains selected for use in production systems is the foundation for processing feedstocks into fuels and products Open Ponds Example Cultivation Systems POLICY SITING AND RESOURCES Development Path Toward a Systems and Techno-Economic Analysis: Guiding the Research and 2-O-C Abundant, Affordable, and Sustainable CONVERSION HARVESTING / DEWATERING Some processes for the conversion of algae to liquid transportation fuels require pre-processing steps such as harvesting and dewatering Algal cultures are mainly grown in water and can require process steps to concentrate harvested algal biomass prior to extraction and conversion These steps can be energy-intensive and can entail siting issues EXTRACTION O CH2-O-C R1 O CH-O-C R2 O CH2-O-C Conversion to fuels and products is predicated on a basic process decision point: 1) Conversion of whole algal biomass; 2) Extraction of algal metabolites; or 3) Processing of direct algal secretions Conversion technology options include chemical, biochemical, and thermochemical processes, or a combination of these approaches The end products vary depending on the conversion technology utilized Focusing on biofuels as the end-product poses challenges due to the high volumes and relative low values associated with bulk commodities like gasoline and diesel fuels R3 Bio-Crude Algal Lipid: Precursor to Biofuels Three major components can be extracted from algal biomass: lipids (including triglycerides and fatty acids), carbohydrates, and proteins Most challenges in extraction are associated with the industrial scale up of integrated extraction systems While many analytical techniques exist, optimizing extraction systems that consume less energy than contained in the algal products is a challenge due to the high energy needs associated with both handling and drying algal biomass as well as separating out desirable products Some algal biomass production processes are investigating options to bypass extraction, though these are also subject to a number of unique scale-up challenges End Uses: • Biodiesel • Biogas • Renewable Hydrocarbons • Co-products (e.g., animal feed, fertilizers, industrial enzymes, bioplastics, and surfactants) • Alcohols REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS Commercially Viable Algal Biofuel Industry BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE Contents Overview of Algal Biofuels and Work from the U.S Deparment of Energy 1.1 History of the Review 1.2 America’s Energy Challenges Algal Feedstocks 1.3 A History of Domestic Algal Biofuels Development Early Work to 1996 Research from 1996 to 2008 .6 Algae Program Research Consortia (2009–2014) Integrated Biorefineries .8 Research Since 2012 .8 Regional Algal Feedstock Testbed 1.4 Algae-to-Biofuels and Products: Opportunity and Challenges Ahead 10 References 11 Algal Biomass, Genetics, and Development 14 2.1 Strain Isolation, Screening, and Selection 14 Isolation and Characterization of Naturally Occurring Algae 14 Screening Criteria and Methods 15 Selecting Algal Model Systems for Study 15 2.2 Algal Physiology and Biochemistry 16 Photosynthesis, Light Utilization, and Carbon-Concentrating Mechanisms 17 Carbon Partitioning and Metabolism 19 Algal Carbohydrates 20 Lipid Synthesis and Regulation 21 Biohydrogen 24 2.3 Algal Biotechnology 25 Enabling Technologies: Omics Approaches and Bioinformatics 25 Algal Genetic Engineering 28 Applications of Biotechnology to Algal Bioenergy 32 Considerations of Genetic Modifications 34 2.4 Macroalgae 35 References 39 Resources for Algal Research 57 3.1 Algae Testbed Services and Real-Time Data Collection and Sharing 57 3.2 Role of Culture Collections as National Algae Data Resource Centers .57 3.3 Omics Databases 58 3.4 Genetic Toolboxes 59 iv Contents BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE 3.5 Growth Prediction Tools 59 3.6 Standardization and Biomass Analysis Resources 59 3.7 Lab-Scale Performance Tools 60 References 62 Algal Cultivation 64 4.1 Cultivation Pathways .64 Photoautotrophic vs Heterotrophic 64 Open vs Closed Systems 64 4.2 Cultivation Scale-Up Challenges 66 Process-Development-Scale and Integrated Biorefinery “Lessons Learned” .66 Stability of Large-Scale Cultures 67 Scalable System Designs: Maintaining Productivity 68 Nutrient Sources, Sustainability, and Management 69 Water Management, Conservation, and Sustainability 70 4.3 Macroalgae 71 References 73 Harvesting and Dewatering 80 5.1 Harvesting and Dewatering 80 Ultrasonic Harvesting 80 Filtration 80 Flocculation and Sedimentation 81 Flocculation and Dissolved Air Flotation 82 Centrifugation 82 Other Harvesting Techniques 82 5.2 Drying 82 Microalgae Drying Methods 82 5.3 Systems Engineering 83 Preliminary Look at Energy Balance 83 5.4 Approaches for Macroalgae 84 Harvesting 84 Preprocessing .84 References 85 Extraction of Algae 89 6.1 Lipid Separations and Extractions from Algae 89 6.2 Physical Methods of Extraction and/or Cellular Biomass Pretreatment 90 Microwave Assisted 91 Pulsed Electric Field 91 Ultrasonic 92 Contents v BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE 6.3 Catalytic Methods of Extraction and/or Cellular Biomass Pretreatment 92 Acid/Base Hydrolysis 92 6.4 Solvent-Based Extraction of Lipids 93 Solvent Extraction 93 Accelerated Solvent Extraction .94 Mixed Solvent Extraction 94 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 95 Switchable Solvents 95 6.5 Comparison of Extraction Methods 96 6.6 Lipid Extraction Challenges 97 Presence of Water Associated with the Biomass 97 Separation of Desired Extracts from Solvent Stream 97 Process Integration 97 References 98 Algal Biofuel Conversion Technologies 103 7.1 Production of Biofuels from Algae through Heterotrophic Fermentation or by Direct Secretion .103 Alcohols 104 Alkanes 104 7.2 Processing of Whole Algae 104 Pyrolysis 104 Gasification 105 Anaerobic Digestion of Whole Algae 106 Supercritical Processing 107 Hydrothermal Processing .107 7.3 Conversion of Extracted Algae 109 Chemical Transesterification 110 Direct Transesterification of Lipids into Fatty Acid Methyl Esters 111 Carbohydrate and Protein Fermentation 112 Biochemical (Enzymatic) Conversion 113 Catalytic Transesterification 114 Conversion to Renewable Diesel, Gasoline, and Jet Fuel 115 7.4 Processing of Algal Residuals after Extraction .116 References 117 Commercial Products 123 8.1 Commercial Products from Microalgae and Cyanobacteria 123 Food and Feed 124 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 124 vi Contents BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE Venteris, E R., R L Skaggs, A M Coleman, and M S Wigmosta 2013 “A GIS cost model to assess the availability of freshwater, seawater, and saline groundwater for algal biofuel production in the United States.” Environmental Science & Technology 47 (9): 4840–49 Venteris E R., R Skaggs, M S Wigmosta, and A M Coleman 2014a “A National-Scale Comparison of Resource and Nutrient Demands for Algae-Based Biofuel Production by Lipid Extraction and Hydrothermal Liquefaction.” Biomass & Bioenergy 64: 276–90 doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2014.02.001 Venteris E R., R Skaggs, M S Wigmosta, and A M Coleman 2014b “Regional Algal Biofuel Production Potential in the Coterminous United States as Affected by Resource Availability Trade-Offs.” Algal Research 5:215–25 doi:10.1016/j algal.2014.02.002 Venteris E R., R Skaggs, M S Wigmosta, and A M Coleman 2014c “Siting algae cultivation facilities for biofuel production in the United States: trade-offs between growth rate, site constructability, water availability, and infrastructure.” Environmental Science & Technology 48(6):3559–66 doi:10.1021/es4045488 Weissman, J C., R P Goebel, and J R Benemann 1988 “Photobioreactor design: Mixing, carbon utilization, and oxygen accumulation.” Biotechnology and Bioengineering 31 (4): 336–44 Weyer, K M., D R Bush, A Darzins, and B D Willson 2010 “Theoretical maximum algal oil production.” Bioenergy Research (2): 204–13 White, R and Ryan, R 2015 “Long-Term Cultivation of Algae in Open-Raceway Ponds: Lessons from the Field.” Industrial Biotechnology 11 (4): 213–20 Wigmosta, M., A Coleman, R J Skaggs, M H Husemann, and L J Lane 2011 “National microalgae biofuel production potential and resource demand.” Water Resources Research 47: W00H04 doi:10.1029/2010WR009966 Williams, P J L B., & L M Laurens 2010 “Microalgae as biodiesel & biomass feedstocks: review & analysis of the biochemistry, energetics & economics.” Energy & Environmental Science (5): 554–90 Woertz, I C., J R Benemann, N Du, S Unnasch, D Mendola, B G Mitchell, and T J Lundquist 2014 “Life cycle GHG emissions from microalgal biodiesel–a CA-GREET model.” Environmental Science & Technology 48 (11): 6060–68 Zemke, P E., B D Wood, and D J Dye 2010 “Considerations for the maximum production rates of triacylglycerol from microalgae.” Biomass and Bioenergy 34 (1): 145–51 186 11 Systems and Techno-Economic Analyses BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE 12 Conclusion The 2010 National Algal Biofuels Technology Roadmap sought to comprehensively summarize the state of technology for fuels and bioproducts from algal feedstocks and to document the feasibility and techno-economic challenges associated with commercial scaling Since that initial review, there have been significant advancements in the field, as well as the articulation of new challenges, lessons learned, and critical next steps, which have been detailed in this update, and are summarized in this chapter 12.1 Advancements in the Field One of the most critical areas of focus in algal biofuels R&D—algal biology—has benefited from dedicated researchers advancing understanding of the true requirements of outdoor algae cultivation The field has recognized that strain robustness, not just lipid content, is critical for large-scale cultivation Molecular technologies have been developed to make the necessary improvements in robustness and productivity, including molecular toolboxes for strain improvement and advanced genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and phenomics platforms Rapid advances in molecular biology tools have allowed scientists to manipulate algal genomes to express new or altered proteins, including those involved in metabolism and photosynthesis Work in directed evolution and high-throughput selection systems have led to the development of advanced algal strains In addition, multiple libraries of catalogued species from marine, freshwater, brackish, or otherwise low-quality water environments have been collected Some researchers have also discovered that “superior strain” development may not hold the whole answer and that beneficial symbioses and ecosystem responses exist within certain bacteria, microbes, and algal strain communities Development of standardized protocols for the quantification and characterization of biomass and cellular composition has allowed for the establishment of a common language and consistent metrics for success among researchers This has also enabled the valorization of algal biomass potential across multiple products and end uses, from biofuels to animal feed to specialty platform chemicals Moving many of these biological advances to outdoor cultivation environments has been a major success and is still an area of continued research effort Development of laboratory tools and methods that mimic outdoor conditions has allowed for the ability to predict pond performance Pond crashes are being addressed by species-specific pathogen and predator prevention methods, as well as approaches to create a stable diversified culture less sensitive to predation Several specific molecular tools have been developed to monitor pond health and species composition Novel cultivation designs have demonstrated productivity improvements at increasing scales, including systems capable of using waste industrial carbon dioxide, nutrient-rich impaired water, or wastewater streams Nutrient and water recycle strategies have proven necessary for both economic and environmental sustainability, and advances in these strategies are consistently improving system viability Much of this cultivation data has been made publicly available via the ATP3 experimental testbeds program Major advances have also been made in feedstock processing and conversion to biofuel intermediates and finished fuels Innovations in hydrothermal liquefaction have demonstrated the conversion of wet biomass into crude oil at high yield, with low energy costs, in a continuous process Wet solvent extraction processes have also improved total fuel yields Researchers have demonstrated the effectiveness of an integrated technology based on moderate temperatures and low pH to convert the carbohydrates in wet algal biomass to soluble sugars for fermentation, while making lipids more accessible for downstream extraction and leaving a protein-enriched fraction behind Algal oil has been successfully converted to jet and biodiesel meeting the ASTM standards Algae companies are beginning to see off-take agreements with fuel producers such as Tesoro, Phillips 66, and others Test runs in aviation and cross-country road trips have demonstrated high fuel performance 12.2 New Challenges In recent years, the algal biofuels RD&D has achieved technological advancements that can bring about transformational changes, including the ability to predict, breed, and select the best-performing strains; the ability to monitor and control system inputs in a dynamic and integrated fashion; the ability to harvest algae at high throughputs; and the ability to extract and convert more algal biomass components into fuels However, there is still much work left to to achieve cost-competitive algal biofuels Table 12.1 outlines the current challenges in the field 12.3 Lessons Learned Through its efforts to address these challenges, the algal research field has learned lessons that can be applied to support future efforts Although there has been progress, translating lab-scale results to production systems continues to be a significant hurdle Investigators have learned that success at the bench does not always mean success outdoors Outdoor strain growth and development is better able to incorporate actual regional and environmental conditions In addition, algal biology efforts must be compatible with downstream processes, such as harvesting and conversion Strains that perform well in terms of productivity must have a tailored harvesting and conversion regime to perform well in terms of biofuel intermediate yield, and it is important to consider the variability in the complex natural systems involved as well The enormous diversity of strains means that specific techniques and specific molecular tools are required These complex and diverse 12 Conclusion 187 BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE systems have led to diverse laboratory methodologies and data collection procedures, which researchers have learned makes comparative analysis problematic, and which has instigated an industry standardization effort It is now understood that water and nutrient recycle and energy conservation are necessary considerations to ensure that production of algal biofuels and bioproducts is environmentally and economically sustainable The current nutrient requirements for carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and phosphorous are significant In terms of energy return on investment, the industry has learned that wet extraction processes are essential Drying algal feedstock has significant impacts on greenhouse gas emissions, as well as the total economics of the system Dewatering technologies are a major design consideration when scaling, and they impact not only energy use, but also capital and operating costs Delivery of CO2 to the facility is also a considerable constraint, and the co-location of facilities with carbon emitters—while a rational design for individual pilot companies—may be constrained in full nation-wide deployment due to limited location availability Calculations for scaling and facility deployment must be inclusive of mass and energy balances, resource constraints, capital expenditures, and incorporate whole-system data collection from pilot projects Researchers have learned that real-world data is essential and that the field needs to find ways to disseminate it publicly without jeopardizing intellectual property In general, the algal biofuels RD&D field has learned that industry dogma must be reassessed Old truisms, such as the need for nitrogen starvation for cell growth, and that genetic modification is the only answer to productivity, have been increasingly challenged As the knowledge base continues to evolve and build on prior learnings, disruptive breakthroughs Table 12.1 Algal Feedstocks R&D Technical Challenges and Barriers Process step Technical barrier Algal biology Feedstock Algal cultivation Harvesting and dewatering 188 12 Conclusion Challenges • Advance understanding of basic algal biology across species (including photosynthesis and carbon management) • Establish an algal database for identification, proteomics, genomics, and transcriptomics for all known species; improve open access data sharing of existing and emerging research (i.e., testbeds, online omics databases) • Develop and advance molecular toolboxes for heterologous gene expression in potential production strains • Advance understanding of open pond production health (i.e., ecology, predators, crashing) • Advance understanding of safety, policy oversight of geneticallyengineered organisms • Advance understanding of culture dynamics and stability (i.e., crop protection, nutrient addition and limitation) • Improve on ability to translate performance from bench-scale experiments to large process-development scale • Identify standardized metrics for system-level productivity analysis • Sustainably and cost-effectively manage resources for biomass production (i.e., water and nutrient conservation and recycling) • Advance understanding of CO2 utilization at industrially relevant scale • Develop and demonstrate harvesting, dewatering, and drying technologies at industrially relevant scales • Assess the economic viability, energy requirements, and environmental sustainability of harvesting and dewatering technologies at industrially relevant scales • Examine performance of existing and new harvesting and dewatering technologies over long durations of operation • Advance understanding of species-specific effects on harvesting and dewatering BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE Table 12.1 (continued) Process step Technical barrier Extraction and fractionation Conversion Fuel conversion Co-products Distribution and utilization Infrastructure Resources and siting Challenges • Investigate the techno-economic and systems impacts of scale up of extraction technologies • Advance understanding of the impact of feedstock composition on end products • Examine performance of existing and new extraction technologies at industrially relevant scales • Address scaling challenges, such as the presence of water, side reactions, separations, operational temperature, and pressure • Assess and seek to achieve high conversion rates at industrially relevant scales • Optimize fuel recovery at industrially relevant scales • Examine and understand coproduct recovery in relation to fuel recovery at all scales • Advance understanding of nutrient recycling with new and existing conversion technologies • Examine and minimize conversion technology energy use, emissions, and contaminants over the life cycle at industrially relevant scales • Advance understanding of algal species-specific conversion technology requirements and limitations • Identify and evaluate the co-production of value-added chemicals, energy, and materials from algal remnants (e.g., biogas, animal/fish feeds, fertilizers, industrial enzyme, bioplastics, and surfactants) • Optimize co-product extraction and recovery • Conduct market analyses, including quality and safety trials to meet applicable standards • Characterize algal biomass, intermediates, biofuel, and bioproducts under different storage and transport scenarios for contamination, weather impacts, stability, and end-product variability • Optimize distribution for energy and costs in the context of facility siting • Comply with all regulatory and customer requirements for utilization (e.g., engine performance and material compatibility) • Integrate modeling efforts to capture multiple dimensions of effects from production of algal biomass, including sustainable resource use • Standardize methods and analysis for modeling resource characteristics and requirements • Investigate the impacts of carbon capture and utilization of algal biomass production • Address salt balance, energy balance, water and nutrient recycling, and thermal management • Advance understanding of integration of CO2 waste emitting industries and wastewater treatment plant co-location with algal cultivation facilities 12 Conclusion 189 BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE are going to be necessary to achieve cost-competitive and commodity-scale quantities of algal biomass for biofuel and bioproduct production 12.4 Critical Next Steps Near-term actions critical to progress in the field include collection and dissemination of quality and standardized data Technology solutions are dispersed among many companies and research laboratories The protection of intellectual property is a concern, but open-access data, information, and tools, such as those provided through the DOE-funded testbed programs and the Los Alamos National Laboratory ‘Omics Database, are critical to prevent duplication of mistakes and to advance the field Defining standards, metrics, and best practices for analysis and quality controls for data will facilitate data management and dissemination programs Collaborative sharing of raw biomass and feedstock for downstream processing and conversion researchers to test would also benefit the entire field In addition, communication of successes and accomplishments can help to not only provide lessons to fellow researchers, but can also help garner investor and public interest Given the multiple technology and system options and their interdependency, a continued focus on integrating and harmonizing techno-economic modeling and analysis spanning the entire algae to biofuels supply chain is crucial in guiding research efforts along select pathways that offer the most opportunity to practically enable a viable and sustainable algaebased biofuels and co-products industry Additional data is also critically needed to develop systematic performance models Models can be used to address high-impact sustainability drivers, such as greenhouse gas emissions and water consumption, from the feedstock generation facility to the downstream conversion processes Modeling toolsets can support reverse engineering and sensitivity analyses, probability charts, and process unit validations, and can also facilitate sharing of information among user groups Close collaboration among modelers and experimentalists can help to identify critical focus areas to improve economic and sustainability metrics and can identify operational requirements for large-scale algae production facilities Project data from integrated and semi-integrated designs can support optimization of cultivation, harvesting, and processing unit operations Sharing of data from reactor design and balance of plant studies can support optimization of scaled pathway details, such as heat integration and strategies to leverage existing sources of energy Data from cost-effective culture monitoring systems are needed to identify and remedy pond crashes Data and information is needed on point source CO2 including uptake efficiency and potential bioaccumulation of pollutants 190 12 Conclusion In order to facilitate implementation of CO2 point source solutions, inter- and intra-agency coordination is needed at multiple levels DOE’s Fossil Energy Office is currently investigating algal carbon capture and utilization strategies EPA has included algal carbon capture and utilization in its Clean Power Plan as a means for states to meet regulatory requirements for point source pollutants Concerns around the stability and environmental impact of genetically modified algae also dictates engagement by EPA in this field DOE can support scientific data sharing for the regulatory community’s consideration in this matter In general, a dedicated research and development focus on cost-effective solutions for simple, low-energy inoculum and culture production, product extraction, and conversion systems is required BETO’s Advanced Algal Systems Program is focused on demonstrating progress toward achieving high-yield, low-cost, environmentally sustainable algal biofuel production systems, and is actively working with the R&D community to make algal biofuel a part of a diversified energy future BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE Appendix A: Reviewers to the National Algal Biofuels Technology Review Nadia Ahmad Barry University Ian Archibald Cinglas Ltd Colin Beal B&D Engineering and Consulting LLC Jacques Beaudry-Losique Algenol LLC John Benemann MicroBio Engineering, Inc Mary Biddy National Renewable Energy Laboratory Dorin Boldor Louisiana State University Matthew Carr Algae Biomass Organization Heriberto Cerutti University of Nebraska–Lincoln Shulin Chen Washington State University Andre Coleman Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Jim Coons Los Alamos National Laboratory Mark Crocker University of Kentucky Ryan Davis National Renewable Energy Laboratory Corinne Drennan Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Jennifer Dunn Agronne National Laboratory Andy Dupont U.S Environmental Protection Agency Rebecca Efroymson Oak Ridge National Laboratory Doug Elliott Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Robin Gerlach University of Montana Brian Goodall Valicor David Hanson University of New Mexico Valerie Harmon Harmon Consulting, Inc David Hazlebeck Global Algae Innovations Mark Hildebrand University of California, San Diego Michael Huesemann Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Myriah Johnson Texas A&M University Rick Johnson Clearas Water Recovery Jill Kauffman Johnson TerraVia Zackary Johnson Duke University Susanne Jones Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Alexander Koukoulas Herty Advanced Materials Development Center Michael Lakeman The Boeing Company Peter Lammers Arizona State University 191 BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE Todd Lane Sandia National Laboratory Lieve Laurens National Renewable Energy Laboratory Philip Lee Harmon Consulting Ben Lucker Michigan State University Tryg Lundqust California Polytechnic State University Schonna Manning University of Texas, Austin John Marano JM Energy Consulting, Inc Max Mayeaux U.S Department of Agriculture, National Institute for Food and Agriculture Mark Menetrez U.S Environmental Protection Agency Pranjali Muley Louisiana State University Mark Nelson Retired (formerly DuPont) Miguel Olaizola Heliae Ron Pate Sandia National Laboratories John Pellegrino University of Colorado, Boulder Philip Pienkos National Renewable Energy Laboratory Matthew Posewitz Colorado School of Mines Roger Prince ExxonMobil Corporation Peter Ralph University of Technology, Sydney James Richardson Texas A&M University William Rickman P.E Chemical Engineering Consultant Anne Ruffing Sandia National Laboratories Mike Rust U.S National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Ashik Sathish Iowa State University Richard Sayre Los Alamos National Laboratory Tanner Schaub New Mexico State University Susan Schoenung Longitude 122 West, Inc Mark Segal U.S Environmental Protection Agency Richard Skaggs Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Shahab Sokhansanj Oak Ridge National Laboratory Shawn Starkenburg Los Alamos National Laboratory Timothy Strathmann Colorado School of Mines Rhona Stuart Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Emily Trentacoste U.S Environmental Protection Agency Erik Venteris Monsanto Company Mark Wigmosta Pacific Northwest National Laboratory 192 BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE Jianping Yu National Renewable Energy Laboratory Yongli Zhang Wayne State University 193 BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE Appendix B: Contributors to the 2010 Roadmap Jim Brainard National Renewable Energy Laboratory Tom Brennan Arch Ventures Bill Buchan NASA Ames Research Center Mike Cleary National Renewable Energy Laboratory Michael Cooney University of Hawaii – Manoa Al Darzins National Renewable Energy Laboratory Daniel Fishman BCS, Inc Maria Ghirardi National Renewable Energy Laboratory Stephen Gorin National Renewable Energy Laboratory Tom Gross IF, LLC Molly Hames U.S Department of Energy Golden Field Office Grant Heffelfinger Sandia National Laboratories Mark Hildenbrand Scripps Institution of Oceanography John Hogan NASA Ames Research Center Quiang Hu Arizona State University Michael Huesemann Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Eric Jarvis National Renewable Energy Laboratory Geoff Klise Sandia National Laboratories Alina Kulikowski-Tan Carbon Capture Corp Pete Lammers New Mexico State University Jared Largen BCS, Incorporated Yantao Li Arizona State University Tryg Lundquist California Polytechnic State University Rajita Majumdar BCS, Incorporated Len Malcynski Sandia National Laboratories Tony Martino National Renewable Energy Laboratory Steve Mayfield Scripps Institution of Oceanography Anelia Milbrandt National Renewable Energy Laboratory Joanne Morello U.S Department of Energy, Bioenergy Technologies Office Chuck Mueller Sandia National Laboratories Nick Nagle National Renewable Energy Laboratory Michael Pacheco National Renewable Energy Laboratory Ron Pate Sandia National Laboratory Leslie Pezzullo U.S Department of Energy, Bioenergy Technologies Office 194 BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE Philip Pienkos National Renewable Energy Laboratory Juergen Polle Brooklyn College Matthew Posewitz Colorado School of Mines Ron Putt Auburn University Kathy Roach MurphyTate, LLC Guri Roesijadi National Renewable Energy Laboratory Mike Seibert National Renewable Energy Laboratory Joel Serface Kleiner Perkins Chris Shaddix Sandia National Laboratories Blake Simmons Sandia National Laboratories Joyce Yang U.S Department of Energy, Bioenergy Technologies Office 195 BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE Appendix C: Respondents to the Request for Information on the 2010 Draft Roadmap Daniel Angell TPA Inc Bob Avant Texas AM Halil Berberoglu University of Texas Shulin Chen Washington University Barry Cohen National Algae Association Anju Dahiya The University of Vermont and General Systems Research LLC Matthew Frome Solazyme Michael R Gale PetroAlgae, LLC Arthur Grossman Carnegie Institution for Science (Staff Member), Stanford University (Adjunct Professor), Solazyme (Chief of Genetics) Douglas Haughey Not listed Joel E Kostka Florida State University David Lewis The University of Adelaide Margaret McCormick Targeted Growth Lissa Morgenthaler-Jones LiveFuels, Inc Matt Peak Prize Capital María Piera Alberola Abengoa Matthew Posewitz Colorado School of Mines Bruce Resnick Cargill Bruce E Rittmann Center for Environmental Biotechnology, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University G Roesijadi Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Mary Rosenthal Algal Biomass Organization Richard Sayre and Ursula Goodenough Donald Danforth Plant Science Center and Washington University Gerard Seeley Jr Algal Farms, Inc Mark Segal Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics Alexander D Shenderov BioLogical Technologies, Inc Dr Valentin Soloiu Georgia Southern University Lance Stokes ECI Environmental Compliance Jefferson Tester Cornell University Willem Vermaas Arizona State University, School of Life Sciences Marc von Keitz and Steve Heilmann University of Minnesota, Biotechnology Institute David L Wenbert The Eden Tube Project 196 BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE Norman M Whitton, Dr Robert S Weber Sunrise Ridge Algae, Inc Paul Woods Algenol Xiaohan Yang Oak Ridge National Laboratory Tim Zenk Sapphire Energy 197 BIOENERGY TECHNOLOGIES OFFICE Appendix D: List of Acronyms ABY – Algal Biomass Yield LCA – life-cycle analysis ACCase – acetyl-CoA carboxylase LEAPS – Laboratory Environmental Algae Pond AFDW – ash free dry weight LED – light-emitting diode ASE – accelerated solvent extraction MAE – microwave-assisted extraction ASP – Aquatic Species Program NAABB – National Alliance for Advanced Biofuels and Bioproducts ATP – adenosine triphosphate ATP3 – Algae Testbed Public-Private Partnership BAT – Biomass Assessment Tool BD20/BD40 – 20% and 40% biodiesel BETO – Bioenergy Technologies Office CAB-Comm – Consortium for Algal Biofuels Commercialization NOx – nitrogen oxides NREL – National Renewable Energy Laboratory NSF – National Science Foundation PAP – Parallel Algal Processing PBR – photobioreactor PEF – pulsed electric field CAP – Combined Algal Processing PNNL – Pacific Northwest National Laboratory CCM – carbon concentrating mechanism pR&D – research and development CHG – catalytic hydrothermal gasification PUFA – polyunsaturated fatty acids DAG – diacylglycerol RA – resource assessment DDG – distillers dry grain RAFT – Regional Algal Feedstocks Testbed DDGS – distillers dry grain plus soluble RD&D – research, development, and demonstration DGAT – diacylglycerol acyltransferase RFS – Renewable Fuel Standard DHA – docosohexaenoic acid RNAi – ribonucleic acid interference DOE – U.S Department of Energy RON – research octane number EISA – Energy Independence and Security Act SABC – Sustainable Algal Biofuels Consortium EPA – U.S Environmental Protection Agency SAG – Culture Collection of Algae at Goettingen ePBR – environmental photobioreactor SEGHTL – two-step sequential hydrothermal liquefaction FACS – fluorescence-activated cell sorting SHS – single-component system FAME – fatty acid methyl ester SPK – synthetic paraffinic kerosene FOA – funding opportunity announcement SSS – two-component system FTS – Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis TABB – Target Algal Bioproducts and Biofuels GAI – Global Algae Innovations TAGs – triacyglyerols GGE – gallons of gasoline equivalent TALE – transcription activator-like effectors GHG – greenhouse gas TALEN – transcription activator-like effector nuclease GIS – geographic information system TEA – techno-economic analysis GLA – y-linolenic acid USDA – U.S Department of Agriculture HPA – heteropolyacid UTEX – University of Texas HTL – hydrothermal liquefaction ZFN – zinc-finger nucleases IBR – integrated biorefinery 198 DOE/EE-1409 bioenergy.energy.gov