IET POWER AND ENERGY SERIES 80 Reliability of Power Electronic Converter Systems Other volumes in this series: Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume 10 11 13 14 15 16 18 19 21 22 Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume 24 25 26 27 29 30 31 32 33 36 Volume 37 Volume 38 Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume 39 40 41 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 Volume 51 Volume 52 Volume 53 Volume 55 Volume 56 Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume 57 58 59 62 63 65 66 67 68 69 70 Volume 78 Volume 77 Volume 79 Volume 905 Power Circuit Breaker Theory and Design C.H Flurscheim (Editor) Industrial Microwave Heating A.C Metaxas and R.J Meredith Insulators for High Voltages J.S.T Looms Variable Frequency AC Motor Drive Systems D Finney SF6 Switchgear H.M Ryan and G.R Jones Conduction and Induction Heating E.J Davies Statistical Techniques for High 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Numerical Analysis of Power System Transients and Dynamics A Ametani (Editor) Wide-Area Monitoring of Interconnected Power Systems A.R Messina Vehicle-to-Grid: Linking Electric Vehicles to The Smart Grid J Lu and J Hossain (Editors) Power System Protection, volumes Reliability of Power Electronic Converter Systems Edited by Henry Shu-hung Chung, Huai Wang, Frede Blaabjerg and Michael Pecht The Institution of Engineering and Technology Published by The Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, United Kingdom The Institution of Engineering and Technology is registered as a Charity in England & Wales (no 211014) and Scotland (no SC038698) † The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016 First published 2015 This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright Convention All rights reserved Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publisher at the undermentioned address: The Institution of Engineering and Technology Michael Faraday House Six Hills Way, Stevenage Herts, SG1 2AY, United Kingdom www.theiet.org While the authors and publisher believe that the information and guidance given in this work are correct, all parties must rely upon their own skill and judgement when making use of them Neither the authors nor publisher assumes any liability to anyone for any loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether such an error or omission is the result of negligence or any other cause Any and all such liability is disclaimed The moral rights of the authors to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this product is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-84919-901-8 (hardback) ISBN 978-1-84919-902-5 (PDF) Typeset in India by MPS Limited Printed in the UK by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon Contents Reliability engineering in power electronic converter systems 1.1 Performance factors of power electronic systems 1.1.1 Power electronic converter systems 1.1.2 Design objectives for power electronic converters 1.1.3 Reliability requirements in typical power electronic applications 1.2 Reliability engineering in power electronics 1.2.1 Key terms and metrics in reliability engineering 1.2.2 Historical development of power electronics and reliability engineering 1.2.3 Physics of failure of power electronic components 1.2.4 DFR of power electronic converter systems 1.2.5 Accelerated testing concepts in reliability engineering 1.2.6 Strategies to improve the reliability of power electronic converter systems 1.3 Challenges and opportunities in research on power electronics reliability 1.3.1 Challenges in power electronics reliability research 1.3.2 Opportunities in power electronics reliability research References Anomaly detection and remaining life prediction for power electronics 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Failure models 2.2.1 Time-dependent dielectric breakdown models 2.2.2 Energy-based models 2.2.3 Thermal cycling models 2.3 FMMEA to identify failure mechanisms 2.4 Data-driven methods for life prediction 2.4.1 The variable reduction method 2.4.2 Define failure threshold by Mahalanobis distance 2.4.3 K-nearest neighbor classification 2.4.4 Remaining life estimation-based particle filter parameter 1 6 11 15 17 20 23 24 25 25 26 31 31 32 33 34 35 36 39 40 42 46 48 vi Reliability of power electronic converter systems 2.4.5 Data-driven anomaly detection and prognostics for electronic circuits 2.4.6 Canary methods for anomaly detection and prognostics for electronic circuits 2.5 Summary Acknowledgements References 51 52 53 53 53 Reliability of DC-link capacitors in power electronic converters 3.1 Capacitors for DC-links in power electronic converters 3.1.1 The type of capacitors used for DC-links 3.1.2 Comparison of different types of capacitors for DC-links 3.1.3 Reliability challenges for capacitors in power electronic converters 3.2 Failure mechanisms and lifetime models of capacitors 3.2.1 Failure modes, failure mechanisms, and critical stressors of DC-link capacitors 3.2.2 Lifetime models of DC-link capacitors 3.2.3 Accelerated lifetime testing of DC-link capacitors under humidity conditions 3.3 Reliability-oriented design for DC links 3.3.1 Six types of capacitive DC-link design solutions 3.3.2 A reliability-oriented design procedure of capacitive DC-links 3.4 Condition monitoring of DC-link capacitors References 59 59 59 60 Reliability of power electronic packaging 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Reliability concepts for power electronic packaging 4.3 Reliability testing for power electronic packaging 4.3.1 Thermal shock testing 4.3.2 Temperature cycling 4.3.3 Power cycling test 4.3.4 Autoclave 4.3.5 Gate dielectric reliability test 4.3.6 Highly accelerated stress test 4.3.7 High-temperature storage life (HSTL) test 4.3.8 Burn-in test 4.3.9 Other tests 4.4 Power semiconductor package or module reliability 4.4.1 Solder joint reliability 4.4.2 Bond wire reliability 4.5 Reliability of high-temperature power electronic modules 4.5.1 Power substrate 83 83 84 85 86 86 87 88 88 89 89 89 90 90 91 91 94 95 63 64 64 66 68 69 70 72 75 77 Contents 4.5.2 High-temperature die attach reliability 4.5.3 Die top surface electrical interconnection 4.5.4 Encapsulation 4.6 Summary Acknowledgements References Modelling for the lifetime prediction of power semiconductor modules 5.1 Accelerated cycling tests 5.2 Dominant failure mechanisms 5.3 Lifetime modelling 5.3.1 Thermal modelling 5.3.2 Empirical lifetime models 5.3.3 Physics-based lifetime models 5.3.4 Lifetime prediction based on PC lifetime models 5.4 Physics-based lifetime estimation of solder joints within power semiconductor modules 5.4.1 Stress–strain (hysteresis) solder behaviour 5.4.2 Constitutive solder equations 5.4.3 Clech’s algorithm 5.4.4 Energy-based lifetime modelling 5.5 Example of physics-based lifetime modelling for solder joints 5.5.1 Thermal simulation 5.5.2 Stress–strain modelling 5.5.3 Stress–strain analysis 5.5.4 Model verification 5.5.5 Lifetime curves extraction 5.5.6 Model accuracy and parameter sensitivity 5.5.7 Lifetime estimation tool 5.6 Conclusions Acknowledgements References Minimization of DC-link capacitance in power electronic converter systems 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Performance tradeoff 6.3 Passive approach 6.3.1 Passive filtering techniques 6.3.2 Ripple cancellation techniques 6.4 Active approach 6.4.1 Power decoupling techniques 6.4.2 Ripple cancellation techniques vii 96 97 98 99 99 99 103 105 106 108 108 110 112 117 118 119 121 123 123 124 125 127 129 130 132 133 135 136 136 137 141 141 143 145 145 146 147 147 154 viii Reliability of power electronic converter systems 6.4.3 Control and modulation techniques 6.4.4 Specialized circuit structures 6.5 Conclusions Acknowledgement References 155 156 157 157 157 Wind turbine systems 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Review of main WT power electronic architectures 7.2.1 Onshore and offshore 7.3 Public domain knowledge of power electronic converter reliabilities 7.3.1 Architecture reliability 7.3.2 SCADA data 7.3.3 Converter reliability 7.4 Reliability FMEA for each assembly and comparative prospective reliabilities 7.4.1 Introduction 7.4.2 Assemblies 7.4.3 Summary 7.5 Root causes of failure 7.6 Methods to improve WT converter reliability and availability 7.6.1 Architecture 7.6.2 Thermal management 7.6.3 Control 7.6.4 Monitoring 7.7 Conclusions 7.8 Recommendations Acknowledgements Terminology Abbreviations Variables References 165 165 165 165 Active thermal control for improved reliability of power electronics systems 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Thermal stress and reliability of power electronics 8.1.2 Concept of active thermal control for improved reliability 8.2 Modulation strategies achieving better thermal loading 8.2.1 Impacts of modulation strategies on thermal stress 8.2.2 Modulations under normal conditions 8.2.3 Modulations under fault conditions 8.3 Reactive power control achieving better thermal cycling 8.3.1 Impacts of reactive power 171 171 174 176 180 180 181 181 186 187 187 187 187 188 188 189 189 189 192 192 193 195 195 195 198 199 199 200 202 204 204 Contents 8.3.2 Case study on the DFIG-based wind turbine system 8.3.3 Study case in the paralleled converters 8.4 Thermal control strategies utilizing active power 8.4.1 Impacts of active power to the thermal stress 8.4.2 Energy storage in large-scale wind power converters 8.5 Conclusions Acknowledgements References 10 ix 206 210 212 212 214 217 217 218 Lifetime modeling and prediction of power devices 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Failure mechanisms of power modules 9.2.1 Package-related mechanisms 9.2.2 Burnout failures 9.3 Lifetime metrology 9.3.1 Lifetime and availability 9.3.2 Exponential distribution 9.3.3 Weibull distribution 9.3.4 Redundancy 9.4 Lifetime modeling and design of components 9.4.1 Lifetime prediction based on mission profiles 9.4.2 Modeling the lifetime of systems with constant failure rate 9.4.3 Modeling the lifetime of systems submitted to low-cycle fatigue 9.5 Summary and conclusions Acknowledgements References 223 223 225 225 227 229 229 230 231 232 233 233 Power module lifetime test and state monitoring 10.1 Overview of power cycling methods 10.2 AC current PC 10.2.1 Introduction 10.2.2 Stressors in AC PC 10.3 Wear-out status of PMs 10.3.1 On-state voltage measurement method 10.3.2 Current measurement 10.3.3 Cooling temperature measurement 10.4 Voltage evolution in IGBT and diode 10.4.1 Application of uce,on monitoring 10.4.2 Degradation and failure mechanisms 10.4.3 Post-mortem investigation 10.5 Chip temperature estimation 10.5.1 Introduction 10.5.2 Overview of junction temperature estimation methods 245 245 246 246 247 249 250 253 254 256 259 260 262 262 262 264 234 236 241 242 242 ... Contents Reliability engineering in power electronic converter systems 1.1 Performance factors of power electronic systems 1.1.1 Power electronic converter systems 1.1.2 Design objectives for power electronic. .. Historical development of power electronics and reliability engineering 1.2.3 Physics of failure of power electronic components 1.2.4 DFR of power electronic converter systems 1.2.5 Accelerated... the reliability of power electronic components, design for reliability (DFR) in power electronics, accelerated testing, and strategies to improve the reliability of power electronic converter systems