Apago PDF Enhancer bur75640_endpapers_front.indd 02 Periodic Table of the Elements Main group Main group Period number 1A Group number 8A 18 1 Hydrogen 1.008 2A Li Be Lithium 6.941 11 Beryllium 9.012 12 Na Mg Atomic number C Carbon 12.01 Name 3A 13 Average atomic mass Helium 4.003 10 B C N O F Ne Boron 10.81 13 Carbon 12.01 14 Nitrogen 14.01 15 Oxygen 16.00 16 Fluorine 19.00 17 Neon 20.18 18 An element Transitional metals Sodium 22.99 19 Magnesium 24.31 20 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Potassium 39.10 37 Calcium 40.08 38 Scandium 44.96 39 Titanium 47.87 40 Iron 55.85 44 Rb Sr Y Zr Rubidium 85.47 55 Strontium 87.62 56 Yttrium 88.91 71 Zirconium 91.22 72 Vanadium Chromium Manganese 50.94 52.00 54.94 41 42 43 Nb Mo Tc Ru Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.1 74 73 75 76 10 1B 11 2B 12 4A 14 5A 15 6A 16 7A 17 He Symbol Apago PDF Enhancer Key H Al Si P S Cl Ar Aluminum 26.98 31 Silicon 28.09 32 Phosphorus 30.97 33 Sulfur 32.07 34 Chlorine 35.45 35 Argon 39.95 36 Ga Ge As 28 29 30 Co Ni Cu Zn Cobalt 58.93 45 Nickel 58.69 46 Copper 63.55 47 Zinc 65.41 48 Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Rhodium 102.9 77 Palladium 106.4 78 Silver 107.9 79 Cadmium 112.4 80 Indium 114.8 81 Tin 118.7 82 Antimony 121.8 83 Gallium Germanium Arsenic 69.72 72.64 74.92 49 50 51 Se Br Kr Selenium 78.96 52 Bromine 79.90 53 Krypton 83.80 54 Te I Xe Tellurium 127.6 84 Iodine 126.9 85 Xenon 131.3 86 Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Cesium 132.9 87 Barium 137.3 88 Lutetium 175.0 103 Hafnium 178.5 104 Tantalum 180.9 105 Tungsten 183.8 106 Rhenium 186.2 107 Osmium 190.2 108 Iridium 192.2 109 Platinum 195.1 110 Gold 197.0 111 Mercury 200.6 112 Thallium 204.4 113 Lead 207.2 114 Bismuth 209.0 115 Polonium (209) 116 Astatine (210) 117 Radon (222) 118 Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Mt Ds Rg – – – – – – – (285) – (284) – (289) – (288) – (293) – (294) Fr Ra Francium (223) Radium (226) Metals Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium (262) (267) (268) (271) (272) Lanthanides Nonmetals Metalloids Actinides 57 58 59 La Ce Pr Lanthanum 138.9 89 Cerium 140.1 90 Hs Hassium (270) 60 Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium (276) (281) (280) 61 62 Nd Pm Sm Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 91 92 93 94 Ac Th Pa U Actinium (227) Thorium 232.0 Protactinium 231.0 Uranium 238.0 Np 63 64 65 66 67 68 Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Europium 152.0 95 Gadolium 157.3 96 Terbium 158.9 97 Pu Am Cm Bk Neptunium Plutonium Americium (237) (244) (243) Curium (247) Dysprosium Holmium 162.5 164.9 98 99 Cf Es Erbium 167.3 100 69 70 Tm Yb Thulium 168.9 101 Ytterbium 173.0 102 Fm Md No Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) 10/29/09 12:37:45 PM List of the Elements with Their Symbols and Atomic Masses* Element Actinium Aluminum Americium Antimony Argon Arsenic Astatine Barium Berkelium Beryllium Bismuth Bohrium Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium Californium Carbon Cerium Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copper Curium Darmstadtium Dubnium Dysprosium Einsteinium Erbium Europium Fermium Fluorine Francium Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Hassium Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lawrencium Lead Lithium Lutetium Magnesium Manganese Meitnerium Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass † Ac Al Am Sb Ar As At Ba Bk Be Bi Bh B Br Cd Ca Cf C Ce Cs Cl Cr Co Cu Cm Ds Db Dy Es Er Eu Fm F Fr Gd Ga Ge Au Hf Hs He Ho H In I Ir Fe Kr La Lr Pb Li Lu Mg Mn Mt 89 13 95 51 18 33 85 56 97 83 107 35 48 20 98 58 55 17 24 27 29 96 110 105 66 99 68 63 100 87 64 31 32 79 72 108 67 49 53 77 26 36 57 103 82 71 12 25 109 (227) 26.9815386 (243) 121.760 39.948 74.92160 (210) 137.327 (247) 9.012182 208.98040 (272) 10.811 79.904 112.411 40.078 (251) 12.0107 140.116 132.9054519 35.453 51.9961 58.933195 63.546 (247) (281) (268) 162.500 (252) 167.259 151.964 (257) 18.9984032 (223) 157.25 69.723 72.64 196.966569 178.49 (270) 4.002602 164.93032 1.00794 114.818 126.90447 192.217 55.845 83.798 138.90547 (262) 207.2 6.941 174.967 24.3050 54.938045 (276) Element Mendelevium Mercury Molybdenum Neodymium Neon Neptunium Nickel Niobium Nitrogen Nobelium Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Plutonium Polonium Potassium Praseodymium Promethium Protactinium Radium Radon Rhenium Rhodium Roentgenium Rubidium Ruthenium Rutherfordium Samarium Scandium Seaborgium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Technetium Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium Apago PDF Enhancer Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Mass † Md Hg Mo Nd Ne Np Ni Nb N No Os O Pd P Pt Pu Po K Pr Pm Pa Ra Rn Re Rh Rg Rb Ru Rf Sm Sc Sg Se Si Ag Na Sr S Ta Tc Te Tb Tl Th Tm Sn Ti W U V Xe Yb Y Zn Zr 101 80 42 60 10 93 28 41 102 76 46 15 78 94 84 19 59 61 91 88 86 75 45 111 37 44 104 62 21 106 34 14 47 11 38 16 73 43 52 65 81 90 69 50 22 74 92 23 54 70 39 30 40 (258) 200.59 95.94 144.242 20.1797 (237) 58.6934 92.90638 14.0067 (259) 190.23 15.9994 106.42 30.973762 195.084 (244) (209) 39.0983 140.90765 (145) 231.03588 (226) (222) 186.207 102.90550 (280) 85.4678 101.07 (267) 150.36 44.955912 (271) 78.96 28.0855 107.8682 22.98976928 87.62 32.065 180.94788 (98) 127.60 158.92535 204.3833 232.03806 168.93421 118.710 47.867 183.84 238.02891 50.9415 131.293 173.04 88.90585 65.409 91.224 *These atomic masses show as many significant figures as are known for each element The atomic masses in the periodic table are shown to four significant figures, which is sufficient for solving the problems in this book †Approximate values of atomic masses for radioactive elements are given in parentheses bur75640_endpapers_front.indd 03 10/29/09 12:37:45 PM Second Edition Chemistry Julia Burdge University of Idaho Apago PDF Enhancer TM bur75640_FM.indd i 12/3/09 3:06:09 PM TM CHEMISTRY, SECOND EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020 Copyright © 2011 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Previous edition © 2009 No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States This book is printed on acid-free paper DOW/DOW ISBN 978–0–07–337564–9 MHID 0–07–337564–0 Publisher: Ryan Blankenship Senior Sponsoring Editor: Tamara L Hodge Vice-President New Product Launches: Michael Lange Senior Developmental Editor: Shirley R Oberbroeckling Senior Marketing Manager: Todd L Turner Senior Project Manager: Gloria G Schiesl Lead Production Supervisor: Sandy Ludovissy Senior Media Project Manager: Sandra M Schnee Senior Designer: David W Hash Cover/Interior Designer: Greg Nettles/Squarecrow Design (USE) Cover Image: The chemical element bismuth as a synthetic-made crystal The surface is an iridescent, very thin layer of oxidation ©Alchemist-hp Senior Photo Research Coordinator: Lori Hancock Photo Research: David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC Supplement Producer: Mary Jane Lampe Compositor: Precision Graphics Typeface: 10/12 Times Printer: R R Donnelley Apago PDF Enhancer All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Burdge, Julia R Chemistry / Julia Burdge 2nd ed p cm Includes index ISBN 978–0–07–337564–9 — ISBN 0–07–337564–0 (hard copy : alk paper) Chemistry-Textbooks I Title QD33.2.B865 2011 540 dc22 2009034024 www.mhhe.com bur75640_FM.indd ii 12/3/09 3:06:09 PM ABOUT THE Author Julia Burdge received her Ph.D (1994) from the University of Idaho in Moscow, Idaho Her research and dissertation focused on instrument development for analysis of trace sulfur compounds in air and the statistical evaluation of data near the detection limit In 1994 she accepted a position at The University of Akron in Akron, Ohio, as an assistant professor and director of the Introductory Chemistry program In the year 2000, she was tenured and promoted to associate professor at The University of Akron on the merits of her teaching, service, and research in chemistry education In addition to directing the general chemistry program and supervising the teaching activities graduApago PDF ofEnhancer ate students, she helped establish a future-faculty development program and served as a mentor for graduate students and postdoctoral associates Julia has recently relocated back to the Northwest to be near family She and her children live in Pullman, Washington, home of Washington State University; and she holds an affiliate faculty position in the Chemistry Department at the University of Idaho She also continues to work with students in Ohio and Florida via an online tutoring program Julia and her children are animal lovers and moved three horses, three cats, and a dog with them to the Northwest They are enjoying the changes of seasons, long horseback rides on the Palouse, and frequent visits with family iii bur75640_FM.indd iii 12/3/09 3:06:10 PM To the people who will always matter the most: Katie, Beau, and Sam Apago PDF Enhancer bur75640_FM.indd iv 12/3/09 3:06:12 PM BRIEF Contents Chemistry: The Central Science 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 34 Stoichiometry: Ratios of Combination 76 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 116 Thermochemistry 170 Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms 210 Electronic Configuration and the Periodic Table 256 Chemical Bonding I: Basic Concepts 296 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories 338 10 Organic Chemistry 386 11 Gases 440 PDF 12 Apago Intermolecular Forces Enhancer and the Physical Properties of Liquids and Solids 13 Physical Properties of Solutions 538 14 Chemical Kinetics 578 15 Chemical Equilibrium 628 16 Acids and Bases 672 17 Acid-Base Equilibria and Solubility Equilibria 726 18 Entropy, Free Energy, and Equilibrium 776 19 Electrochemistry 816 20 Nuclear Chemistry 858 21 Environmental Chemistry 892 22 Coordination Chemistry 920 23 Metallurgy and the Chemistry of Metals 944 24 Nonmetallic Elements and Their Compounds 968 25 Modern Materials 998 Appendix Appendix Appendix 492 Mathematical Operations A-1 Thermodynamic Data at atm and 25°C Solubility Product Constants at 25°C A-6 A-12 v bur75640_FM.indd v 12/3/09 3:06:13 PM Contents A Visual Approach Integrating Art and Media List of Applications Preface xxii xxiii 360° Development Process Acknowledgments xxviii xxxi Enhanced Support for Faculty & Students 1.1 1.3 The Study of Chemistry •Apago Chemistry You MayEnhancer Already Know • The Scientific Method PDF 1.6 11 • Derived Units: Volume and Density The Properties of Matter 14 • Physical Properties 14 Why Are Units So Important? 1.5 Classification of Matter • States of Matter • Elements • Compounds • Mixtures Scientific Measurement • SI Base Units • Mass 10 • Temperature 10 Fahrenheit Temperature Scale 1.4 xxxii CHEMISTRY: THE CENTRAL SCIENCE What Do Molecules Look Like? 1.2 xx 12 14 • Chemical Properties 15 • Extensive and Intensive Properties 15 Uncertainty in Measurement 17 • Significant Figures 17 • Calculations with Measured Numbers 18 • Accuracy and Precision 20 Using Units and Solving Problems 22 • Conversion Factors 22 • Dimensional Analysis—Tracking Units 22 How Can I Enhance My Chances of Success in Chemistry Class? 23 vi bur75640_FM.indd vi 12/3/09 3:06:14 PM CONTENTS 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS 34 The Atomic Theory 36 The Structure of the Atom 39 • Discovery of the Electron 39 • Radioactivity 40 • The Proton and the Nucleus 41 • Nuclear Model of the Atom 42 • The Neutron 43 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes 44 The Periodic Table 45 Distribution of Elements on Earth 47 How Are Atomic Masses Measured? 2.5 2.6 2.7 48 The Atomic Mass Scale and Average Atomic Mass 48 Molecules and Molecular Compounds 50 • Molecules 50 • Molecular Formulas 51 • Naming Molecular Compounds 52 • Empirical Formulas 54 Ions and Ionic Compounds 58 • Atomic Ions 58 • Polyatomic Ions 59 • Formulas of Ionic Compounds 60 • Naming Ionic Compounds 61 How Are Oxoanions and Oxoacids Named? • Hydrates 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.5 3.6 3.7 62 64 • Familiar Inorganic Compounds 65 Apago PDF Enhancer STOICHIOMETRY: RATIOS OF COMBINATION Molecular and Formula Masses 78 Percent Composition of Compounds 79 Chemical Equations 80 • Interpreting and Writing Chemical Equations Chemical Equations 81 The Stoichiometry of Metabolism 3.4 76 80 • Balancing 84 The Mole and Molar Masses 86 • The Mole 86 • Determining Molar Mass 88 • Interconverting Mass, Moles, and Numbers of Particles 89 • Empirical Formula from Percent Composition 90 Combustion Analysis 91 • Determination of Empirical Formula 91 • Determination of Molecular Formula 92 Calculations with Balanced Chemical Equations 94 • Moles of Reactants and Products 94 • Mass of Reactants and Products 95 Limiting Reactants 97 • Determining the Limiting Reactant 97 Limiting Reactant Problems • Reaction Yield 98 101 How Am I Supposed to Remember All These Reactions? bur75640_FM.indd vii vii 104 12/3/09 3:06:17 PM A NSWE RS TO ODD - NUMB ERED PROB LEMS AlCl3 to be an AB3-type molecule (no lone pairs on the central atom) The geometry should be trigonal planar, and the aluminum atom should therefore be sp2 hybridized 23.59 65.4 g/mol 23.61 Copper(II) ion is more easily reduced than either water or hydrogen ion Copper metal is more easily oxidized than water Water should not be affected by the copper purification process under standard conditions 23.63 (a) 1482 kJ/ mol (b) 3152.8 kJ/mol 23.65 Mg(s) reacts with N2(g) at high temperatures to produce Mg3N2(s) Ti(s) also reacts with N2(g) at high temperatures to produce TiN(s) 23.67 (a) In water the aluminum(III) ion causes an increase in the concentration of hydrogen ion (lower pH) This results from the effect of the small diameter and high charge (3ϩ) of the aluminum ion on surrounding water molecules The aluminum ion draws electrons in the O H bonds to itself, thus allowing easy formation of Hϩ ions (b) Al(OH)3 is an amphoteric hydroxide It will dissolve in strong base with the formation of a complex ion Al(OH)3(s) ϩ OHϪ(aq) Al(OH)Ϫ4 (aq) The concentration of OHϪ in aqueous ammonia is too low for this reaction to occur 23.69 CaO(s) ϩ 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) ϩ H2O(l) 23.71 Metals have closely spaced energy levels and a very small energy gap between filled and empty levels Consequently, many electronic transitions can take place with absorption and subsequent emission of light continually occurring Some of these transitions fall in the visible region of the spectrum and give rise to the flickering appearance 23.73 NaF: cavity prevention Li2CO3: antidepressant Mg(OH)2: laxative CaCO3: calcium supplement; antacid BaSO4: radiocontrast agent 23.75 Both Li and Mg form oxides (Li2O and MgO) Other Group 1A metals (Na, K, etc.) also form peroxides and superoxides In Group 1A, only Li forms nitride (Li3N), like Mg (Mg3N2) Li resembles Mg in that its carbonate, fluoride, and phosphate have low solubilities 23.77 Zn 23.79 87.66%; 12.34% 23.81 727 atm AP-17 KNO2(s) ϩ PbO(s) ϩ 2NO2(g) ϩ O2(g) 24.47 KNO3(s) ϩ C(s) CO(g); 48.0 g 24.49 (a) 86.7 kJ/mol (b) ϫ 10Ϫ31 (c) ϫ 10Ϫ31 24.51 125 g/mol; P4 24.53 4HNO3(aq) ϩ P4O10(s) 2N2O5(g) ϩ 4HPO3(l); 60.4 g 24.55 sp3 24.63 G° ϭ Ϫ198.3 kJ/mol; KP ϭ ϫ 1034; Kc ϭ KP 24.65 (a) To exclude light (b) 0.371 L 24.67 F: Ϫ1; O: 24.69 (a) HCOOH(l) CO(g) ϩ H2O(l) (b) 4H3PO4(l) P4O10(s) ϩ 6H2O(l) (c) 2HNO3(l) N2O5(g) ϩ H2O(l) (d) 2HClO3(l) Cl2O5(l) ϩ H2O(l) 24.71 To form OF6 there would have to be six bonds (twelve electrons) around the oxygen atom This would violate the octet rule Since oxygen does not have d orbitals, it cannot have an expanded octet 24.73 35 g 24.75 9H2SO4(aq) ϩ 8NaI(aq) 4I2(s) ϩ H2S(g) ϩ 4H2O(l) ϩ 8NaHSO4(aq) 24.79 Ϫ (a) H F H F (b) F H F 24.81 (a) Linear (b) Tetrahedral (c) Trigonal bipyramidal (d) See-saw 24.83 25.3 L 24.85 2.81 L 24.87 I2O5(s) ϩ 5CO(g) 5CO2(g) ϩ I2(s) Iodine is reduced; carbon is oxidized 24.89 (a) 2H3PO3(aq) H3PO4(aq) ϩ PH3(g) ϩ O2(g) (b) Li4C(s) ϩ 4HCl(aq) 4LiCl(aq) ϩ CH4(g) (c) 2HI(g) ϩ 2HNO2(aq) I2(s) ϩ 2NO(g) ϩ 2H2O(l) (d) H2S(g) ϩ 2Cl2(g) 2HCl(g) ϩ SCl2(l) 24.91 (a) SiCl4 (b) FϪ (c) F (d) CO2 24.93 There is no change in oxidation number; it is zero for both compounds ϩ Ϫ Cl Cl Cl Cl 24.95 PClϩ4 : Cl P Cl , sp3 PClϪ6 : , sp3d2 P Cl Cl Cl Cl Ϫ22 24.97 25°C: K ϭ 9.61 ϫ 10 ; 100°C: K ϭ 1.2 ϫ 10Ϫ15 24.99 The glass is etched by the reaction: 6HF(aq) ϩ SiO2(s) H2SiF6(aq) ϩ 2H2O(l) This process gives the glass a frosted appearance 24.101 1.18 24.103 0.833 g/L The molar mass derived from the observed density is 74.41, which suggests that the molecules are associated to some extent in the gas phase This makes sense due to strong hydrogen bonding in HF Chapter 24 24.11 HCl; CaH2 A water solution of HCl is called hydrochloric acid Calcium hydride will react according to the equation CaH2(s) ϩ 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) ϩ 2H2(g) 24.13 NaH: Ionic compound, reacts with water as follows: NaH(s) ϩ H2O(l) NaOH(aq) ϩ H2(g); CaH2: Ionic compound, reacts with water as follows: CaH2(s) ϩ 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) ϩ 2H2(g); CH4: Covalent compound, unreactive, burns in air or oxygen: CH4(g) ϩ 2O2(g) CO2(g) ϩ 2H2O(l); NH3: Covalent compound, weak base in water: NH3(aq) ϩ H2O(l) NHϩ4 (aq) ϩ OHϪ(aq); H2O: Covalent compound, forms strong intermolecular hydrogen bonds, good solvent for both ionic compounds and substances capable of forming hydrogen bonds; HCl: Covalent compound (polar), acts as a strong acid in water: HCl(g) ϩ H2O(l) H3Oϩ(aq) ϩ ClϪ(aq) 24.15 CaH2(s) ϩ 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) ϩ 2H2(g); 22.7 g 24.17 (a) CuO(s) ϩ H2(g) Cu(s) ϩ H2O(l) (b) No reaction 24.25 C C 2Ϫ 24.27 (a) 2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) ϩ H2O(g) ϩ CO2(g) (b) Ca(OH)2(aq) ϩ CO2(g) CaCO3(s) ϩ H2O(l) The visual proof is the formation of a white precipitate of CaCO3 24.29 Heat causes bicarbonates to decompose according to the reaction: 2HCOϪ3 CO2Ϫ ϩ H2O ϩ CO2 Generation of carbonate ion causes precipitation of the insoluble MgCO3 24.31 NaHCO3 plus some Na2CO3 24.33 Yes 24.39 (a) 2NaNO3(s) 2NaNO2(s) ϩ O2(g) (b) NaNO3(s) ϩ C(s) NaNO2(s) ϩ CO(g) 24.41 NH3(g) ϩ CO2(g) (NH2)2CO(s) ϩ H2O(l) The reaction should be run at high pressure 24.43 The oxidation state of N in nitric acid is ϩ5, the highest oxidation state for N N can be reduced to an oxidation state Ϫ3 24.45 (a) NH4NO3(s) N2O(g) ϩ 2H2O(l) (b) 2KNO3(s) 2KNO2(s) ϩ O2(g) (c) Pb(NO3)2(s) Chapter 25 Apago PDF Enhancer bur75640_answers_AP01-AP18.indd AP-17 25.3 The monomer must have a triple bond 25.5 H C2H5 H C C CH3 CH3 C C H or n H C2H5 C C C C CH3 CH3 H H n 25.9 (1) Produce the alkoxide: Sc(s) ϩ 2C2H5OH(l) Sc(OC2H5)(alc) ϩ 2Hϩ(alc) (“alc” indicates a solution in alcohol); (2) Hydrolyze to produce hydroxide pellets: Sc(OC2H5)(alc) ϩ 2H2O(l) Sc(OH)2(s) ϩ 2C2H5OH(alc); (3) Sinter pellets to produce ceramic: Sc(OH)2(s) ScO(s) ϩ 2H2O(g) 25.11 Bakelite is best described as a thermosetting composite polymer 25.15 No These polymers are too flexible, and liquid crystals require long, relatively rigid molecules 25.19 As shown, it is an alternating condensation copolymer of the polyester class 25.21 Metal amalgams expand with age; composite fillings tend to shrink 25.25 sp2 25.27 Dispersion forces; dispersion forces 25.31 (a) n-type (b) p-type 25.35 Bi2Sr2CuO6 25.37 Two are ϩ2 ([Ar]3d 9), one is ϩ3 ([Ar]3d 8) The ϩ3 oxidation state is unusual for O O HO C ( CH2)4 C OH copper 25.39 H2N ( CH2)8 NH2 25.41 Plastic polymer: covalent bonds, disulfide (covalent) bonds, H-bonds and dispersion forces Ceramics: ionic and network covalent bonds 25.43 Fluoroapatite is less soluble than hydroxyapatite, particularly in acidic solutions Dental fillings must also be insoluble 25.45 The molecule is long, flat and rigid, so it should form a liquid crystal 12/1/09 12:02:54 PM Answers TO PRE-PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE EXAM PROBLEMS Chapter Chapter Chapter 15 Chapter 22 b d c a c a a b b a b d c a b b Chapter Chapter Chapter 16 Chapter 23 c d a b c b b d d b a b c d b a Chapter Chapter 10 Chapter 17 Chapter 24 d b b c c d a c c c a d a b c b Chapter Chapter 11 Chapter 18 Chapter 25 a b a c b a b d d b a c b d b d Chapter Chapter 12 Chapter 19 d a c b c b d a b c d d Chapter Chapter 13 Chapter 20 b a c c b d c c a c d a Chapter Chapter 14 Chapter 21 b a b d a b c b b d c a Apago PDF Enhancer AP-18 bur75640_answers_AP01-AP18.indd AP-18 12/1/09 12:02:56 PM Credits Chapter Opener: Washington State History Research Center; p 3: © Chris Livingston/Getty; 1.1a: © Steve Allen/Getty; 1.1b: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc.; 1.1c: © Stockbyte/PunchStock; 1.1d: © Corbis RF; 1.5, 1.7a-b: © The McGrawHill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters/ Timeframe Photography Inc.; p 12: © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; p 14: © Joe Skipper/Reuters/Corbis Chapter Opener, p 35: © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; 2.1a: © SSPL/The Image Works; 2.1b: © Photo Researchers; 2.1c: © Barry Bland/ Alamy; 2.5a-c, 2.17: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc.; p 67(both): © David Tietz/ Editorial Image, LLC Inc.; 4.15(both): © Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 159: © Jack Sullivan/Alamy Chapter Opener: © Keith Leighton/Alamy; p 171: © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; 5.1: © Bettmann/Corbis; p 194, p 200(top left, top right): © Brian Moeskau; p 200(bottom): © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC Chapter Opener: © Olivier Voisin/Photo Researchers; 6.1(hand): © Jim Wehtje/Getty; p 216: © Brian Moeskau; p 218: © SPL/Photo Researchers; 6.6a: © Doug Menuez/Getty; 6.6b: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc.; 6.8: Courtesy of Sargent-Welch; 6.13a-b: © Dr Stanley Flegler/Visuals Unlimited; p 247: © Phanie/Photo Researchers Apago PDF Enhancer Chapter Opener: © Ezra Shaw/Getty; p 77: Copyrighted images courtesy of Bedford Laboratories, a Division of Ben Venue Laboratories, Inc (www.bedfordlabs.com); 3.1: © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; p 85: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./ John Flournoy, photographer; 3.2: © Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 100: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc Chapter Opener: © Photodisc/Getty RF; p 117: © 67photo/Alamy; 4.1a-c: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; p 120(bottom): © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; 4.3(all): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc.; 4.5: © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; Sample Problem 4.5a-c, 4.6a-b, p 135, 4.9(both): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./ Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc.; 4.11(both): © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; 4.12a-b: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters /Timeframe Photography Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters/ Timeframe Photography Inc.; 7.18(bismuth): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; p 283(bottom): © Heinrich Pniok http://www.pse-mendelejew.de; 7.19(oxygen): © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; 7.19(sulfur): © Richard Treptow/Photo Researchers; 7.19(selenium): © The McGrawHill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters/ Timeframe Photography Inc.; 7.19(tellurium), 7.20(fluorine): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; 7.20(chlorine): © Charles D Winters/Photo Researchers; 7.20(bromine): © The McGrawHill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; 7.20(iodine): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters /Timeframe Photography Inc.; 7.21(helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; p 286: © 3D4Medical.com/Getty; p 288(both): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters /Timeframe Photography Inc Chapter Opener: © GARO/PHANIE/Photo Researchers; p 257(both): © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; 7.14(lithium, sodium, potassium): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winter/Timeframe Photography Inc.; 7.14(rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; 7.15(calcium): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters /Timeframe Photography Inc.; 7.15(strontium): © Ed R Degginger/ Color-Pic, Inc.; 7.15(barium, boron): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; 7.16(aluminum): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc.; 7.16(gallium, indium): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; 7.17(graphite, diamond, silicon, germanium, tin, lead), 7.18( nitrogen, white phosphorus, red phosphorus): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc.; 7.18(arsenic): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; 7.18(antimony): © The McGraw- Chapter Opener: © Photodisc/Getty RF; p 297: © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; 8.2(all): © Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 321(top): © Eliot J Schechter/Stringer/AFP/ Getty; p 321(bottom): © Wesley Bocxe/Photo Researchers Chapter Opener: © Radius Images/Corbis; 9.1a-e: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; p 368(both): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc Chapter 10 Opener: Courtesy of Julia Burdge; p 391 (methanol): © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; p 391(ethanol): © John A Rizzo/Getty; p 391(isopropyl): © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; 10.5a-b: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters /Timeframe Photography Inc C-1 bur75640_credits_C1-C2.indd C-1 11/30/09 2:51:46 PM C-2 C RED I T S Chapter 11 Chapter 16 Chapter 22 Opener: © Martin Strmiska/Alamy; p 441: © Kike Calvo/VW/The Image Works; 11.3a-b: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc.; p 443(bottom): © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; 11.9a-b: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc.; p 446: Courtesy of USC Catalina Hyperbaric Chamber; p 480: © David Samuel Robbins/Corbis Opener: © Tom Stoddart Archive/Hulton/Getty; 16.1: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./ Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc Opener: © Robert George Young/ Photographer’s Choice/Getty; p 921(top): The Advertising Archives; p 921(bottom), 22.11: © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; 22.16: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./ Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc.; p 938: © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC Chapter 12 Opener: © Blend Images/Alamy; p 498: © Dr Stanley Flegler/Visuals Unlimited; 12.7a: © Purestock/PunchStock; 12.7b: © Ingram Publishing/SuperStock; 12.8: © Yoav Levy/ PhotoTake; 12.23b: © Dr M.B Hursthouse/ Photo Researchers; 12.27a-b, 12.28: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc.; p 521: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Ken Karp, photographer Chapter 13 Opener: © Digital Vision Ltd.; 13.1a-e, 13.2a-e: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./ Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc.; 13.12a-c: © David M Phillips/Photo Researchers; 13.13: © Kip Peticolas/ Fundamental Photographs; 13.14: © Photodisc/ Getty RF; PR 13.114(both): © David Tietz/ Editorial Image, LLC; PR 13.134: © Bill Curtsinger/National Geographic/Getty Chapter 14 Opener: © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; 14.3, 14.7: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Ken Karp, photographer; 14.13(both): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters /Timeframe Photography Inc.; p 615: © Corbis RF Chapter 15 Opener: © Brand X/JupiterImages; p 629: Courtesy of Hypoxico Inc.; 15.1(all), 15.3(all): © Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; 15.8a-b, 15.9a-c: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc bur75640_credits_C1-C2.indd C-2 Chapter 17 Opener: © White Rock/Getty; p 727: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.; 17.2, 17.7, 17.9, 17.10: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Ken Karp, photographer; 17.11: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer Chapter 18 Opener: © Laurel Latto Chapter 19 Opener: © Spyros Bourboulis/First Light/ Getty; 19.2: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Ken Karp, photographer; p 836(top): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc.; p 836(bottom): © Ragnar Schmuck/Zefa/ Corbis; 19.11: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; Questions and Problems 19.78: © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; Questions and Problems 19.114: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Ken Karp, photographer Chapter 20 Chapter 23 Opener: © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; 23.2: © Peter Ryan/Photo Researchers; p 947: © Lin Yueseng/Panorama/The Image Works; 23.5: © Yang Liu/Corbis; 23.7: © Maximilian Stock Ltd/Photo Researchers; 23.13: © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; 23.14: © Radius Images/Corbis; 23.15, 23.16, 23.17: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters/Timeframe Photography Inc.; 23.19: © Phil Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc Chapter 24 Opener: Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of American History; 24.5: © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; 24.6: © Noeline Kelly/Corbis; 24.7: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Charles D Winters /Timeframe Photography Inc.; 24.8, 24.14: © David Tietz/ Editorial Image, LLC; 24.18: © Dynamic Graphics Group/Creatas/Alamy; 24.20: © Inga Spence/Visuals Unlimited Apago PDF Enhancer Opener: © ISM/PhotoTake; 20.6: © Nick Wall/ Photo Researchers; 20.12: © Vanderlei Almeida/ AFP/Getty; 20.13: © E.R Degginger/Color-pic Inc.; 20.14: © Peter Essick/Aurora/Getty; 20.16: © Lawrence Livermore National Labs; 20.17: © Corbis; 20.18: © Mediscan/Corbis; p 885: © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC Chapter 21 Opener: © Digital Vision/PunchStock; 21.4: © Dennis Fast/VisualWritten/The Image Works; 21.5: NASA; 21.8: © German Remote Sensing Data Center; 21.9: © Time Life Pictures/NASA/ Time Life Pictures/Getty; 21.10: © Jim Sugar/ Corbis; 21.20(top): © NYC Parks Photo Archive/ Fundamental Photographs; 21.20(bottom): © Kristen Brochmann/Fundamental Photographs; 21.22: © Corbis RF; 21.24: © Owen Franken; 21.26: © Kent Knudson/PhotoLink/Getty; 21.28: © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC Chapter 25 Opener: © Jonas Ekstromer/AFP/Getty; p 1000: © Tracy Montana/PhotoLink/Getty; 25.2(left): © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; 25.2(right): © Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 1001(bottom): AP Photo/ Robert E Klein; p 1002: © Comstock Images/ Alamy; 25.9: NASA; 25.12: © Stockbyte/Getty; p 1016: © Jim Wehtje/Photodisc/Getty; 25.13a: © Tek Image/Photo Researchers; 25.13b: © Dr Ben Oostra/Visuals Unlimited; 25.13c: Reprint Courtesy of International Business Machines Corporation copyright 1993 © International Business Machines Corporation; p 1017 (bottom left): © Phil Degginger/Color-Pic, Inc.; p 1017(bottom right): © Getty Royalty Free; 25.17: © David Tietz/Editorial Image, LLC; 25.18: © IBM Research/Peter Arnold, Inc 11/30/09 2:51:48 PM Index A absolute entropies, 792 absolute temperature scale, 450 absolute zero, 10, 450 absorbance (A), 150 absorbed, 567 absorption spectrum, 150 acceptor impurities, 954 accuracy, 20–21 acetic acid, 727 acid-base indicators, 744–747 acid-base reactions, 128–133 acid-base neutralization, 131–132 Brønsted acids and bases, 129–131 strong acids and bases, 128–129 acid-base titrations, 154, 155–157, 737 acid-base indicators, 744–747 strong acid–strong base titrations, 737–738 strong acid–weak base titrations, 742–744 weak acid–strong base titrations, 738–742 acid ionization constant, 686 acid rain, 673, 902, 907–909 acids in molecular compounds, 54 oxoacids, 62 strong, 118, 119, 128–129 acids and bases, 672–673 acid-base properties of oxides and hydroxides, 711–712 acid-base properties of salt solutions, 706–710 acid-base properties of water, 675–677 Brønsted, 674–675 conjugate acid-base pairs, 697–700 diprotic and polyprotic acids, 700–703 Lewis acids and bases, 712–714 molecular structure and acid strength, 703–705 pH scale, 677–682 strong, 682–686 weak acids and acid ionization constants, 686–694 weak bases and base ionization constants, 694–697 actinide series, 245 action potential, 836 activated complex, 599 activation energy, 599 active metals, 135, 279 active transport, 681 activity series, 135, 136 actual yield, 101 addition polymerization, 1000 addition polymers, 420–421, 422, 1000–1005 addition reactions, 411–413 adhesion, 501 adsorbed, 567 aerosol, 909 Agriculture, U.S Department of, 171 alcohols, 390–391, 394, 398, 615 aldehydes, 390, 394, 399 aliphatic compounds, 389 alkali metals, 46, 955–957 alkaline batteries, 838 alkaline earth metals, 47, 957–959 alkanes, 54, 55, 390, 392 alkyl group, 390, 391, 392 alkynes, 1007 allotropes, 51, 974 alloys, 947 alpha (␣) particles, 41 alpha (␣) rays, 41 altitude sickness, 480 aluminum, 959–961 alums, 961 amalgam defined, 947 dental, 817, 1014 amide group, 390 amide ions, 976 amide linkages, 496 amides, 390, 394, 399 amines, 390, 394, 399 amino acid residue, 496 amino acids, 395, 422–423, 424–425 amino group, 390, 394 ammonia, 976 amorphous solids, 517 amount-volume relationship, 452–453 amphoteric, 287, 675 amplitude, 212 analogues, 387 angular momentum quantum number, 233, 234 anions, 58 anisotropic, 1011 Annan, Kofi, 893 anode, 40, 821, 825 antacids, 680–681 antibonding molecular orbital, 369 antimony, 992 aqueous solutions, 540 acid-base reactions, 128–133 aqueous defined, 81 aqueous reactions and chemical analysis, 154–158 concentration of solutions, 142–153 Apago PDF Enhancer general properties of, 118–122 oxidation-reduction reactions, 133–142 precipitation reactions, 122–128 Aristotle, 36 Armstrong, Lance, 76, 77 aromatic compounds, 389 Arrhenius acid, 130 Arrhenius base, 130 Arrhenius equation, 600–602 Arrhenius, Svante, 129 arsenic, 969, 992 artificial joints, 1015–1016 ascorbic acid, 35 Aston, F W., 49 atactic, 1005 atmosphere Earth’s, 894–897 phenomena in the outer layers, 897–898 atmospheric pressure, 443 atomic bomb, 876–877 atomic ions, 58–59 atomic line spectra, 220–221 atomic mass, 49–50 atomic mass unit (amu), 49 atomic number (Z), 44, 258–259 atomic orbitals, 232, 236, 239 d orbitals and other higher-energy orbitals, 237, 357–359 energies of orbitals, 238 f orbitals, 238 hybridization of, 353–361, 362 p orbitals, 237 s orbitals, 236–237 atomic radius, 265–267, 275 atomic theory, 36–39 atomic weight, 48 atomospheres (atm), 444 atoms, atomic mass scale and average atomic mass, 48–50 atomic number, mass number, and isotopes, 44–45 atomic theory, 36–39 defined, 39 hydrogen atom, 220–228, 232 structure of, 39–44 attraction, 172 attractive forces, 264, 272, 493, 500 Aufbau principle, 241 aurora australis, 897 aurora borealis, 897 autoionization of water, 676 average reaction rates, 580–582 I-1 bur75640_index_I1-I10.indd I-1 11/30/09 2:54:33 PM I-2 I NDE X Avogadro, Amedeo, 452 Avogadro’s law, 452–453, 471 Avogadro’s number, 86–87 Axel, Richard, 339 axial, 342 B ball-and-stick models (molecular art), Balmer, Johann, 221 band theory, 952 band theory of conductivity, 952 conductors, 952–953 semiconductors, 953–954 Bardeen, John, 1021 barometer, 444, 445 base Brønsted acids and bases, 129–131 defined, 118 strong acids and bases, 128–129 base ionization constants, 695 basic oxygen process, 949–950 batteries defined, 838 dry cells and alkaline, 838–839 fuel cells, 840–841 lead storage, 839 lithium–ion, 840 Becquerel, Antoine, 40–41 Beer-Lambert law, 150 belt of stability, 862 bends, the, 466 benzene, 375–376, 542, 544 beta (␤) particles, 41 beta (␤) rays, 41 beta-particle emission, 862–863 bimolecular, 604 binary hydrides, 971–972 binary molecular compounds, 52 biological catalysts, 613–615 biological concentration cells, 836 biological polymers, 422–426 biomedical materials, 1013–1016 bioterrorism agents, 3, 25 bipolar disorder, 288 birth defects, 387 blackbody radiation, 215 blast furnace, 948, 949 blood, maintaining pH of, 735–736 blood alcohol concentration (BAC), 117 blood doping, 629 blood lead level (BLL), 921 blood plasma, 735 body-centered cubic cell, 506, 507 Bohr, Niels, 221–222 Bohr’s theory of the hydrogen atom, 220–223, 228, 232 atomic line spectra, 220–221 line spectrum of hydrogen, 221–223, 226 boiling point, 518, 519 boiling-point elevation, 555–556 Boltzmann constant, 779 Boltzmann, Ludwig, 470 bond angle, 342, 345 bond dipoles, 347, 348 bond enthalpy, 307, 325–328, 350 bond length, 307 bond order, 370 bonding molecular orbital, 369 bur75640_index_I1-I10.indd I-2 bonding theories, 375–377 bone, radioactive, 286 Born-Haber cycle, 302, 304–305 boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT), 859 Boyle, Robert, 447 Boyle’s law, 447–449, 470 Bragg equation, 511 Breathalyzer test, 116, 117, 159 breeder reactors, 878 bromine, 991 Brønsted acids and bases, 130, 674–675 Brønsted base, 130 Brønsted, Johannes, 130 Buck, Linda, 339 buckyballs, 1017 buffer, 729 buffer solutions, 729, 732–733 with a specific pH, 734–735 calculating the pH of a buffer, 729–731 burette, 8, burns, 522 burst lung, 441 C Cade, John, 288 Cade, Mary, 120 Cade, Robert, 120–121 calcium, 727, 958–959 calories caloric content of food, 171 calorie (cal) defined, 175 calorimeter, 192–193 calorimetry constant-pressure, 185–188 constant-volume, 193–194 defined, 184 specific heat and heat capacity, 184–185 cancer drugs, 77 nuclear chemistry in treating, 859 radiation and, 883 capillary action, 500–501 carbides, 974 carbocation, 411, 415 carbon, 388–389, 974–975 carbon-14, 868 carbon dioxide, 902–907, 912, 975 carbon disulfide, 985 carbon monoxide, 912, 975 carbon nanotubes, 1017 carbonic acid, 673 carbonyl group, 390, 394 carborundum, 974 carboxy group, 390, 394 carboxylic acids, 390, 394, 398, 706 Carothers, Wallace, 422 cast iron, 949 catalysis, 610–615, 654 catalyst, 610 Category A agents, 3, 25, 321 catenation, 974 cathode, 40, 821, 825 cathode ray tube, 39–40 cathodic protection, 847 cations, 58, 59, 764 cell potential, 821 Celsius scale, 10, 451 cementite, 950 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 3, 25 central science, ceramic matrix composites, 1010 ceramics, 1009–1010 Chadwick, James, 43 chain reactions, 421 chalcogens, 47 Charles, Jacques, 449 Charles’s and Guy-Lussac’s law, 449–451 Charles’s law, 451, 470–471, 472 Chauvin, Yves, 998, 999 chelating agents, 925 chelation therapy, 921, 937 chemical analysis, 937 chemical bonding, basic concepts, 296–297 bond enthalpy, 325–328 Born-Haber cycle, 302, 304–305 comparison of ionic and covalent compounds, 307–308 covalent bonding, 306–308 drawing Lewis structures, 313–315 electronegativity and polarity, 308–313 exceptions to the octet rule, 320–324 ionic bonding, 299–305 lattice energy, 300–302 Lewis dot symbols, 298–299 Lewis structures, 306–308 Lewis structures and formal charge, 315–318 multiple bonds, 307 resonance, 318–319 chemical bonds, 50 chemical change, 15 chemical energy, 172 chemical equations, 80 balancing, 81–85 calculations with balanced, 94–96 interpreting and writing, 80–81 chemical equilibrium, 119, 628–629 concept of equilibrium, 630–632 equilibrium constant, 632–636 equilibrium expressions, 637–643 equilibrium expressions in problem solving, 644–649 factors that affect, 650–660 free energy and, 799–803 chemical formulas, 51 chemical kinetics, 578–579 catalysis, 610–615 dependence of reactant concentration on time, 591–598 dependence of reaction rate on reactant concentration, 587–591 dependence of reaction rate on temperature, 599–603 reaction mechanisms, 604–610 reaction rates, 580–586 chemical properties, 15 chemical reactions, 4, comparison of nuclear reactions and, 860 energy changes in, 172–173 chemical reduction, 948 chemistry defined, study of, 4–6 chemotherapy, 77, 937 chiral, 408 chiral switching, 410 chloralkali process, 987 chlorine, 990–991 Apago PDF Enhancer 11/30/09 2:54:34 PM I NDE X chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 893, 899, 901–902, 905, 906 cholesteric, 1011 cidofovir, 25 cis isomers, 363, 406, 929 cisplatin, 77 Clausius-Clapeyron equation, 503 Clean Air Act, 673 closed system, 176 closest packing, 508–509 coal, 974 cohesion, 501 coinage metals, 286 colligative properties, 553 collision theory, 599–600 colloids, 565–568 color, 932–933 combination reactions, 104, 140, 141 combined gas law, 453 combustion analysis of compounds, 91 determination of empirical formula, 91–92 determination of molecular formula, 92 combustion reactions, 104, 141 common ion effect, 728–729, 753–758 complex ion, 758 complex ion formation, 758–760 composite materials, 1010 compounds, See also inorganic compounds; organic compounds insoluble, 123, 125 ionic, 58, 60–64, 122–128 molecular, 50, 52–54, 122, 443 percent composition of, 79–80 soluble, 123, 125 compressibility, gas, 470 concentration cells, 835–836 concentration of solutions concentration defined, 142 dilution, 144–145 molarity, 142–144 preparing a solution from a solid, 146–147 solution stoichiometry, 149 condensation, 502 condensation polymers, 421–422, 1005–1008 condensation reactions, 421 condensed structural formulas, 400 condensed structures, 400 conduction band, 1018 conductors, 952–953 conjugate acid, 674 conjugate acid-base pairs, 697–700 conjugate base, 674 conjugate pair, 674 constant-pressure calorimetry, 185–188 constant-volume bomb, 193 constant-volume calorimetry, 193–194 constituent elements, constitutional isomerism, 406, 407 constructive interference, 213, 214 conversion factors, 22 Cooper, Leon Neil, 1021 coordinate covalent bonds, 320, 922 coordination chemistry, 920–921 applications of coordination compounds, 937–938 coordination compounds, 922–928 coordination compounds, defined, 922 crystal field theory, 931–936 naming coordination compounds, 926–928 reactions of coordination compounds, 936 structure of coordination compounds, 928–930 coordination numbers, 506, 925 copolymers, 421, 1003 copper, 962 corrosion, 846–847 Coulomb’s law, 266, 272, 278, 410, 862 covalent bond, 306 types of covalent bonds, 307 covalent bonding, 306 covalent compounds, 307–308, 989 covalent crystals, 515, 516 covalent hydrides, 972 covalent radius, 265 cowpox, critical mass, 876 critical pressure, 519, 520 critical temperature, 519, 520 cross-links, 1001 Crutzen, Paul, 893, 913 crystal field splitting, 931, 933 crystal field theory, 931 color, 932–933 crystal field splitting in octahedral complexes, 931–932 magnetic properties, 933–935 tetrahedral and square-planar complexes, 935–936 crystal structure, 505 closest packing, 508–509 packing spheres, 506–508 structures of crystals, 510–512 types of crystals, 512–517 unit cells, 505–506 crystalline solid, 505, 540, 541 cubic cells, 506–507 cubic close-packed (ccp) structure, 508 Cunningham, Orville, 466 curie (Ci), 882, 911 Curie, Marie, 41 cyanides, 975 Apago PDF Enhancer bur75640_index_I1-I10.indd I-3 D d-block elements, ions of, 274 d orbitals, 237, 357–359 Dalton, John, 36–38, 39 Dalton’s law of partial pressures, 462–463, 471, 473 dative bond, 320 Davisson, Clinton Joseph, 230 de Broglie hypothesis, 228–229 de Broglie wavelength, 229 decomposition reactions, 104, 140–141 decompression sickness (DCS), 466 degenerate, 241 delocalized bonding, 376 delocalized bonds, 376 delocalized electrons, 1008 demineralization, 727 Democritus, 36 denaturation, 806 density, 12–13, 15 dental implants, 1014 dental pain, electrochemisty of, 817 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 423, 426 deposition, 521 derived units, 12–13 destructive interference, 213, 214, 228 detergents, 938 dextrorotatory isomer, 409, 930 I-3 diagonal relationships, 278 dialysis, 538, 539 diamagnetic, 368 diatomic molecules, 51 diffraction, electron, 230 diffusion, 474, 475 dilution, 144, 145, 148 dimensional analysis, 22–23 diodes, 1020 dipole-dipole interactions, 494–495 dipole moment, 311–312 dipoles, bond, 347, 348 diprotic acids, 130, 700–703 directionality, chemical bonds and, 352 dispersion forces, 498–499 displacement reactions, 135 disproportionation reaction, 141, 981 dissociation, 118, 558, 564 distillation, 951 diving, 440, 441, 466, 480 donor atoms, 924 donor impurities, 954 doping, 953, 1019 double bonds, 307, 362, 364 double-slit experiment, nature of light and, 213–214 Douglas, Dwayne, 120–121 drugs chiral switching in, 410 organic chemistry and, 387 single-isomer versions, 410 drunk driving, 116, 117 dry cells, 838–839 dynamic chemical equilibrium, 119 dynamic equilibrium, 502 E Earth alkaline earth metals, 47, 957–959 atmosphere, 894–897 elements on, 47 effective collision, 599 effective nuclear charge, 264 effusion, 474, 475 Einstein, Albert, 211, 217, 218, 864, 873 elastomers, 1001 electrocardiogram (ECG), 836 electrochemistry, 816–817 balancing redox reactions, 818–820 batteries, 838–841 corrosion, 846–847 electrolysis, 841–845 galvanic cells, 821–823 spontaneity of redox reactions under conditions other than standard state, 833–838 spontaneity of redox reactions under standard-state conditions, 830–833 standard reduction potentials, 824–830 electrodes, 821 electrolysis of an aqueous sodium chloride solution, 842–843 defined, 841 in metals purification, 951–952 of molten sodium chloride, 841–842 quantitative applications of, 844–845 of water, 842 electrolyte solutions, 558–559 11/30/09 2:54:34 PM I-4 I NDE X electrolytes in aqueous solutions, 118–120 compounds as, 122 defined, 118 electrolytic cells, 841 electrolytic reduction, 948 electromagnetic spectrum, 212, 213 electromagnetic wave, 213 electron affinity (EA), 269–271 electron capture, 863 electron configuration Aufbau principle, 241 defined, 239 energies of atomic orbitals in many-electron systems, 239–240 general rules for writing, 242 Hund’s rule, 241–242 Pauli exclusion principle, 240–241 and the periodic table, 243–246 electron density, 232 electron-domain geometry, 342–345 defined, 342 electron domains, 340–341 electron spin quantum number, 234–235 electronegativity, 309–310 electronic structure of atoms, 211 electrons, 39–40, 43, 44, 45 diffraction of, 230 discovery of, 39–40 free, 222 odd number of, 320–321 in orbitals, 350 electrophile addition, 412–413 electrophiles, 410 electrospinning, 1015 electrostatic energy, 172 elemental iron, 35 elementary reactions, 604–605 elements See also periodic table defined, 5, 6–7 elimination reactions, 418 emission spectra, 220, 221 emission spectrum of hydrogen, 224–225 empirical formula mass, 79, 92 empirical formulas, 54–55, 56 determination of, 91–92 from percent composition, 90–91 emulsifier/emulsifying agent, 567 enantiomers, 408, 410, 930 end point, 744 endothermic process, 173, 182 entropy changes, 789 ionic bonds, 300 in solution-formation, 542 endpoints, 155 energy defined, 172 energy changes in chemical reactions, 172–173 forms of, 172 ionization energy, 267–269 nuclear binding energy, 863–865 quantization of, 215–216 in solution formation, 542 units of, 173–175 English units, enthalpy bond, 307, 325–328, 350 defined, 181 and enthalpy changes, 81–182 bur75640_index_I1-I10.indd I-4 reactions under constant-volume or constantpressure conditions, 179–181 thermochemical equations, 182–183 enthalpy of reactions, 181 entropy, 542, 776–777 defined, 779 entropy changes in a system, 780–788 entropy changes in the universe, 788–793 living systems in, 777 probability, 780 standard, 782–784 third law of thermodynamics, 792–793 environmental chemistry, 892–893 acid rain, 907–909 depletion of ozone in the stratosphere, 899–902 Earth’s atmosphere, 894–897 greenhouse effect, 902–907 indoor pollution, 910–912 phenomena in the outer layers of the atmosphere, 897–898 photochemical smog, 909–910 volcanoes, 901, 902 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 911 enzymes, biological catalysts, 613 equatorial, 342 equilibrium See also chemical equilibrium concept of, 630–632 defined, 630 and tooth decay, 727 equilibrium constants calculating, 633 defined, 632 magnitude of the, 636 units in, 660 equilibrium expressions, 632, 637 calculating equilibrium concentrations, 645–649 containing gases, 641–642 heterogeneous equilibria, 637–638 manipulating, 638–639 predicting the direction of a reaction, 644–645 in problem solving, 644–649 equilibrium mixture, 656 equilibrium process, 789 equilibrium vapor pressure, 502 equivalence points, 155 erythrocytes, 735–736 esters, 390, 394, 398–399 ethanol, 615 ethyl group, 390–391 evaporation, 502 exact numbers, 17 excess reactants, 97 excited state, 222 exothermic process, 173 entropy changes, 789 ionic bonds, 300 in solution-formation, 542 expanded octets, 321–323 extensive properties, 15 Faraday constant, 830 Faraday, Michael, 844 ferromagnetic metals, 947 ferrous sulfate, 35 first law of thermodynamics, 177–178, 777 first-order reactions, 592 flotation, 947 fluoresce, 40 fluoride, 569, 766 fluorine, 985–986 fluoroapatite, 766 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), U.S., 25, 77, 171, 288, 387, 410, 427 food labels, 171 formal charge, 315–318 formaldehyde, 912 formation constants, 758–759 formic acid, 52 formula mass, 78 formula weight, 78 fossil fuels, 907–908 fractional precipitation, 763–764 Frasch process, 983 free electrons, 222 free energy and chemical equilibrium, 799–803 defined, 794, 831 Gibbs free energy, 793–795 free radicals, 321, 883 freezing, 520 freezing point, 520 freezing-point depression, 556–557 Freon, 899 frequency, 212 fuel cells, 840–841 Fuller, R Buckminster, 1017 fullerenes, 1017 functional groups, 54, 56 fusion, 520 Apago PDF Enhancer F f orbitals, 238 face-centered cubic cell, 506, 507 factor-label method, 22 Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel, 11 Fahrenheit temperature scale, 11 families, in periodic table, 46 G galvanic cells, 821–823 galvanization, 847 gamma rays, 212 Gamow Bag, 480 Gamow, Igor, 480 gangue, 947 gas, 6, gas constant (R), 455 gas embolism, 441 gas laws, 447–454 application to the, 470–471 defined, 447 gases characteristics of, 443 deviation from ideal behavior, 476–479 diving and the property of, 441 equilibrium expressions containing, 641–642 gas laws, 447–454, 470–471 gas mixtures, 462–467 gas pressure, 443–444 ideal gas equation, 455–458 kinetic molecular theory of gases, 470–476 molar volume of, 468–469 properties of, 442–447 reactions with gaseous reactants and products, 458–461 11/30/09 2:54:34 PM I NDE X Gatorade, 120–121 Geiger, Hans, 42 General Conference on Weights and Measures, geodesic dome, 1017 geometrical isomers, 406, 407, 929 Gerlach, Walther, 235 Germer, Lester Halbert, 230 Gibbs free energy, 794 glass, 517, 518 Goodyear, Charles, 1001 graduated cylinder, 8, Graham’s law, 475 graphene, 1017 graphite, 1016–1017 Graves, Ray, 121 gravimetric analysis, 154–155 Greek prefixes, 52 greenhouse effect, 902–907 ground state, 222, 243, 355 Group 1A elements, 279–280, 285–286 Group 1B elements, 285–286 Group 2A elements, 280–281 Group 3A elements, 281–282 Group 4A elements, 282 Group 5A elements, 282–283 Group 6A elements, 283–284 Group 7A elements, 284 Group 8A elements, 285 group number, 314 groups, in periodic table, 46 Grubbs, Robert H., 998, 999 Guldberg, Cato, 633, 635 Guy-Lussac, Joseph, 449–451 H Apago PDF Enhancer Haber process, 650 half-cell potentials, 824 half-cell reactions, 826–828 half-cells, 821 half-life, 594–596, 868–869 half-reaction method, 136, 818 half-reactions, 134, 818–819 halides, 284 Hall process, 959–960 halogens, 47, 970, 985–991 compounds of, 989–990 properties of, 986, 987–989 uses of, 990–991 hangovers, 615 heart medication, explosives and, 297 heat specific heat and heat capacity, 184–185 thermal energy and, 173 and work, 178–179 heat capacity, 184–185 heavy water, 878, 972 Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 231 Heisenberg, Werner, 231 hemochromatosis, 67 hemodialysis, 562–563 hemoglobin, 655, 912 hemolysis, 561 Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, 731, 734, 740 Henry’s law, 551–552 Henry’s law constant, 551 Hess’s law, 195–196 heteroatoms, 402 bur75640_index_I1-I10.indd I-5 heterogeneous catalysis, 612 heterogeneous equilibria, 637–638 heterogeneous mixtures, heteronuclear diatomic molecules, 51 hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure, 508 high-temperature superconductor, 1021 homogeneous catalysis, 612–613 homogeneous mixtures, 7–8 homonuclear diatomic molecules, 51 Hund’s rule, 241–242, 933–934 hybridization defined, 354 in molecules containing multiple bonds, 361–368 hybridization of atomic orbitals, 353–354, 375 s and p orbitals, 354–357 s, p, and d orbitals, 357–359 hydrated ions, 126 hydrates, 64–65 hydration, 123, 124, 416, 544 hydrazine, 976–977 hydride ions, 279 hydrocarbons, 54 hydrocyanic acid, 975 hydrofluoric acid, 986 hydrogen, 970–971 binary hydrides, 971–972 hydrogen economy, 973–974 hydrogenation, 973 isotopes of, 972–973 in the periodic table, 279 hydrogen atom Bohr’s theory of the, 220–228 quantum mechanical description of the, 232 hydrogen bomb, 880 hydrogen bonding, 495–496 hydrogen displacement, 140 hydrogen fluoride, 986 hydrogen peroxide, 981–982 hydrogen sulfide, 983–984 hydrohalic acids, 703 hydronium ion, 130 hydrophilic, 566, 567 hydrophobic, 566, 567 hydroxy group, 390, 394 hydroxyapatite, 727 hyperbaric oxygen therapy, 466 hypertonic, 561 hypothermia heat capacity and, 189 phase changes and, 522 hypothesis, 5–6 hypotonic, 561 hypoxic tents, 629, 661 I ideal behavior (gas), 476 factors that cause deviation from, 476 van der Waals equation, 476–478 ideal gas, 455 ideal gas equation, 455 ideal solution, 555 implosion, 880 in phase, 213 incomplete octets, 320 indicators, 155 indoor pollution, 910–912 I-5 inert complex, 936 inert gases, 285 inexact numbers, 17 initial rate, 587 inorganic compounds, 54, 65 defined, 388 insoluble compounds, 123, 125 instantaneous dipole, 498 instantaneous rates, 582–584 insulators, 953 integrated rate law, 592 intensive properties, 15 interatomic, interference, 213 interference pattern, 213, 214 intermediates, 604 intermolecular bonding, 307 intermolecular forces defined, 494 dipole-dipole interactions, 494–495 dispersion forces, 498–499 hydrogen bonding, 495–496 ion-dipole interactions, 500 solutions and, 541 International System of Units, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, 262 interstitial hydrides, 972 intramolecular bonding, 307 intravenous fluids, 560–561 iodine, 991 ion-dipole interactions, 500 ion pairs, 559 ion-product constant, 676 ionic bonding, 299 ionic bonds, 308, 310 ionic compounds defined, 58, 122 formulas of, 60–61 halides as, 989 lattice energy of, 300–302 naming, 61–64 solubility products of, 748–749 in water, solubility guidelines, 122–124 ionic crystals, 513–514, 516 ionic equations, 126 net, 126–127 ionic hydrides, 971–972 ionic radius, 275–277 ionizable hydrogen atoms, 54 ionization, electroytes and, 118 ionization constants acid, 686–694 base, 694–697 ionization energy (IE), 267–269 ionosphere, 897 ions atomic, 58–59 common ion effect, 728–729, 753–758 complex ion formation, 758–760 defined, 48, 58 electron configuration of, 273–275 formulas of ionic compounds, 60–61 ionic and covalent compounds, 307–308 ionic bonding, 299 ionic compounds, 58, 60–64, 122, 122–128 naming ionic compounds, 61–64 polyatomic, 59–60 solubility and separation of, 763–765 11/30/09 2:54:35 PM I-6 I NDE X iron, 67, 948–949 iron deficiency, 35 iron deficiency anemia (IDA), 35 isoelectronic, 273 isoelectronic series, 276–277 isolated system, 176, 193 isomerism, 406–410 isomerization reactions, 419 isopropyl group, 391 isotactic, 1005 isotonic, 558 isotopes, 44–45 chemical analysis, 881 hydrogen, 972–973 in medicine, 882 parent and daughter, 867 isotropic, 1011 J Jenner, Edward, joule, 173–174 Joule, James, 173 K Kamerlingh-Onnes, H., 1020 Kekulé structures, 401 Kelvin temperature scale, 10, 450–451 ketones, 390, 394, 399 kidney stones, 527 kinetic energy, 172 kinetic isotope effect, 973 kinetic lability, 936 kinetic molecular theory, 470 kinetic molecular theory of gases, 470–476 L labile complexes, 936 lanthanide (rare earth) series, 244–245 lasers, 227 laser pointers, 216 in medicine, 211 LASIK surgery, 210, 211 lattice, 61 lattice energy, 300–302 lattice points, 505 lattice structure, 505 laughing gas, 977 law of conservation of energy, 172 law of conservation of mass, 37 law of definite proportions, 36 law of mass action, 633 law of multiple proportions, 37 law of octaves, 258 law, scientific, Le Châtelier’s principle, 650 lead poisoning, 921 lead storage batteries, 839 levorotatory isomer, 409, 930 Lewis acids and bases, 712–714 Lewis dot symbols, 298–299 Lewis, Gilbert, 298, 306 Lewis structures, 306–308 drawing, 313–315 and formal charge, 315–318 bur75640_index_I1-I10.indd I-6 Lewis theory of bonding, 306, 350, 375 ligand exchange, 936 ligands, 924–925 light, nature of, 212, 215 double-slit experiment, 213–214 electromagnetic spectrum, 213 properties of waves, 212–213 light water reactors, 877 liming, 909, 959 limiting reactant, 97 determining the, 97–101 reaction yield, 101–102 line spectra, 221 liquid crystals, 1011–1013 liquids, 6, gases as, 443 liquid-vapor phase transition, 518–520 properties of, 500–505 solid-liquid phase transition, 520–521 surface tension, 500–501 vapor pressure, 502–504 viscosity, 501–502 liter, 12 lithium, 288 lithium-ion batteries, 840 living systems entropy in, 777 thermodynamics in, 804–805 localized bonds, 376, 403 London’s dispersion forces, 498 lone pairs, 306, 307 M Apago melting, 520 melting point, 520 membrane potential, 836 Mendeleev, Dimitri, 258 meniscus, 500 Menkes disease, 945 mercury, 444–445, 446 mesosphere, 897 metabolic acidosis, 579 metabolism, stoichiometry of, 84 metal matrix composites, 1010 metallic character, 271 metallic crystals, 516 metallic radius, 265 metalloids, 46, 264, 271, 969, 970 metallurgy, 937, 944–945 alkali metals, 955–957 alkaline earth metals, 957–959 aluminum, 959–961 band theory of conductivity, 952–954 defined, 947 of iron, 948–949 metallurgical processes, 947–952 metals in human biology, 945 occurrence of metals, 946 periodic trends in metallic properties, 954–955 preparation of the ore, 947 production of metals, 947–948 purification of metals, 951–952 steelmaking, 949–951 metals, 46, 47, 59 in chemical equations, 264 oxidation of metals in aqueous solutions, 135 oxides of, 711–712 qualitative analysis of metal ions in solution, 764–765 metathesis method, 998, 999 meterstick, methanol, 616 methanol poisoning, 579 methyl group, 390, 391 metric system, 9, 12 Meyer, Lothar, 258 millicurie (mCi), 882 Millikan, R A., 40 milliliter (mL), 12 millimeters mercury (mmHg), 444 minerals, 946 miscible, 544 mixtures, 7–8 gas, 462–467 moderators, 878 modern materials, 998–999 biomedical materials, 1013–1016 ceramics and composite materials, 1009–1010 liquid crystals, 1011–1013 nanotechnology, 1016–1018 polymers, 1000–1009 semiconductors, 1018–1020 superconductors, 1020–1021 molality, 547, 548 molar absorptivity, 150 molar concentration, 142 molar enthalpy of sublimation, 521–522 molar heat of fusion, 520 molar heat of vaporization, 518–519 molar mass, 88 molar solubility, 749 molar volume of gas, 468–469 molarity, 142, 142–144 PDF Enhancer macroscopic level, magic numbers, 862 magma, 902 magnesium, 958 magnetic confinement, 880 magnetic quantum number, 233–234 main group elements, 261 manometer, 445 Mars Climate Orbiter, 14 Marsden, Ernest, 42 mass, 10 atomic, 49–50 law of conservation of mass, 37 molecular and formula, 78 percent composition by mass, 79 of reactants and products, 95–96 mass defect, 864 mass-energy equivalence relationship, Einstein’s, 864 mass number (A), 44 mass spectrometer, 49 mathematical operations, A1–A–5 matter classification of, 6–8 defined, properties of, 14–16 states of, 6, Maxwell, James Clerk, 213, 470, 473 measured numbers, 18–19 measurement, uncertainty in, 17–21 medicine lasers in, 211 nuclear, 882 Meissner effect, 1021 melamine, 492, 493, 527 11/30/09 2:54:35 PM I NDE X mole and molar masses determining molar mass, 88–89 empirical formula from percent composition, 90–91 interconverting mass, moles, and numbers of particles, 89–90 the mole, 86–88 mole defined, 86 moles of reactants and products, 94–95 mole fractions, 463–464, 547, 548, 553 molecular art, molecular compounds, 50, 52–54, 122, 443 molecular crystals, 515–516 molecular equations, 125–126 molecular formula, determination of, 92 molecular geometry, 340 defined, 342 deviation from ideal bond angles, 345 electron-domain geometry and, 342–345 geometry of molecules with more than one central atom, 345–346 and polarity, 347–350 VSEPR model, 340–341 molecular level, molecular mass, 78 molecular orbital theory, 368, 375 bond order, 370 bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals, 368–369 defined, 368 molecular orbital diagrams, 372–373 molecular orbitals, 368, 369–373 molecular parity, 347 molecular speed, 471, 473–474 molecular weight, 78 molecularity, 604 molecules, 4, 5, 50–51 with delocalized bonding, 376 empirical formulas, 54–55, 56 hybridization and multiple bonds, 361–368 molecular formulas, 51 naming molecular compounds, 52–54, 55, 397 representation of organic molecules, 400–406 Molina, Mario, 893 molybdenum, 947 monatomic cations, 58 monatomic ions, 58, 59 monatomic molecules, 50 Mond process, 951 monomers, 420, 1000 monoprotic acids, 130 Montreal Protocol, 893, 901 Moseley, Henry, 258 multiple bonds, 307 musk, 378 neutron-to-proton ratio (n/p), 862 neutrons, 43, 44 Newlands, John, 258 Newton’s laws of motion, 232 newtons (N), 14, 444 night vision, 218 nitric acid, 977–978 nitric oxide, 329, 909–910, 977 nitrogen, 975–978 nitrogen dioxide, 977 nitrogen fixation, 895, 977 nitroglycerin, 297 nitrous oxide, 977 Nobel, Alfred, 297 Nobel Prize, 297, 339, 893, 913, 998, 999, 1020 noble gas core, 243 noble gases, 47, 261, 264 noble metals, 135 nodes, 228 nomenclature, chemical, 52, 53 nonconductors, 1019 nonelectrolytes, 118 nonmetals, 46 carbon, 974–975 in chemical equations, 264 general properties of, 970 halogens, 985–991 hydrogen, 970–974 nitrogen, 975–978 oxides of, 711–712 oxygen, 980–982 phosphorus, 978–980 sulfur, 982–985 nonpolar, 310, 347 nonpolar covalent bonds, 310 nonspontaneous processes, 778 nonvolatile, 553 normal boiling point, 518, 519 northern lights, 897 nuclear binding energy, 863–865 nuclear chain reaction, 876 nuclear chemistry, 858–859 biological effects of radiation, 882–883 natural radioactivity, 866–870 nuclear fission, 873–879 nuclear fusion, 879–881 nuclear stability, 861–866 nuclear transmutation, 871–873 nuclei and nuclear reactions, 860–861 uses of isotopes, 881–882 nuclear fission, 873–879 nuclear fusion, 879–881 nuclear medicine, 882 nuclear reactors, 877–879 nuclear transmutation, 860, 871–873 nucleic acids, 422, 423, 426 nucleophile addition, 412–413 nucleophiles, 410, 412 nucleotides, 423, 426 nucleus, 42 Nutrition Facts labels, 171 nylon, 421–422 Apago PDF Enhancer N n–type semiconductors, 954, 1019 nanofibers, 1015 nanotechnology, 1016–1018 nanotubes, 1017 NASA, 14 natural rubber, 1000–1001 Nelmes, Sarah, nematic, 1013 Nernst equation, 833–835 net ionic equations, 126–127 neutralization reactions, 131 bur75640_index_I1-I10.indd I-7 O octet rule, 306, 306–307 exceptions to, 320–324 old quantum theory, 232 olefin metathesis, 999 I-7 olfactory receptors, 339 open system, 176 optical isomers, 407, 929–930 orbitals electrons in, 350 hybridization of atomic, 353–361, 375 molecular orbital theory, 368–374 ore, 946, 947 organic chemistry carbon, 388–389 classes of organic compounds, 390–399 and drugs, 387 isomerism, 406–410 organic polymers, 420–426 organic reactions, 410–420 representation of organic molecules, 400–406 organic compounds, 54 classes of, 390–399 defined, 388 naming, 392–393 osmosis, 557, 562 osmotic pressure, 557–558 out of phase, 213 overvoltage, 843 oxidation, 134 oxidation number, 134, 137–138 oxidation-reduction reactions, 133–134, 418 balancing simple redox equations, 135–136 oxidation numbers, 134–135 oxidation of metals in aqueous solutions, 135 oxidation state, 134 oxides acid-base properties of hydroxides and, 711–712 basic and amphoteric hydroxides, 712 of metals and nonmetals, 711–712 variation of third-period elements, 286–287 oxidizing agent, 134 oxoacids, 62, 703–704 oxoanions, 62 oxygen, 980–982 oxygen transport, 938 ozone, 982 CFCs and, 893, 899 depletion of stratospheric, 899–900 polar ozone holes, 900–902 P p orbitals, 237, 354–359 p-type semiconductors, 954, 1019–1020 packing spheres, 506–508 paramagnetic, 368 partial pressure, 462–463 particle accelerator, 873 particles (N), 89 pascal (Pa), 444 passivation, 847 patina, 847 Pauli exclusion principle, 240–241, 934 Pauling, Linus, 309 peptide bonds, 423 per mole of the reaction, 182 percent by mass, 547 percent composition by mass, 79, 90–91 percent dissociation, 564 percent ionic character, 310, 312 percent yield, 101 11/30/09 2:54:35 PM I-8 I NDE X periodic table, 45–47, 142 atomic radius, 265–267, 275 classification of elements, 261–263 comparing ionic radius with atomic radius, 275–276 conparison of Group 1A and Group 1B elements, 285–286 development of, 258–260 effective nuclear charge, 264–265 electron affinity (EA), 269–271 electron configuration of ions, 273–275 electron configurations and the, 243–246 elements essential for life, 259–260 gaseous elements in, 442 general trends in chemical properties, 278–279 Group 1A elements, 279–280 Group 1B elements, 285–286 Group 2A elements, 280–281 Group 3A elements, 281–282 Group 4A elements, 282 Group 5A elements, 282–283 Group 6A elements, 283–284 Group 7A elements, 284 Group 8A elements, 285 ionic radius, 275–277 ionization energy (IE), 267–269 ions of d-block elements, 274 ions of main group elements, 273 isoelectronic series, 276–277 main group elements, 278–287 metallic character, 271 modern, 261–264 numbers at top of, 262 periodic trends in metallic properties, 954–955 periodic trends in properties, 265, 265–273, 278–287 properties of other main group elements, 281–285 properties of the active metals, 279–281 properties of transition metals, 922–923 representing free elements in chemical equations, 264 salt and salt substitutes, 257 variation in properties of oxides within a period, 286–287 periodicity, 258 periods, in periodic table, 46 peroxide, 981–982 pH, 677 of acid-base titrations, 737 acid ionization constants and, 686–689 base ionization constants and, 696 buffer solutions and, 729–735 mean precipitation pH in the U.S., 907 pH scale, 677–682 phase boundary line, 524 phase changes, 517–518 dangers of, 522–523 liquid-vapor phase transition, 518–520 solid-liquid phase transition, 520–521 solid-vapor phase transition, 521–522 phase diagrams, 524–526 Phipps, James, phosphine, 978–979 phosphorus, 978–980 photochemical smog, 909–910 photodecomposition, 894 photodissociation, 899 photoelectric effect, 217–218 photons, 217–218 bur75640_index_I1-I10.indd I-8 photosynthesis, 894, 896 physical change, 15 physical properties, 14–15 pi bonds, 362, 366–367 pig iron, 949 pipette, 8, Planck, Max, 211, 215, 217 plasma, 880 Platinol, 77 Plato, 36 pOH scale, 679 polar, 308 polar covalent bonds, 308, 310 polar molecules, 123, 347, 494, 495 polar ozone holes, 900–902 polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs), 900, 901 polar vortex, 900 polarimeter, 930 polarity, molecular geometry and, 347–350 polarized light, 408, 409–410, 930 polarized molecules, 499 pollution acid rain, 907–909 greenhouse effect, 902–907 indoor, 910–912 photochemical smog, 909–910 polyamides, 1006 polyatomic ions, 59–60 polyatomic molecules, 51, 904 polyesters, 1006 polyisoprene, 1000–1001 polymer matrix composites, 1010 polymers addition, 420–421, 422, 1000–1005 biological, 422–426 condensation, 421–422, 1005–1008 defined, 420, 1000, 1005 electrically conducting, 1007–1008 organic, 420–426 polypeptides, 423 polyprotic acids, 62, 130–131, 700–703 polysaccharides, 422, 423 polystyrene, 1002 polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 1002 porphyria, 992 positron, 860 potassium hydroxide, 957 potassium nitrate, 957 potential energy, 172 pounds, 14 precipitate, 122 precipitation, fractional, 763–764 precipitation reactions in aqueous solutions, 122–128 defined, 122 solubility and, 751–752 precision, 20–21 prefixes, Greek, 52 pressure calculation of, 444 Dalton’s law of partial pressures, 462–463 defined, 444 equilibrium and, 652–653 measurement of, 444–446 pressure-temperature-amount-volume relationship, 453 pressure-volume relationship, 449–451 solubility and, 550–552 using partial pressure to solve problems, 464–466 primary amides, 399 primary amines, 399 primary pollutants, 909 primary structure, protein, 497 principal quantum number, 233, 234 probability, 780 probability density, 236–237 problem solving, using units and, 22–24 products, in chemical reactions, 82 proteins, 422–423, 424–425 protein structure, 496–497 proton acceptor, 130 proton donor, 130 protons, 43, 44 Proust, Joseph, 36 pure covalent bonds, 308, 310 pyrometallurgy, 948 Q qualitative analysis, 764–765 qualitative properties, 14 quantitative properties, 8, 14 quantum mechanics, 230–232 beginning of, 232 quantum mechanical description of the hydrogen atom, 232 Schrödinger equation, 232 uncertainty principle, 231 quantum numbers, 232, 233–235 electron spin quantum number, 234–235 quantum theory, 25, 211 developments in, 232 photons and the photoelectric effect, 217–219 quantization of energy, 215–216 quantum defined, 215 quaternary structure, protein, 497 quicklime, 908–909 Apago PDF Enhancer R racemic mixture, 409, 930 racemization, 415 radial probability distribution, 236–237 radiation, 39 biological effects of, 882–883 ultraviolet (UV), 894 radiation absorbed dose (rad), 882 radicals, 321, 883 radio waves, 212, 213–214 radioactive bone, 286 radioactive decay dating based on, 868–870 defined, 860 kinetics of, 868–869 radioactive decay series, 867 radioactivity, 40–41, 860 radiocarbon dating, 868–870 radon, 884, 910–911 Raoult’s law, 553 rate constant, 583 rate-determining step, 605–606 rate law, 587 rate of reaction, 584 reactants See also limiting reactant in chemical equations, 82 gaseous, 458–461 mass of reactants and products, 95–96 11/30/09 2:54:35 PM I NDE X moles of reactants and products, 94–95 reversible, 630 reaction mechanism, 604 reaction order, 587 reaction quotient, 633 reaction rates, 580 Arrhenius equation, 600–602 average, 580–582 catalysis, 610–615 collision theory, 599–600 elementary reactions, 604–605 experimental determination of the rate law, 587–590 first-order reactions, 592–596 instantaneous rate, 582–584 rate-determining step, 605–606 rate law, 587 reaction mechanisms, 604–610 second-order reactions, 596–598 stoichiometry and, 584–586 reactions organic, 410–420 types of, 104 red phosphorus, 978 redox reactions, 133 balancing, 818–820 balancing simple redox equations, 135–136 spontaneity under conditions other than standard state, 833–838 spontaneity under standard-state conditions, 830–833 types of, 140–141 reduced iron, 35 reducing agent, 134 reduction, 134 Reinitzer, Frederick, 1011 relative biological effectiveness (RBE), 883 remineralization, 727 representative elements, 261 repulsion, 172 repulsive force, 264, 272 resonance, 318–319, 403–405 resonance stabilized, 403 resonance structures, 318, 403 reversible process, 630 revised metric system (SI) units, rhombic sulfur, 983 ribonucleic acid (RNA), 423, 426 roentgen equivalent for man (rem), 883 Roman numerals, cations with, 59 Röntgen, Wilhelm, 40 root-mean-square (rms) speed, 473 Rosenberg, Barnett, 77 Rowland, F Sherwood, 893 rubber, 1000–1002 Rutherford, Ernest, 42, 43, 211 Rydberg equation, 221 Rydberg, Johannes, 221 acidic, 707–709 basic, 706–707 cations and anions, 709, 710 neutral, 709–710 saturated solutions, 540 scanning tunneling microscope (STM), 1016 Schrieffer, John Robert, 1021 Schrock, Richard R., 998, 999 Schrödinger equation, 232 Schrödinger, Erwin, 232 scientific measurement, 8–14 scientific method, 3, 5–6 scientific notation, 17 second law of thermodynamics, 777, 790–791 second-order reactions, 596 secondary pollutants, 909 secondary structure, protein, 497 semiconductors, 953–954, 1018–1020 semipermeable membrane, 557 sequestrants, 938 shielding, 264 SI base units, 9, 10, 12 sickle cell disease, 496–498 sigma bonds, 362, 363 significant figures, 17 silver fluoride, 986 simple cubic cell, 506, 507 single bonds, 307 sintering, 1009–1010 skeletal structures, 401–402 slag, 949 smallpox, 3, 25 smectic, 1011 smell, olfactory receptors, 339 Smith, Robert Angus, 673 smog, photochemical, 909–910 smoking, radioactivity in tobacco, 884 SN1 reactions, 414–415 soda ash, 957 sodium carbonate, 957 sodium chloride electrolysis of an aqueous sodium chloride solution, 842–843 electrolysis of molten, 841–842 sodium hydroxide, 957 sodium nitrate, 957 soft tissue materials, 1014–1015 sol-gel process, 1010 solar flares, 897 solids, 6, See also crystal structure amorphous, 517 gases as, 443 preparing a solution from, 146–147 solid-liquid phase transition, 520–521 solid-vapor phase transition, 521–522 solubility defined, 123, 540, 747 factors that affect, 550–552, 753–759 guidelines for ionic compounds, 122–124 product constants, A12–A13 separation of ions in, 763–765 vitamin, 544–546 solubility equilibria, 747–753 solubility product constant, 747 soluble compounds, 123, 125 solutes, 118, 540 solution stoichiometry, 149 solutions, 118 colligative properties, 553–563 colloids, 565–568 Apago PDF Enhancer S s orbitals, 236–237, 354–359 salt in acid-base reactions, 131 and salt substitutes, 257 salt bridge, 821 salt hydrolysis, 706 salt solutions acid-base properties of, 706–710 bur75640_index_I1-I10.indd I-9 I-9 concentration units, 547–550 energy and entropy in solution formation, 542 factors that affect solubility, 550–552 intermolecular forces, 541 types of, 540–541 solvation, 541 solvents, 118, 540 solving problems, using units and, 22–24 space-filling models (molecular art), space shuttles, mystery glow of, 898 specific heat, 184–185 spectator ions, 126 spectrochemical series, 933 splitting, of energy levels, 239 spontaneous processes, 778 stability contant, 758 standard atmospheric pressure, 445 standard enthalpies of formation, 197–199 standard enthalpy of formation, 197 standard enthalpy of reaction, 197 standard entropy, 782–784, 792 standard free-energy of formation, 795 standard free-energy of reaction, 795 standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), 825 standard reduction potential, 825 standard solution, 155 standard states, 660 standard temperature and pressure (STP), 456 standing/stationary waves, 228, 229 state functions, 176 state of a system, 176 steam burns, 522 steelmaking, 949–951 stereoisomerism, 406–409 stereoisomers, 406, 929 Stern, Otto, 235 Stock system, 59 stoichiometry and reaction rates, 584–586 solution, 149 stoichiometry, ratios of combination, 76–77 calculations with balanced chemical equations, 94–96 chemical equations, 80–86 combustion analysis, 91–93 limiting reactants, 97–103 mole and molar masses, 86–91 molecular and formula masses, 78 percent composition of compounds, 79–80 reaction types, 104 stoichoimetric amount, 94 stoichoimetric coefficients, 82 stomach, pH balance, 680–681 stone leprosy, 907 stratosphere defined, 897 depletion of ozone in, 899–902 strong acid–strong base titrations, 737–738 strong acid–weak base titrations, 742–744 strong acids, 682–683 strong bases, 683–685 strong conjugate acid, 697 strong conjugate base, 697 strong electrolytes in aqueous solutions, 118–120, 126 defined, 118 structural formulas, 51 structural isomers, 348–349, 406 subatomic particles, 39, 860 subcritical mass, 876 11/30/09 2:54:36 PM I-10 I NDE X sublimation, 521 substances defined, equilibrium and addition/removal of, 650–652 substituents, 392, 397 substitution reactions, 413–415 sulfur, 982–985 sulfur dioxide, 907–909, 984–985 sulfur hexafluoride, 985 sulfur trioxide, 985 sulfuric acid, 985 superconducting transition temperature, 1021 superconductors, 1020–1021 supercooling, 521 supercritical fluids, 519 supersaturated solutions, 540, 541 surface tension, 500 surroundings, 172 sutures, 1015 syndiotactic, 1005 systems, 172 T tacticity, 1005 Teflon, 1003 temperature, 10–11, 15 equilibrium and, 654, 657 solubility and, 550 temperature-volume relationship, 449–451, 453 tempering, 950 termolecular, 604 tertiary structure, protein, 497 testicular cancer, 77 thalidomide, 386, 387, 415, 427 theoretical yield, 101 theory, scientific, thermal energy, 173 thermal pollution, 550 thermite reaction, 961 thermochemical equations, 182–183 thermochemistry, 170–171 calorimetry, 184–195 defined, 173 energy and energy changes, 172–175 enthalpy, 179–184 Hess’s law, 195–196 standard enthalpies of formation, 197–199 thermodynamics, 176–179 thermodynamics data, A6–A11 defined, 176 first law of thermodynamics, 177–178 in living systems, 804–805 second law of thermodynamics, 777, 790–791 states and state functions, 176 third law of thermodynamics, 792–793 work and heat, 178–179 thermonuclear bomb, 880 thermonuclear reactions, 880 thermoplastic, 1000 thermosetting, 1000 thermosphere, 897 bur75640_index_I1-I10.indd I-10 third law of thermodynamics, 792–793 Thomson, George Paget, 230 Thomson, J J., 40, 42 three-dimensional (3D) movies, 409–410 threshold frequency, 217 titrations, 155, 156 See also acid-base titrations tobacco, radioactivity in, 884 tooth decay, 727 trace elements, 260 tracers, 882 trans isomers, 363, 406, 407, 929 transition elements, 47 transition metals, 47, 59, 243, 261, 922–923 transition state, 599 transmittance (T), 150 transmutation elements, 871 transmutation, nuclear, 860, 871–873 triple bonds, 307, 364 triple point, 524, 525 triprotic acids, 130 troposphere, 896 Tyndall effect, 565, 566 U ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 894 uncertain digits, 17 uncertainty in measurement, 17–21 uncertainty principle, 231 unimolecular, 604 unit cells, 505–506 units, unsaturated solutions, 540 uranium decay series, 867 volume amount-volume relationship, 452–453 constant-volume calorimetry, 193–194 equilibrium and, 652–653, 658–659 pressure-volume relationship, 449–451, 453 reactions under constant-volume/constantpressure conditions, 179–181 temperature-volume relationship, 449–451 volumetric flask, 8, von Laue, Max Theodor Felix, 510 VSEPR model, 340–341, 375 vulcanization, 1001 W Waage, Peter, 633, 635 water acid-base properties of, 675–677 electrolysis of, 842 molecule, 51 physical states of, 6, water gas, 971 water-soluble, 118 water-insoluble compounds, 125 water-soluble compounds, 125 wave function, 232 wave mechanics, 232 wave properties of matter, 228 de Broglie hypothesis, 228–229 diffraction of electrons, 230 wavelength, 212 waves, properties of, 212–213 weak acid-strong base titrations, 738–742 weak acids, 686 weak bases, 694 weak conjugate acid, 697 weak conjugate base, 697 weak electrolytes in aqueous solutions, 118–120 defined, 118 weight, 10 Werner, Alfred, 922 Werner’s coordination theory, 922 white phosphorus, 978 Wilson disease, 945 Wöhler, Friedrich, 388 work, and heat, 178–179 World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), 629, 661 World Health Organization (WHO), 3, 25 Apago PDF Enhancer V vaccination, 3, 25 vaccinia immune globulin (VIG), 25 valence band, 952, 1018 valence bond theory, 350–353, 375 valence electrons, 262 valence-shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) model, 340–341, 375 Van der Waals equation, 476–478 van der Waals forces, 494 Van der Waals, J D., 476 vanadium oxide, 985 van’t Hoff factor, 558 vapor, solid-vapor phase transition, 521–522 vapor pressure, 464, 502–504 vapor-pressure lowering, 553–555 vaporization, 502 viscosity, 501–502 visible light, 212 visible spectrophotometry, 150 vision, 419 night, 218 vitamin solubility, 544–546 volatile, 502, 554 volcanoes, 902 voltaic cells, 821 X X-ray diffraction, 230, 510–511 X-rays, 40, 212, 258 Z zeroth-order reaction, 597–598 zone refining, 952 11/30/09 2:54:36 PM Fundamental Constants Avogadro’s number (NA) 6.0221418 ϫ 1023 Electron charge (e) 1.6022 ϫ 10Ϫ19 C Electron mass 9.109387 ϫ 10Ϫ28 g Faraday constant (F) 96,485.3 C/mol eϪ Gas constant (R) 0.08206 L и atm/K и mol 8.314 J/K и mol 62.36 L и torr/K и mol 1.987 cal/K и mol Planck’s constant (h) 6.6256 ϫ 10Ϫ34 J и s Proton mass 1.672623 ϫ 10Ϫ24 g Neutron mass 1.674928 ϫ 10Ϫ24 g Speed of light in a vacuum 2.99792458 ϫ 108 m/s Some Prefixes Used with SI Units tera (T) 1012 centi (c) 10Ϫ2 giga (G) 109 milli (m) 10Ϫ3 mega (M) kilo (k) 10Ϫ6 10Ϫ9 10 micro (␮) Apago PDF Enhancer 10 nano (n) deci (d) 10Ϫ1 pico (p) 10Ϫ12 Useful Conversion Factors and Relationships lb ϭ 453.6 g in ϭ 2.54 cm (exactly) mi ϭ 1.609 km km ϭ 0.6215 mi pm ϭ ϫ 10Ϫ12 m ϭ ϫ 10Ϫ10 cm atm ϭ 760 mmHg ϭ 760 torr ϭ 101,325 N/m2 ϭ 101,325 Pa cal ϭ 4.184 J (exactly) L и atm ϭ 101.325 J 1Jϭ1Cϫ1V 5°C ?°C ϭ (°F Ϫ 32°F) ϫ 9°F 9°F ?°F ϭ ϫ (°C) ϩ 32°F 5°C ( ) 1K ?K ϭ (°C ϩ 273.15°C) 1°C bur75640_endpapers_back.indd 02 11/11/09 3:58:30 PM ... 10/29/09 12:37:45 PM Second Edition Chemistry Julia Burdge University of Idaho Apago PDF Enhancer TM bur75640_FM.indd i 12/3/09 3:06:09 PM TM CHEMISTRY, SECOND EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business... Cataloging-in-Publication Data Burdge, Julia R Chemistry / Julia Burdge 2nd ed p cm Includes index ISBN 978–0–07–337564–9 — ISBN 0–07–337564–0 (hard copy : alk paper) Chemistry- Textbooks I Title... in the 360° Development Process of Chemistry, Second Edition, by Julia Burdge Board of Advisors A hand-picked group of trusted teachers, active in the general chemistry course, served as chief