CHEMICAL ENGINEERING METHODS AND TECHNOLOGY SONOCHEMISTRY: THEORY, REACTIONS, SYNTHESES, AND APPLICATIONS No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services CHEMICAL ENGINEERING METHODS AND TECHNOLOGY Additional books in this series can be found on Nova‘s website under the Series tab Additional E-books in this series can be found on Nova‘s website under the E-books tab CHEMICAL ENGINEERING METHODS AND TECHNOLOGY SONOCHEMISTRY: THEORY, REACTIONS, SYNTHESES, AND APPLICATIONS FILIP M NOWAK EDITOR Nova Science Publishers, Inc New York Copyright © 2010 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers‘ use of, or reliance upon, this material Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Sonochemistry : theory, reactions, syntheses, and applications / [edited by] Filip M Nowak p cm Includes index ISBN 978-1-62100-147-8 (eBook) Sonochemistry I Nowak, Filip M QD801.S665 2009 660'.2842 dc22 2010025362 Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc  New York CONTENTS Preface Chapter Chapter Chapter vii Sonochemistry: A Suitable Method for Synthesis of NanoStructured Materials M F Mousavi and S Ghasemi Industrial-Scale Processing of Liquids by High-Intensity Acoustic Cavitation: The Underlying Theory and Ultrasonic Equipment Design Principles Alexey S Peshkovsky and Sergei L Peshkovsky Some Applications of Ultrasound Irradiation in Pinacol Coupling of Carbonyl Compounds Zhi-Ping Lin and Ji-Tai Li 63 105 Chapter Ultrasound and Hydrophobic Interactions in Solutions Ants Tuulmets, Siim Salmar and Jaak Järv 129 Chapter Synthetic Methodologies Using Sonincation Techniques Ziyauddin S Qureshi, Krishna M Deshmukh and Bhalchandra M Bhanage 157 Chapter Sonochemotherapy Against Cancers Tinghe Yu and Yi Zhang 189 Chapter Application of Ultrasound for Water Disinfection Processes Vincenzo Naddeo, Milena Landi and Vincenzo Belgiorno 201 Chapter Use Of Ultrasonication in the Production and Reaction of C60 and C70 Fullerenes Anne C Gaquere-Parker and Cass D Parker Chapter Index Application of Ultrasounds to Carbon Nanotubes Anne C Gaquere-Parker and Cass D Parker 213 231 265 PREFACE The study of sonochemistry is concerned with understanding the effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems This book reviews research data in the study of sonochemistry including the application of sonochemistry for the synthesis of various nanostructured materials, ultrasound irradiation in pinacol coupling of carbonyl compounds, ultrasound and hydrophobic interactions in solutions, as well as the use of ultrasound to enhance anticancer agents in sonochemotherapy and the ultrasound-enhanced synthesis and chemical modification of fullerenes Chapter - Recently, sonochemistry has been employed extensively in the synthesis of nano-structured materials Rapid reaction rate, controllable reaction conditions, simplicity and safety of the technique as well as the uniform shape, narrow size distribution, and high purity of prepared nano-sized materials are some of the main advantage of sonochemistry Sonochemistry uses the ultrasonic irradiation to induce the formation of particles with smaller size and high surface area Because of its importance, sonochemistry has experienced a large promotion in various fields concerned with production of new nano-structured materials and improvement of their properties during the recent years However, it has encountered limitations in the case of production of some nano-materials with specific morphology, size and properties, but the growth of the number of researches and published articles in the field of sonochemistry during the recent years shows a large interest and attempt to apply sonochemistry in nanotechnology The improvement of shape, size, purity and some other chemical and physical properties of such produced materials has been the scope of the researchers recently Sonochemistry uses the powerful ultrasound irradiation (20 kHz to 10 MHz) to induce chemical reaction of molecules During the ultrasonic irradiation, the acoustic cavitations will occur which consist of the formation, growth and implosive collapse of bubbles in a liquid The implosive collapse of the bubbles generates a localized hotspot or shock wave formation within the gas phase of the collapsing bubbles (The hot-spot theory) This chapter is planned to deal with the application of sonochemistry for the synthesis of various nano-structured materials such as metals, metal carbides, metal oxides, chalcogenides and nanocomposites with unique properties The effect of different ultrasonic parameters on the prepared structures including their size, morphology and properties are investigated Also, some applications of prepared nano-materials are introduced, e.g electrochemical energy storage, catalysis, biosensor and electrooxidation Chapter - A multitude of useful physical and chemical processes promoted by ultrasonic cavitation have been described in laboratory studies Industrial-scale viii Filip M Nowak implementation of high-intensity ultrasound has, however, been hindered by several technological limitations, making it difficult to directly scale up ultrasonic systems in order to transfer the results of the laboratory studies to the plant floor High-capacity flow-through ultrasonic reactor systems required for commercial-scale processing of liquids can only be properly designed if all energy parameters of the cavitation region are correctly evaluated Conditions which must be fulfilled to ensure effective and continuous operation of an ultrasonic reactor system are provided in this chapter, followed by a detailed description of "shockwave model of acoustic cavitation", which shows how ultrasonic energy is absorbed in the cavitation region, owing to the formation of a spherical micro-shock wave inside each vapor-gas bubble, and makes it possible to explain some newly discovered properties of acoustic cavitation that occur at extremely high intensities of ultrasound After the theoretical background is laid out, fundamental practical aspects of industrial-scale ultrasonic equipment design are provided, specifically focusing on:  electromechanical transducer selection principles;  operation principles and calculation methodology of high-amplitude acoustic horns used for the generation of high-intensity acoustic cavitation in liquids;  detailed theory of matching acoustic impedances of transducers and cavitating liquids in order to maximize the ultrasonic power transfer efficiency;  calculation methodology of ―barbell horns‖, which provide the impedance matching and can help achieving the transference of all available acoustic energy from transducers into the liquids These horns are key to industrial implementation of high-power ultrasound because they permit producing extremely high ultrasonic amplitudes, while the output horn diameters and the resulting liquid processing capacity remain very large;  optimization of the reactor chamber geometry Chapter - Carbon-carbon bond formation is one of the most important topics in organic synthesis One of the most powerful methods for constructing a carbon-carbon bond is the reductive coupling of carbonyl compounds giving 1,2-diols Of these methods, the pinacol coupling, which was described in 1859, is still a useful tool for the synthesis of vicinal diols 1, 2-Diols obtained in the reaction were very useful synthons for a variety of organic synthesis, and were also used as intermediates for the construction of biologically important natural product skeletons and asymmetric ligands for catalytic asymmetric reaction In particular, pinacol coupling has been employed as a key step in the construction of HIVprotease inhibitors Generally, the reaction is effected by treatment of carbonyl compounds with an appropriate metal reagent and/or metal complex to give rise to the corresponding alcohols and coupled products, The coupling products can have two newly chiral centers formed Threo, erythro mixtures of diols are usually obtained from reactions As a consequence, efficient reaction conditions have been required to control the stereochemistry of the 1,2-diols Recent efforts have focused on the development of new reagents and reaction systems to improve the reactivity of the reagents and diastereoselectivity of the products In some of the described methods, anhydrous conditions and long reaction time are required to get satisfactory yields of the reaction products, some of the used reductants are expensive or toxic; excess amounts of metal are needed Sonication can cause metal in the form of a powder particle rupture, with a consequent decrease in particle size, expose new surface and increase the effective area available for reaction It was effective in enhancing the reactivity Preface ix of metal and favorable for single electron transfer reaction of the aldehydes or ketones with metal to form diols Some recent applications of ultrasound in pinacol coupling reactions are reviewed The results are mostly from the author research group Chapter - Sonochemistry and solution chemistry have been explicitly brought together by analyzing the effect of ultrasound on kinetics of ester hydrolysis and benzoin condensation, measured by the authors, and similar kinetic data for the solvolysis of tert-butyl chloride, compiled from literature For the first time the power ultrasound, reaction kinetics and linear free-energy relationships were simultaneously exploited to study ionic reactions in water and aqueous-organic binary solvents and the importance of hydrophobic ground-state stabilization of reagents in aqueous solutions was discussed This approach has opened novel perspectives for wider understanding of the effect of sonication on chemical reactions in solution, as well as on solvation phenomena in general Chapter - Ultrasound generates cavitation, which is "the formation, growth, and implosive collapse of bubbles in a liquid Cavitation collapse produces intense local heating (~5000 K), high pressures (~1000 atm), and enormous heating and cooling rates (>109 K/sec)" and liquid jet streams (~400 km/h), which can be used as a source of energy for a wide range of chemical processes This review will concentrate on theory, reactions and synthetic applications of ultrasound in both homogeneous liquids and in liquid-solid systems Some recent applications of ultrasound in organic synthesis, such as, Suzuki reaction, Sonogashira reaction, Biginelli reaction, Ullmann coupling reaction, Knoevenagel condensation, Claisen-Schmidt condensation, Reformatsky reaction, Bouveault reaction, Baylis-Hillman reaction, Michael addition, Curtius rearrangement, Diels-Alder reaction, Friedal-Craft acylation, Heck reaction, Mannich type reaction, Pechmann condensation and effect of ultrasound on phase transfer catalysis, oxidation-reduction reactions, ionic liquids and photochemistry are reviewed Ultrasound found to provide an alternative to traditional techniques by means of enhancing the rate, yield and selectivity to the reactions Chapter - Sonochemotherpy is the use of ultrasound to enhance anticancer agents Preclinical trials have manifested this modality is effective against cancers including chemoresistant lesions Sonochemotherapy is a target therapy, in which cavitation plays the leading role Making the occurrence and level of cavitation under control improves the safety and therapeutic efficacy Sonosensitizers and microbubbles enhance cavitation, being a measure to adjust the level of cavitation Free radicals due to cavitation have the potentials of restructuring a molecule and changing the conformation; thus the molecular structure and anticancer potency of a cytotoxic agent must be investigated, especially when sonosensitizer and microbubble are employed A potential clinical model for investigating sonochemotherapy is the residual cancer tissues when performing palliative high intensity focused ultrasound treatment Chapter - Ultrasound (US) is a sound wave of a frequency greater than the superior audibility threshold of the human hearing Sonochemistry is the application of ultrasound in chemistry It became an exciting new field of research over the past decade Some applications date back to the 1920s The 1950s and 1960s subsequently represented the first extensive sonochemical research years and significant progresses were made throughout them Then it was realized that ultrasound power has a great potential for uses in a wide variety of processes in the chemical and allied industries In these early years, experiments were often performed without any real knowledge of the fundamental physical background about the US action The situation changed in the 1980s when a new surge of activity started INDEX A absorption, 11, 20, 21, 82, 83, 224, 237 absorption spectra, 11 absorption spectroscopy, 237 acetate, 12, 17, 21, 22, 24, 25, 46, 52, 56, 131, 132, 133, 135, 137, 138, 141, 144, 147, 148, 151, 163, 167 acetic acid, 167, 174, 243 acetone, 18, 114, 131, 138, 176 acetonitrile, 132 acetophenone, 112, 167, 168 acetylation, 175, 185 acetylene, 33, 57 acidic, 4, 111, 112, 235, 236, 248, 249, 251 acidity, 111 acoustic, vii, viii, 1, 2, 36, 49, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 91, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 108, 130, 136, 140, 145, 150, 160, 161, 175, 179, 191, 195, 196 acoustic waves, 66, 68, 83 acoustical, 66, 101 acrylate, 35, 171, 175 ACS, 156 activated carbon, 168, 206 activation, 130, 137, 140, 147, 149, 150, 168, 172, 234 activation energy, 140, 147, 149, 150 activation entropy, 149 activation parameters, 130, 149 acute ischemic stroke, 200 acylation, ix, 157, 170, 178, 183, 187 additives, 12, 27, 133 adriamycin, 192, 193, 194, 198, 199, 200 adsorption, 9, 60, 239, 256, 257, 260, 263 AFM, 222, 224, 225, 234, 236, 238, 240, 246, 249, 252 Ag, 8, 10, 11, 16, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31, 36, 50, 51, 55, 56, 57 agent, ix, x, 4, 5, 7, 20, 22, 23, 31, 46, 47, 48, 60, 176, 189, 191, 193, 195, 196, 198, 231, 251 agents, vii, ix, 3, 12, 21, 48, 167, 180, 181, 189, 190, 191, 192, 195, 198, 217 aggregates, 18, 21, 22, 23, 28, 30, 140, 226, 234, 241, 250, 258 AIBN, 31 air, 9, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 25, 33, 36, 41, 42, 46, 48, 79, 84, 119, 172, 183, 203, 204, 215, 218, 226, 228 alcohol, 10, 35, 109, 112, 114, 116, 132, 134, 135, 137, 144, 145, 151, 175, 178, 221, 243, 256, 261 alcohols, viii, 105, 110, 113, 130, 133, 137, 145, 146, 150, 172, 174, 175, 177, 185, 242, 260 Alcohols, 185 aldehydes, ix, 106, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 164, 165, 167, 169, 171, 172, 182, 183 aliphatic amines, 173, 184 alkali, 20, 107, 113, 184, 187 alkaline, 6, 7, 9, 21, 38, 47, 132, 167, 181 alkaline hydrolysis, 132 alkanes, 215 alkenes, 32, 106, 116, 185, 215 alkylation, 106, 169, 173, 178, 184, 187 alkylation reactions, 187 alloys, 83, 96, 110 alpha, 36, 55, 58, 60 alternative, ix, 157, 195, 201, 204, 208 ambient air, 14, 20, 41, 46 ambient pressure, 9, 160 amide, 18, 53, 237, 244, 252, 259, 261 amine, 38, 163, 164, 180, 218, 228, 255 amines, 171, 173, 178, 184, 186, 217, 218, 228 266 amino, 27, 56, 60, 115, 168, 170, 178, 182, 183, 186 amino acid, 27, 56, 170, 183 amino acids, 27, 56, 170, 183 amino groups, 115 ammonia, 12, 29, 38, 244 ammonium, 17, 19, 22, 30, 32, 33, 45, 112, 165, 167, 169, 172, 180, 247, 262 ammonium chloride, 112, 165 ammonium salts, 167 amorphous, 10, 25, 31, 33, 36, 51, 57, 60, 224, 233, 234, 235, 236, 244, 245, 246, 248, 249, 250 amorphous carbon, 233, 234, 235, 236, 244, 245, 248, 249 amphoteric, 111 amplitude, viii, 19, 26, 63, 67, 70, 71, 75, 84, 85, 86, 87, 94, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101, 158, 161, 194, 200, 205 anaerobic, 15 anatase, 18, 256 angiogenesis, 196, 200 aniline, 32, 33, 43, 219 anionic surfactant, 45 annealing, 16, 36, 39, 40, 232, 244 antagonism, 197 antagonist, 106 anthracene, 235 antibacterial, 29, 31, 56 antibody, 196 anticancer, vii, ix, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 195, 196, 197, 198 anti-cancer, 199 anticancer drug, 190, 191, 192, 193, 195, 196, 197 antihypertensive agents, 180 antioxidant, 165 antitumor, 190, 192, 195, 200 apoptosis, 192, 196, 199, 200 apoptosis pathways, 196 application, vii, ix, 2, 25, 49, 52, 53, 56, 57, 121, 134, 135, 137, 153, 158, 162, 163, 173, 184, 198, 201, 214, 260, 263 aqueous solution, ix, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 32, 33, 34, 35, 40, 42, 45, 50, 51, 110, 113, 129, 130, 131, 132, 134, 137, 143, 202, 210, 211, 233, 236, 239, 240, 241, 242, 256, 257, 260, 263 aqueous solutions, ix, 3, 8, 11, 20, 21, 27, 33, 129, 130, 134, 137, 202, 210, 211, 236, 240, 242, 260, 263 aqueous suspension, 19, 205 Index argon, 3, 4, 11, 15, 26, 29, 36, 38, 140, 175, 176, 203, 214, 224 aromatic compounds, 177, 186 aromatics, 169, 178, 186 Arrhenius equation, 139, 149 aspect ratio, 4, 41, 44 assumptions, 69, 78 atmosphere, 11, 17, 24, 25, 26, 27, 30, 33, 36, 175 atomic force, 224, 234 atomic force microscopy, 224, 234 atomic force microscopy (AFM), 234 atoms, 6, 119, 146, 210, 233 ATP, 192, 199 Au nanoparticles, availability, 84, 110, 179, 222 B Bacillus, 207, 210 Bacillus subtilis, 207 bacteria, 29, 204, 205, 208, 209, 210 bacterial, 204, 205, 206, 210 bacterial cells, 205 band gap, 12, 20, 21, 30, 44 behavior, 17, 26, 38, 72, 78, 134, 191, 242, 254 Belgium, 154 benzene, 35, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 141, 142, 166, 214, 217, 219, 222, 226, 232, 240 binding, 12, 35, 134, 199, 250, 262 binding energies, 35 binding energy, 12 biochemistry, 134 biodiesel, 103 biological activity, 225 biological coating, 18 biotechnology, 36, 153 bismuth, 19, 20, 55, 61, 171, 183 bladder, 194, 200 bladder cancer, 195, 200 bonding, 146, 147, 215, 222, 242, 262 bonds, 20, 106, 134, 141, 160, 233, 235, 244, 245, 250, 251, 254 boundary conditions, 89, 91 bromination, 178, 186 bubble, viii, 2, 31, 49, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 78, 82, 83, 102, 108, 130, 131, 138, 139, 160, 161, 162, 202, 203, 213, 234 bubbles, vii, ix, 1, 2, 49, 66, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 81, 83, 102, 108, 130, 131, 140, 157, 160, 161, 174, 191, 198, 202, 204, 208, 214 Index Bubbles, 2, 179 bulk crystal, 23 by-products, 142, 204, 209 C calcination temperature, 22, 24 calcium, 30, 40, 180 calcium channel blocker, 180 calibration, 94, 224 calorimetry, 73, 136 Canada, 208, 260 cancer, ix, 167, 181, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200 cancer cells, 190, 191, 192, 194, 195, 196, 197, 199 cancer treatment, 196 capillary, 241, 260 Carbon, viii, 33, 43, 58, 59, 105, 106, 219, 228, 231, 232, 258, 260, 261, 263 carbon atoms, 146, 233 carbon dioxide, 203 carbon materials, 258 carbon nanotubes, x, 34, 35, 43, 59, 219, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 254, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263 Carbon nanotubes, 232 carbonates, 24 Carbonyl, 105, 248, 249 carboxyl, 251 carboxyl groups, 251 carboxylates, 240 carboxylic, 22, 38, 116, 132, 240, 242, 244, 247, 248, 249, 251, 252, 254 carboxylic acids, 132, 240, 242, 252 carboxylic groups, 244 carburization, 34 carcinoma, 192, 195, 198, 199 catalysis, vii, ix, 2, 3, 22, 42, 44, 157, 184, 196, 203 catalyst, 9, 10, 18, 28, 35, 36, 43, 51, 55, 56, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111, 141, 163, 165, 166, 171, 172, 175, 176, 177, 178, 183, 184, 186, 234, 236, 241, 248, 256, 257 catalytic activity, 9, 28, 35, 110, 256 catalytic effect, 132 catalytic properties, 61 cathode, 34, 53 cavities, 75, 108, 160, 161, 202, 203 C-C, 185, 235 267 cell, 6, 64, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 204, 205, 206, 211 cell death, 192, 195, 197 cell killing, 199 cell line, 194, 198, 199, 200 cell lines, 200 cellulose, 46 ceramic, 206 ceramics, 2, 49 cerium, 58, 248 cervix, 193 chalcogenides, vii, 2, 44, 47 channels, 16 chemical bonds, 161 chemical interaction, 26 chemical oxidation, 248 chemical properties, 213 chemical reactions, ix, 2, 106, 129, 130, 131, 133, 141, 158, 159, 160, 174, 196, 202 chemical reactivity, 129, 134, 158 chemicals, 109, 110, 111, 190, 195, 196, 202 chemiluminescence, 61 chemopreventive agents, 167, 181 chemoresistance, 189, 192, 193, 199 chemoresistant, ix, 189, 192, 193, 194, 196 chemotherapy, 189, 190, 191, 192, 196, 197, 198, 199 China, 105, 126, 189, 198 chiral, viii, 105, 106, 107, 120 chiral center, viii, 105, 107 chloride, ix, 7, 11, 129, 130, 132, 135, 137, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 167, 171, 172, 173, 176, 183, 185, 221, 233, 248, 250 Chloride, 146 chlorinated hydrocarbons, 234 chlorination, 204, 206, 208 chlorobenzene, 175, 224, 232, 245, 246, 252 chloroform, 9, 234, 235, 238, 243, 248 chromatography, 219, 220 chromium, 217, 218 circulation, 3, 194 cis, 16, 176, 177, 185 cisplatin, 193, 195, 197, 199, 200 Claisen, ix, 107, 157, 167, 168, 182 classical, 57, 67, 78, 106, 109, 110, 114 cleaning, 45, 46, 84, 106, 129, 158, 161, 165, 168, 203, 208, 209 cleavage, 9, 130, 139, 178, 186, 218 clouds, 102 cluster model, 134, 141 clusters, 11, 12, 39, 60, 134, 141, 142, 144, 145, 150, 204, 226, 239 CNTs, 34, 35 268 Co, 10, 24, 51, 103 CO2, 9, 28 coatings, 18 cobalt, 233 coil, 87, 94 coliforms, 207 collisions, 232 colloidal particles, 226 colloids, x, 213, 224, 226, 229 colon, 194, 195 colon cancer, 194, 195 combustion, 15, 28, 56 components, x, 64, 65, 83, 137, 203, 231, 257 composites, 28, 29, 30, 56, 57, 58 composition, 16, 19, 36, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 147, 150, 151, 152, 221 compounds, vii, viii, 47, 61, 105, 106, 107, 109, 114, 133, 140, 145, 163, 164, 165, 167, 169, 171, 173, 176, 180, 181, 182, 184, 200, 203, 204, 209, 215 concentration, 5, 8, 9, 12, 14, 19, 20, 22, 23, 27, 36, 43, 67, 68, 69, 79, 113, 139, 145, 176, 177, 195, 222, 224, 234, 237, 238, 239, 241, 256, 260 condensation, ix, 107, 129, 130, 132, 134, 141, 142, 143, 157, 164, 166, 167, 168, 171, 181, 182, 183 condensed media, 147 conducting polymers, 43 conductivity, 32, 35, 57, 73, 239, 248, 262 configuration, 103 Congress, 102, 199 construction, viii, 73, 76, 78, 85, 88, 105, 106 control, viii, ix, 2, 37, 51, 56, 97, 105, 107, 120, 153, 189, 195, 198, 221, 238 conversion, 9, 14, 31, 40, 76, 110, 112, 113, 170, 178, 186, 221 conversion rate, 221 cooling, ix, 2, 87, 108, 157 copolymer, 21, 23, 246 copper, 22, 24, 29, 54, 55, 60, 163, 164, 166, 180 copper oxide, 29 core-shell, 10, 11, 36, 38, 39, 40, 51, 58 correlation, 130, 133, 134, 143, 153, 174, 238 correlation analysis, 130, 143 corrosion, 8, 113, 170 coupling, vii, viii, ix, 105, 106, 107, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 157, 162, 163, 164, 166, 175, 178, 179, 180, 181, 185 covalent, x, 231, 239, 252, 257 covalent bond, 252 covalent bonding, 252 Index critical value, 76 cross-sectional, 84, 88 crystal growth, 221, 222 crystal lattice, 140 crystal structure, 249 crystalline, 4, 6, 7, 15, 24, 25, 36, 41, 45, 48, 50, 59, 60, 228, 250, 256 crystallinity, 3, 17, 222 crystallites, 28 crystallization, x, 16, 18, 106, 140, 213, 224 crystals, 5, 8, 23, 36, 40, 222, 227 CTAB, 3, 4, 17, 22, 40, 45, 46 cyanide, 173, 184 cycles, 48, 108, 158, 160, 194 cyclodextrin, 5, 48, 60 cyclohexane, 252 cyclohexanol, 243 cyclohexanone, 176 cyclophosphamide, 196 cysteine, 30 cytochrome, 196 cytokine, 196 cytometry, 211 cytosol, 196 cytotoxic, ix, 189, 191, 192, 195, 197, 198 cytotoxic agents, 195 cytotoxicity, 192, 194, 198, 199, 200 D decomposition, 15, 16, 18, 20, 34, 36, 40, 42, 141, 158, 202, 237, 246, 252 deduction, 143 defects, x, 109, 231, 232, 235, 238, 239, 241, 242, 243, 244, 246, 247, 254, 256, 258 definition, 140 deformation, 85, 203, 262 degradation, 10, 18, 22, 24, 31, 66, 138, 139, 141, 153, 205, 227, 237, 240, 241, 245, 246, 249, 257, 260, 261, 263 Degussa, 18 density, 33, 68, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 86, 100, 139, 205, 241, 242, 243 depolymerization, 203 deposition, 55, 56, 84, 100, 250, 259 derivatives, x, 35, 164, 166, 175, 176, 181, 185, 213, 215, 216, 217, 219, 227, 228 destruction, 71, 143, 194, 210, 262 diagnostic ultrasound, 196 diamines, 106, 178, 186 Diamond, 258, 262 dichloroethane, 234 dienes, 180 Index diffraction, 17, 61, 221, 222, 226, 256 diffusion, 2, 67, 68, 72, 239 dimer, 215, 216 dimethylformamide, 42, 236 dimethylsulfoxide, 251 dipole, 131 dipole moment, 131 dipole moments, 131 discontinuity, 67, 71, 73 discrimination, 247 disinfection, 204, 205, 206, 208, 209, 210 dispersion, 14, 28, 31, 57, 72, 81, 82, 91, 98, 220, 221, 224, 232, 235, 236, 237, 239, 240, 241, 243, 244, 247, 249, 251, 254, 259, 260, 261 dissociation, 23, 131, 203 distilled water, 14, 46 distribution, vii, 1, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 18, 21, 29, 31, 34, 36, 38, 66, 68, 69, 71, 72, 77, 91, 92, 93, 95, 242, 247, 261 divergence, 81 DMF, 42, 43, 166, 169, 236, 237, 244, 247, 248, 252, 254 DNA, 193, 199, 211, 240, 260 DNA damage, 199 DNA repair, 193 donor, 22, 226 dopant, 43 doped, 17, 18, 20, 22, 29, 41, 42, 43, 44, 53, 54, 56, 181, 187 doping, 2, 18, 53, 249 drug delivery, 24, 190, 199 drugs, 106, 192, 194, 195, 196, 199 drying, 18, 221, 224, 249 durability, 27 duration, 19, 108, 191, 194, 234, 238, 246, 247, 250 E E coli, 205, 208 earth, 17, 24, 42, 54, 55, 107 Education, 210 electric conductivity, 35 electric current, 242 electric energy, 83 electric field, 242, 260 electrical power, 88 electrocatalyst, 51 electrochemistry, 44, 106, 107 electromagnetic, 20, 159 electron, ix, 106, 109, 111, 112, 114, 116, 117, 165, 170, 171, 218, 222, 226, 229, 247, 261 269 electron microscopy, 226, 229, 233, 236, 247, 261 electrophoresis, 193, 240, 241, 246, 260 emission, 17, 20, 22, 40, 41, 110, 208 employment, 173 emulsification, 55, 72, 98, 109, 203 emulsion polymerization, 58 emulsions, 109 encapsulated, 30, 31, 32, 193, 194, 195, 199, 221 encapsulation, 31, 241 energy density, 33 energy parameters, viii, 63, 64 England, 210 entanglement, entropy, 137, 149 entropy of activation, 137 environment, 17, 49, 73, 75, 110, 161, 213, 227 environmental protection, 210 Epoxidation, 172, 183, 217, 218 epoxides, 106, 178, 186, 218 epoxy, 98, 249 equilibrium, 68, 70, 71, 77, 79, 137, 239 equilibrium state, 70, 79 erosion, 72, 82, 203 Escherichia coli, 29, 205, 207, 208, 209, 210 ESR, 243 ester, ix, 30, 129, 134, 137, 139, 140, 141, 143, 144, 145, 152, 252 esters, 130, 132, 134, 135, 137, 139, 141, 144, 145, 165, 168, 172, 178, 180, 183, 186 Estonia, 129 ET, 109 etching, 39, 40 ethanol, 8, 9, 16, 17, 24, 31, 34, 38, 40, 46, 50, 52, 113, 132, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 141, 142, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 172, 237, 242, 243, 248, 252 Ethanol, 52, 142, 149 ethers, 106, 166, 173, 178, 181, 186 ethyl acetate, 56, 131, 135, 137, 138, 151 ethylene, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 24, 38, 46, 47, 48, 238, 246 ethylene glycol, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 24, 38, 46, 47, 48, 238 ethylene oxide, 246 ethylenediamine, 47 Euro, 181 excitation, 20, 22, 44, 160 exfoliation, 239, 260, 262 experimental condition, 19, 41, 131, 136, 244, 258 exposure, 100, 191, 194, 199 external magnetic fields, 27 270 Index extinction, 237 extraction, 106, 220 extrapolation, 146 F fabrication, 2, 3, 49, 51, 55, 57, 60 family, 42, 85, 237 fatigue, 64, 85, 86, 91, 94 ferromagnetic, 16, 17, 38, 58, 236 fibers, 29, 56, 248 film, 36, 205 films, 35, 60, 260 filtration, 106, 165, 235, 259 flow, viii, 15, 38, 63, 64, 66, 70, 71, 74, 75, 83, 100, 101, 160, 204, 206, 211, 221, 239 flow rate, 221 fluid, 102, 160 fluid mechanics, 102 fluorescence, 239 fluoride, 14, 113, 168 fluorinated, 243, 248, 261 focusing, viii, 63, 71, 72, 82, 190 formaldehyde, 18, 28 formamide, 169 fouling, 208 fractal cluster, 226 fracture, 256 fragility, 222 fragmentation, 109 France, 102 free energy, 137, 143 free radical, 129, 191, 202, 211 free radicals, 129, 191, 202, 211 free-radical, 211 FTIR, 30, 40, 224 FT-IR, 219 fuel, 9, 10, 49 fuel cell, 9, 10, 49 fullerene, x, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 221, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 235, 244, 245, 246 fullerenes, vii, x, 213, 214, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 224, 225, 226, 227, 229, 235, 245 Fullerenes, 213, 214, 219, 228, 260 functional changes, 190 functionalization, x, 213, 217, 231, 248, 250, 252, 257, 259, 262, 263 G gadolinium, 20 gamma-ray, 210 gas, vii, 2, 9, 14, 38, 49, 52, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 81, 82, 83, 97, 108, 109, 131, 139, 160, 177, 191, 202, 203, 204, 214 gas diffusion, 72 gas phase, vii, 2, 49, 131, 139 gases, 71, 158, 203, 206, 224 gel, 22, 240, 246, 254, 263 gel formation, 255 gene, 192, 193, 198 gene expression, 192, 193 generalization, 142 generation, viii, 2, 63, 119, 129, 136, 160 Georgia, 213, 231 glass, 14, 18, 222 glucose, 4, 5, glycerin, 98, 99 glycerol, 47 glycol, 4, 6, 10, 11, 20, 21, 26, 27, 46, 48, 173 glycosaminoglycans, 40, 58 glycosides, 228 gold, 3, 4, 5, 10, 12, 26, 27, 32, 50, 51, 57, 251 gold nanoparticles, 4, 5, 10, 50, 57 graphite, 81, 82, 235, 236, 248 groups, 22, 30, 34, 38, 106, 111, 115, 119, 131, 144, 163, 171, 241, 242, 244, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 254, 255, 257, 258, 262 growth, vii, ix, 1, 2, 3, 6, 12, 17, 27, 37, 41, 43, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 59, 68, 74, 75, 76, 108, 130, 157, 160, 161, 194, 196, 200, 221, 222, 228, 233 growth factor, 196, 200 growth mechanism, 12, 59 growth temperature, 17 H H2, 9, 174, 203, 215, 253 HA, 30, 56, 199 halogenated, 232, 259 HDPE, 56 health, 194, 204 hearing, ix, 158, 201 heat, 15, 16, 18, 24, 25, 34, 86, 97, 136, 139, 190, 206, 233, 246, 256 heating, ix, 17, 22, 24, 54, 66, 72, 108, 157, 241, 245 heavy metal, 107 heavy metals, 107 hematite, 15, 16, 52 heptane, 234 271 Index heterogeneous, 129, 130, 131, 134, 138, 159, 161, 162, 163, 172, 173, 177, 206, 232, 235 heterogeneous systems, 161 hexafluorophosphate, 216 hexagonal lattice, 233 hexane, 218, 220 high intensity ultrasound, 182, 231 high pressure, ix, 2, 157, 160, 191 high resolution, 214 high temperature, 2, 34, 49, 82, 130, 161, 191, 213, 222, 233, 244, 254 high-speed, 66, 102, 131, 162 HIV, viii, 105, 106 homogeneity, 28, 64, 100 hot spots, 2, 49, 130, 140, 231 House, 156 HPLC, 214 HPM, 165 HR, 29, 199 HRTEM, 13, 26, 39, 41, 45, 247 human, ix, 109, 158, 192, 193, 194, 195, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 204 hybrid, x, 32, 57, 231 hydrate, 7, 47, 218, 246 hydro, 35, 43, 178, 187, 234, 246 hydrocarbon, 43, 235, 258 hydrocarbons, 43, 246 hydrodynamic, 81, 160, 206 hydrogels, 262 hydrogen, 2, 5, 18, 34, 40, 43, 53, 57, 132, 133, 141, 146, 147, 172, 177, 183, 202, 203, 205, 210, 215, 234, 242, 247, 254, 258 hydrogen atoms, 210 hydrogen bonds, 132, 133, 141, 254 hydrogen gas, 177, 203 hydrogen peroxide, 5, 18, 53, 172, 183, 203, 205, 234, 247 hydrogenation, 10, 32, 35, 57, 177, 185, 186 hydrolysis, ix, 18, 21, 38, 52, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 151, 255 hydrophilicity, 31 hydrophobic, vii, ix, 129, 130, 132, 133, 134, 135, 137, 139, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 150, 152, 153 Hydrophobic, 129, 133, 134, 156 hydrophobic interactions, vii, 132, 133, 134, 137, 141, 144, 145, 152, 153 hydrophobicity, 139, 141, 143, 144, 145, 150, 153 hydrothermal, 258 hydroxide, 12, 30, 61, 168, 172, 248 hydroxides, 12, 22 hydroxyapatite, 30, 40, 58, 59 hydroxyl, 2, 19, 202, 203, 210, 242, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 254 hydroxyl groups, 242, 251 hydroxylation, 106 hydroxypropyl, 18, 53, 60 hyperthermia, 190 hypothesis, 193, 235 I id, 141, 221, 241, 251 illumination, 24 images, 4, 5, 11, 13, 15, 20, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 45, 196, 223, 225, 234, 235, 236, 239, 240, 242, 245, 247, 248, 250, 252 imaging, 24, 159, 196, 236, 243, 248, 249 immersion, 132, 168 immobilization, 27, 56, 57 implementation, viii, 63, 64, 100 impurities, 109, 236, 240, 241, 245 in situ, 30, 32, 58, 60, 237 in vitro, 191, 198, 199 in vivo, 191, 194, 195, 196, 198, 199, 200 inactivation, 202, 204, 205, 207, 208, 211 Indian, 49, 120, 124, 125, 126, 183 indication, 81 indigenous, 139 indium, 17, 53, 60, 110, 182 indole, 164, 169, 173 induction, 199 industrial, viii, 18, 63, 64, 83, 84, 91, 94, 98, 100, 101, 120, 133 industrial application, 91, 94, 120 inflammatory, 167, 181 inhibitors, viii, 105, 106 inorganic, 2, 25, 29, 40, 57, 111 insertion, 2, 56 insulation, 97 integration, 69 interaction, 10, 11, 30, 66, 102, 119, 120, 133, 141, 143, 197, 198, 199, 225, 239, 246, 250, 251, 255, 257 interactions, vii, x, 30, 132, 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 141, 143, 144, 145, 146, 152, 153, 197, 226, 227, 231, 239, 240, 242, 244, 255, 257 interface, 108, 139, 202, 203, 221, 234 intrinsic, 3, 25, 138, 139, 150, 174, 192 Investigations, 194 iodine, 165, 168, 171, 183, 203 Iodine, 180 272 Index ionic, ix, 5, 7, 14, 18, 50, 52, 53, 57, 60, 129, 130, 131, 132, 138, 139, 143, 152, 153, 157, 161, 162, 165, 174, 175, 184, 185, 215, 216, 217, 228, 239, 240, 241, 246, 260 ionic liquids, ix, 157, 174, 175, 184, 185, 215, 217, 241 ionization, 113, 240 ions, 3, 6, 10, 11, 17, 21, 22, 23, 27, 45, 47, 48, 131 IR, 200, 238, 241, 242, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 257 IR spectra, 18, 238 IR spectroscopy, 241, 242, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252 Iran, iron, 15, 16, 25, 36, 37, 38, 39, 52, 108, 112, 233, 250 isolation, 77, 170, 220, 228, 258 isothermal, 77 Italy, 201, 208 J Japan, 199 Japanese, 21, 34 Jun, 55 Jung, 12, 51, 52 K KBr, 222, 228 ketones, ix, 106, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 167, 169, 171, 172, 174, 183, 185 kinetics, ix, 2, 75, 129, 130, 131, 138, 141, 143, 203 KOH, 20, 113, 173 Korean, 126 L laboratory studies, vii, 63, 88, 100 lactams, 168, 182 lamellae, 59 lamellar, 111 Langmuir, 50, 51, 56, 60, 260, 262 lanthanide, 21, 22, 40, 41, 59 lanthanum, 61 lattice, 17, 20, 222, 224, 233 Legionella, 209 Legionella pneumophila, 209 lesions, ix, 189, 192, 196, 197, 198 lifetime, 108, 139 ligand, 22, 61, 163, 164, 180 ligands, viii, 27, 48, 105, 106, 119, 175 light scattering, 14, 254 limitation, 84 limitations, vii, viii, 1, 63, 87, 92, 94, 100, 116, 182, 190 linear, ix, 44, 66, 129, 130, 136, 139, 141, 143, 152, 195, 255 linear dependence, 136 lipid, 165 lipid peroxidation, 165 liposome, 194 liquid chromatography, 214 liquid interfaces, 109 liquid phase, 32, 75, 76, 109, 130, 140, 173, 206 liquids, viii, ix, 63, 64, 72, 83, 97, 98, 102, 103, 108, 140, 157, 160, 172, 174, 184, 185, 215, 217, 231, 241, 260, 261 lithium, 34, 57, 233 London, 102, 120, 121, 155, 209, 210 low-intensity, 66, 195, 199 low-level, 194, 198, 199 low-temperature, 35, 59 luminescence, 17, 23, 59 lymphoma, 199 lysozyme, 240, 260 M maghemite, 27, 56 magnesium, 19, 22, 112, 216 magnetic, 3, 8, 17, 24, 26, 27, 31, 32, 36, 38, 56, 57, 94 magnetic field, 26, 27, 31, 38 magnetic properties, 17, 24, 26, 31, 32, 36 magnetic resonance, 24 magnetic resonance imaging, 24 magnetite, 16, 25, 26, 27, 38, 52, 55 magnetization, 25, 26, 36, 38, 55 manganese, 17, 33, 34, 53, 57, 114 Manganese, 16, 114 mass spectrometry, 214, 220, 246 mass transfer, 162, 172 matrix, 27, 31, 32, 51, 206 MDR, 194 measurement, 38, 49, 82, 94, 158, 260 measures, 96 mechanical behavior, 228 mechanical energy, 83 mechanical stress, 64, 83, 85, 204 media, 9, 44, 67, 107, 108, 110, 116, 134, 147, 149, 153, 201, 216, 225, 262 273 Index medical diagnostics, 129 medicine, 159 melanoma, 194, 200 melting, 26, 31, 140, 204 membrane permeability, 211 mercury, 19, 47, 53, 60 mesoporous materials, metal carbides, vii, metal hydroxides, 22 metal ions, 11, 23, 27 metal nanoparticles, 3, 27, 56, 57 metal oxide, vii, 2, 32, 35 metal oxides, vii, metals, vii, 2, 3, 8, 27, 56, 107, 110, 159, 168 metastasis, 194, 200 metastatic, 194, 196, 199 methanol, 9, 10, 26, 27, 32, 134, 146, 150, 151, 165, 175, 235, 242, 243 methyl group, 215 methyl methacrylate, 35, 238 methylene, 18, 167, 169, 172, 181, 183, 221 methylene chloride, 221 mice, 194, 195, 199, 200 micelles, 194, 195, 199, 200, 241 microbial, 202 microcirculation, 196 microemulsion, 55 microorganisms, 31, 204, 205, 206, 207 microscope, 94, 222, 241 microscopy, 222, 224, 226, 229, 234, 247, 250, 261, 263 microspheres, 12, 38, 51 microstructures, 14 microwave, 54, 56, 60, 107, 162, 173, 175, 178, 184, 185, 186, 221, 228, 255 microwaves, 221 migration, 194, 199, 246 mirror, 137 mitochondria, 196 mitochondrial, 196, 200 mixing, 137, 160, 236, 249 MMA, 35, 238 mobility, 226 modalities, 196 modality, ix, 189, 190, 192, 195, 196, 198 models, 66, 87, 134, 199, 200 modulus, 36, 85 moieties, 30 moisture, 109, 215, 221 molar ratio, 5, 6, 8, 9, 20, 21, 32, 112, 113 molar volume, 134 mole, 9, 134, 137 molecular structure, ix, 189, 196, 198 molecular weight, 238 molecules, vii, 1, 2, 5, 17, 108, 130, 134, 139, 140, 142, 150, 160, 161, 190, 192, 194, 196, 201, 213, 218, 226, 237 molybdenum, 19 monomer, 6, 31, 32, 43 morphological, 45, 46, 56 morphology, vii, 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 19, 21, 36, 37, 41, 42, 43, 44, 52, 55, 56, 233, 250, 251, 261 movement, 66, 69, 70, 73, 75, 76, 78, 81 MS, 27, 218, 219, 226, 227 multidrug resistance, 199 multiwalled carbon nanotubes, 34, 260, 262, 263 N nanobelts, 4, 5, 48, 50, 60, 61 nanocapsules, 245 nanocatalyst, 35 nanocomposites, vii, 2, 10, 25, 27, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 54, 56, 57, 242 Nanocomposites, 25, 27, 30 nanocrystal, 42, 224 nanocrystalline, 18, 24, 36, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 58, 60, 61, 262 nanocrystals, 6, 7, 12, 16, 18, 21, 22, 23, 25, 31, 40, 42, 47, 55, 58, 60, 61, 224 Nanocrystals, 54 nanocubes, 17, 46, 60 nanofibers, 43, 44, 59 nanomaterials, 2, 49, 60, 129, 227 nanometer, 24, 28, 51 nanometers, 48, 221 nanoribbons, 14 nanorods, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 13, 18, 20, 21, 23, 24, 28, 36, 40, 41, 42, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 58, 59, 60, 61 nanosheets, 40, 235, 259 nanostructured materials, nanostructures, 3, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 22, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48, 50, 51, 53, 59, 60, 61, 258 Nanostructures, 46, 59 nanotechnology, vii, nanotube, 7, 34, 35, 43, 58, 235, 237, 239, 256, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263 nanotube films, 260 nanowires, 7, 12, 14, 43, 46, 50, 60, 234, 258 Nanowires, 52, 59 naphthalene, 178, 235 natural, viii, 29, 105, 106, 164, 210 Nd, 21, 40, 41, 54 neck, 99, 100 274 Index necrosis, 190, 192, 196, 197 New York, iii, iv, 63, 102, 103, 120, 121, 126, 153, 154, 156, 209 Ni, 24, 52, 59, 107, 155, 177, 232 nickel, 112, 175 nitrate, 6, 7, 10, 18, 22, 25, 29, 48, 50, 165, 169, 180 nitric acid, 168, 176, 185, 226, 235, 241, 242, 244, 247, 248, 250, 251, 256, 257, 260 nitrobenzene, 27 nitrogen, 24, 48, 79, 96, 135, 203 NMR, 112, 113, 115, 117, 118, 140, 219, 226 NO, 14, 35, 52 noble metals, 3, 27, 56 non-destructive, 159 non-thermal, 218 non-uniform, 72, 160 normal, 17, 78, 79, 80, 81, 94, 140, 183, 190, 191 normal conditions, 81 novel materials, 49 nucleation, 17, 21, 23, 27, 38, 43, 45, 109, 130, 232 nuclei, 2, 6, 27, 68, 72, 74, 75, 76, 191, 194 nucleus, 16, 26, 31, 70, 169 numerical analysis, 66 O octane, 169 o-dichlorobenzene, 232, 237, 250 oil, 9, 24, 103, 157 oils, 98, 173 olefins, 106, 174, 183, 218 oligomer, 237 olive, 18 onion, 234 optical, 3, 23, 44, 60, 159, 221, 222, 237, 241 optical microscopy, 222 optical properties, 23, 60 optical storage, 44 optics, 3, 42, 213 optimization, viii, 64, 114, 115, 262 optoelectronic, 3, 44, 49 optoelectronic devices, 44 optoelectronics, 42 organic matter, 204 organic solvent, 43, 108, 110, 130, 132, 133, 134, 152, 173, 185, 236, 237, 238, 249, 258, 259, 260 organic solvents, 43, 110, 132, 133, 134, 152, 236, 237, 238, 258, 260 organometallic, 109 Organometallic, 184 oscillation, 70, 72, 76, 94, 96, 97, 98 ovarian cancer, 192, 193, 194, 197, 198, 199, 200 ovarian cancers, 193, 199 overtime, 238 oxidants, 217, 218, 228 oxidation, ix, x, 9, 10, 15, 18, 19, 34, 36, 51, 57, 119, 135, 138, 157, 160, 173, 176, 184, 185, 204, 208, 213, 218, 228, 231, 234, 236, 239, 243, 244, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 254, 262, 263 oxidation products, 135 oxidative, 234, 235, 236, 241, 245, 247, 248, 262 oxidative damage, 235 oxide, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20, 29, 33, 34, 37, 52, 53, 57, 58, 61, 217, 218, 234, 235, 246, 259 oxide nanoparticles, 16, 29, 52, 53 oxides, 2, 9, 12, 15, 19, 20, 217, 218, 228 oxygen, 9, 33, 50, 110, 119, 172, 176, 183, 203, 242, 257 P paclitaxel, 194, 197 PAHs, 35 palladium, 6, 27, 34, 50, 57, 163, 171, 175 palliative, ix, 189, 197, 198 PANI, 32, 33, 35, 43, 44 parameter, 66, 143, 144, 222, 224 particles, vii, 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 38, 43, 47, 48, 51, 54, 57, 58, 70, 81, 160, 195, 203, 204, 208, 222, 224, 226, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 238, 246, 247, 250, 259 pathways, 196, 216, 254 patients, 194, 200 Pb, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 45, 46, 47, 48 PbS, 44, 45, 46, 60 PCT, 101 periodicity, 262 permeability, 211 permeabilization, 196 permit, viii, 64, 66, 83, 85, 98, 107, 140 peroxide, 18, 205, 234 perturbation, 135, 138, 140, 141, 146, 150 perturbations, 69 pesticides, 106 P-glycoprotein, 192 pH, 3, 4, 17, 20, 21, 23, 27, 34, 35, 41, 46, 48, 50, 107, 116, 132, 135, 206, 240, 244, 254, 260 pH values, 23 pharmaceuticals, 164 pharmacogenetics, 199 pharmacokinetics, 199 Index phase-transfer catalysis, 184 phenol, 171, 176 phenotype, 194 phenyl esters, 178, 186 phosphate, 30, 31, 40, 56 phosphonates, 178, 186 phosphors, 54 photocatalysis, 18, 209, 257 photocatalysts, 53 Photocatalytic, 18 photochemical, 22, 176, 185 photodegradation, 256 photographs, 66, 98, 99 photoluminescence, 17, 23, 40, 42, 51, 53, 57 Photoluminescence, 22 photolysis, 215 photonic, 36 photonic crystals, 36 photons, 160 photooxidation, 176 photovoltaic, 44 physical environment, 130 physical properties, vii, x, 1, 231, 232, 260 physicochemical, 136 physicochemical properties, 136 physics, 120 piezoelectric, 83, 84, 100, 159 planar, 4, 67, 85, 88 plastic, 38, 42, 158 plastics, 84, 106 platinum, 10, 11, 28, 29, 32, 38, 51, 57, 250 PMMA, 30, 56, 245 polarity, 139, 146, 147, 237 pollutant, 20, 256 pollutants, 263 pollution, 171 poly(vinylpyrrolidone), 4, polyacrylamide, 31, 56 polyaniline, 32, 43, 44, 57, 59 polycarbonate, 242 polycrystalline, 23, 35, 41 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, 35 polyethylene, 6, 11, 21, 46, 48, 173 polyimide, 238 polyimides, 238 polymer, 11, 23, 31, 32, 44, 46, 47, 48, 57, 61, 98, 232, 237, 238, 239, 240, 255, 258, 261, 263 polymer chains, 31, 239 polymer melts, 98 polymer nanocomposites, 232, 258 polymerase, 193 polymerase chain reaction, 193 275 polymeric materials, 2, 14 polymerization, 31, 32, 44, 56, 57, 237, 238 polymerization temperature, 44 polymers, 2, 11, 43, 44, 47, 48, 49, 53, 237, 255 polymethylmethacrylate, 30, 245 polypropylene, 57 polysaccharide, 239 polystyrene, 31 polyvinyl alcohol, 256 polyvinylpyrrolidone, 60 poor, 133, 165, 172, 194 poor health, 194 population, 65, 101 pore, 16, 28, 191, 256 pores, 16, 28, 29, 75 porosity, 56 porous, 14, 28, 29, 31, 42, 51, 52, 57, 75, 97, 103, 170, 191 potassium, 10, 163, 166, 168, 172, 173, 177, 179, 180, 184, 203, 248, 249 powder, viii, 9, 18, 19, 24, 25, 26, 43, 47, 48, 53, 55, 60, 61, 82, 105, 109, 110, 111, 112, 166, 222, 223, 232 powders, 18, 21, 24, 47, 53, 54, 55, 112, 258 power, viii, ix, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 14, 25, 31, 33, 34, 38, 42, 44, 46, 57, 64, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 94, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102, 106, 108, 116, 129, 134, 136, 141, 145, 158, 160, 161, 201, 202, 205, 208, 210, 219, 241 PPO, 23 precipitation, 22, 40, 59, 221, 222, 224, 228 pressure, 2, 9, 17, 49, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 86, 87, 94, 96, 98, 101, 108, 140, 147, 160, 161, 174, 191, 201, 203, 204, 206, 208, 213, 214 pristine, 29, 31, 238, 242, 256, 259, 260 probability, 131, 250 probe, 9, 24, 42, 43, 48, 153, 161, 176, 205, 206, 215, 240, 252, 263 production, vii, 1, 12, 18, 100, 106, 108, 110, 159, 201, 214, 215, 218, 219, 221, 222, 227, 228, 229, 232, 258 propagation, 67, 69, 158, 160, 161 propane, 252 property, iv, 14, 57, 60, 191 Propranolol, 106 propylene, 246 protease inhibitors, viii, 105, 106 protection, 210 protein, 192, 240 protocol, 24, 168, 171, 172, 176 pseudo, 138, 205 Pseudomonas, 207 276 Index Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 207 PT, 173 PTCs, 108, 173 PTFE, 224 pure water, 18, 43, 112, 136, 137, 139, 141, 142, 146, 147, 151 purification, x, 174, 220, 231, 232, 235, 244, 257, 259, 261, 262 PVP, 4, 6, 10, 31, 46, 47, 179, 239 pyrene, 235 pyrolysis, 3, 215, 245, 258, 261 pyromellitic dianhydride, 238 Q QSAR, 156 quantum, 40, 44, 48, 61 quantum dot, 61 quantum yields, 40 quaternary ammonium, 172 quaternary ammonium salts, 172 R radiation, 17, 30, 35, 49, 64, 66, 67, 77, 79, 81, 83, 85, 91, 92, 94, 97, 98, 169, 192, 199, 203, 208, 211, 228 radical formation, 2, 138, 211, 231 radical mechanism, 165 radical reactions, 107, 114, 203 radius, 2, 44, 68, 69, 70, 73 Raman, 31, 233, 237, 238, 239, 241, 243, 244, 246, 248, 251, 252, 257 Raman spectra, 31 Raman spectroscopy, 233, 237, 239, 241, 243, 244, 246, 248, 251, 257 range, ix, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 25, 29, 31, 36, 42, 69, 70, 79, 88, 129, 132, 133, 134, 137, 141, 147, 151, 152, 157, 158, 159, 160, 195, 206, 233, 262 rare earth, 17, 24, 55, 107 Rayleigh, 68, 69, 72, 78, 82, 103 reactant, 22, 174 reactants, 12, 47, 133, 137, 141, 152, 169, 172, 250 reaction mechanism, 47, 130, 144, 152, 153, 170 reaction medium, 138, 152 reaction rate, vii, 1, 19, 47, 49, 131, 134, 135, 136, 141, 142, 146, 147, 152, 153, 159, 162, 169, 172, 176, 177, 178, 254 reaction temperature, 17, 34, 44, 140, 162 reaction time, viii, 105, 107, 110, 112, 113, 114, 116, 158, 165, 166, 168, 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 218, 227, 249 reactivity, viii, 105, 106, 107, 111, 112, 114, 117, 120, 129, 132, 133, 134, 145, 151, 158, 166, 252 reagent, viii, 22, 23, 105, 107, 109, 110, 111, 114, 115, 138, 141, 142, 146, 150, 158 reagents, viii, ix, 8, 105, 107, 108, 109, 111, 119, 120, 129, 130, 134, 137, 142, 143, 147, 150, 151, 152, 153 recrystallization, 221 recycling, 111, 175 refractory, 192, 198 regioselectivity, 171, 175 relationship, 73, 80, 88, 144, 147, 152 relationships, ix, 80, 129, 143 relaxation, 55, 140, 158 relaxation process, 140 relaxation processes, 140 relaxation time, 140 relaxation times, 140 reliability, 85, 130, 132 remediation, 204, 256, 263 resistance, 192, 193, 198, 199 resolution, 33, 120, 214, 234 restructuring, ix, 189 retardation, 71, 130, 141, 142, 153 rhodium, 34 rings, 141, 142, 234 RNA, 211 room temperature, 6, 9, 17, 20, 21, 35, 38, 46, 61, 79, 112, 113, 116, 117, 161, 166, 171, 172, 173, 175, 177, 185, 205, 218, 219, 220, 222, 233, 235, 240, 241, 254 room-temperature, 14 Royal Society, 120 ruthenium, 7, 10, 11, 50, 51, 184 rutile, 18, 53, 256 S Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 207, 211 safety, vii, ix, 1, 133, 189, 195, 198 salt, 7, 40, 172, 180 salts, 114, 163, 172, 174, 179, 184 sample, 17, 21, 24, 36, 38, 42, 77, 140, 158, 221, 235, 236, 238, 244 sand, 157, 169 saturation, 25, 26, 35, 36, 85 scanning electron microscopy, 236 scattering, 14, 249, 254 SCW, 139 Index SDBS, 240 SDS, 5, 7, 10, 11, 31, 32, 42, 236, 239, 241, 242, 246 SDT, 191 search, 110, 247 sedimentation, 238, 240, 254 selected area electron diffraction, 8, 35 selecting, 88, 98 selectivity, ix, 9, 10, 28, 107, 111, 157, 158, 170, 175, 176, 177 SEM, 5, 13, 15, 19, 29, 37, 41, 222, 223, 236, 242, 244, 245, 251 semiconductor, 18, 44 semiconductors, 2, 12, 44 sensors, 9, 20, 49 separation, x, 56, 111, 221, 231, 261 series, ii, 25, 42, 79, 91, 98, 149 serum, 14, 52, 196 serum albumin, 14, 52 shape, vii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 12, 21, 36, 40, 46, 51, 66, 72, 77, 84, 87, 100, 198, 233 shear, 108, 191, 205 Shell, 10, 36, 40 shock, vii, viii, 2, 49, 63, 67, 71, 72, 73, 75, 78, 81, 83, 108, 131, 140, 160, 161, 202, 203, 204, 205 shock waves, 67, 72, 73, 131, 140, 160, 161, 202, 204 silica, 38, 40, 43, 51, 220, 232 silicon, 43, 234, 258 silver, 7, 8, 10, 25, 26, 29, 31, 32, 50, 51, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60 similarity, 146, 152 simulation, 66, 102 simulations, 102 single crystals, 40, 222 single walled carbon nanotubes, 258 single-crystalline, 41, 50, 59 single-wall carbon nanotubes, 258, 259, 261 SiO2, 38, 39, 40, 58 sites, 2, 9, 31, 34, 38, 138, 139, 140, 142, 245, 247 sludge, 153, 204 Sm, 21, 40, 41, 54, 107 snooker, 236 sodium, 5, 10, 14, 22, 24, 32, 33, 42, 45, 172, 236, 239, 240, 243, 246, 248 sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), 32, 236, 239 sodium hydroxide, 172, 248 solar, 18, 44, 208 solar cell, 18, 44 solar cells, 18, 44 solubility, 133, 213, 219 277 solvation, ix, 129, 130, 132, 133, 134, 135, 138, 139, 145, 146, 147, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153 solvent molecules, 134, 237 solvents, ix, 7, 47, 110, 129, 130, 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 140, 143, 144, 145, 146, 150, 152, 174, 177, 216, 220, 226, 236, 237, 238, 243, 244, 259, 261 sonodynamic therapy, 192 soot, 220, 235, 236 sound speed, 67, 78 spatial, 66, 67, 72, 73, 77, 139 species, 3, 15, 23, 29, 119, 130, 131, 133, 134, 136, 139, 140, 147, 153, 161, 172, 191, 209, 210, 227 specific surface, 18, 20, 28, 34, 257 specificity, 227 spectrophotometric, 132 spectrophotometry, 218, 219 spectroscopy, 16, 220, 237, 239, 241, 242, 244, 246 spectrum, 11, 20, 35, 40, 222, 225, 227, 233, 237 speed, 26, 38, 66, 67, 78, 86, 102, 116, 131, 162, 176, 177, 203, 204, 210, 227 spheres, 39, 40, 45, 58 spin, 140, 203, 210, 211 spindle, 14, 15, 21, 22, 23, 43, 52 stability, 21, 35, 48, 67, 222, 226, 236, 240, 242, 245, 260 stabilization, ix, 6, 129, 130, 141, 142, 144, 146, 147, 153 stabilize, 134, 146 Staphylococcus, 29 Staphylococcus aureus, 29 steric, 111, 113, 119, 241 storage, vii, 2, 24, 44, 49 storageError! Bookmark not defined media, 44 strain, 17, 91, 92, 93, 95 strains, 89, 91 strategies, 192, 198, 199 streams, ix, 157 strength, 36, 64, 66, 67, 68, 76, 83, 85, 86, 91, 94, 250, 252 stress, 83, 85, 86, 88, 204 stretching, 248, 255 stroke, 200 strontium, 25, 55 structural defect, 222 structural defects, 222 substitution, 169, 171, 172, 248 substitution reaction, 172, 248 substrates, 13, 111, 112, 113, 114, 131, 144, 172 sulfate, 10, 19, 32, 42, 236, 239, 247, 262 sulfonamides, 178, 186 278 Index sulfur, 27, 30, 40, 56 sulfuric acid, 177, 186, 226, 234, 242, 244, 247, 250, 251 Sun, 52, 53, 54, 58, 59, 60, 121, 122, 123, 126, 184, 258, 261 supercritical, 138, 139 superoxide, 173, 184 supramolecular, 48, 61, 260 surface area, vii, 1, 18, 20, 22, 27, 34, 54, 97, 109, 111, 203, 256 surface energy, 232 surface modification, x, 231 surfactant, 4, 10, 17, 21, 31, 41, 42, 45, 54, 238, 239, 240, 241, 246, 249, 260 surfactants, x, 10, 231, 236, 246, 258 surgical, 196, 200 survival, 192, 199 survival rate, 192 surviving, 192 susceptibility, 151, 152 suspensions, x, 210, 227, 231, 236, 238, 241, 254 swelling, 111 SWNTs, 247, 260 symmetry, 76, 252 synergistic, 199, 256 synergistic effect, 256 systems, vii, viii, ix, 2, 63, 64, 84, 85, 91, 98, 100, 101, 105, 107, 112, 114, 116, 117, 120, 132, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 142, 144, 150, 151, 152, 153, 157, 161, 162, 174, 179, 204, 205, 206, 207, 233 T tar, 198 TCC, 195 technology, 24, 81, 97, 106, 107, 108, 129, 153, 179 Tehran, tellurium, 6, 47, 50, 107 TEM, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 20, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 226, 232, 233, 234, 235, 238, 239, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 256 temperature dependence, 25 temperature gradient, 158 tensile, 66, 67, 68, 76 tensile strength, 66, 67, 68, 76 TEOS, 38 tetrahydrofuran, 7, 9, 218, 234 TGA, 246, 252 therapeutic goal, 190 therapy, ix, 129, 189, 190, 191, 192, 194, 196, 197, 198, 199 thermal decomposition, 36, 252 thermal degradation, 31 thermal energy, 36, 157 thermal load, 83 thermal stability, 35, 48, 245 thermal treatment, 42 thermodynamic, 107, 130, 147, 149 thermodynamic parameters, 147 thermogravimetric, 246 thermogravimetric analysis, 246 thermolysis, 215 thin film, 17, 30 three-dimensional, 134 threshold, ix, 67, 75, 76, 77, 80, 81, 87, 191, 194, 195, 196, 197, 201 time periods, 24 tin, 6, 19, 34, 50, 57, 112, 183, 250, 262 tin oxide, 19, 34, 57 TiO2, 18, 53, 209, 256, 257, 263 tissue, 109, 189, 190, 191, 195, 197 titanium, 18, 25, 36, 43, 46, 48, 53, 94, 96, 107, 115, 116, 117, 119, 132, 206, 214, 256 Titanium, 36, 58, 115 titanium dioxide, 18, 53, 206, 256 Tokyo, 103 tolerance, 192, 194 toluene, 18, 36, 220, 224, 238, 242, 244, 245 total energy, 67 toxic, viii, 105, 107, 110, 171, 202 toxicities, 189, 190 toxicity, 190, 191 trans, 16, 175, 176, 177 transcription, 193 transducer, viii, 63, 64, 65, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 94, 97, 98, 100, 101, 159, 161, 197, 208 transesterification, 103 transfer, viii, ix, 20, 63, 64, 98, 106, 108, 109, 157, 160, 161, 165, 172, 173, 176, 183, 184, 226, 244, 248 transference, viii, 64, 85, 86 transition, 31, 72, 74, 75, 81, 83, 107, 134, 141, 146, 149 translational, 140, 160 transmission electron microscopy, 233 transparency, 82 transparent, 7, 14, 224 transport, 160, 192 transport processes, 160 transportation, 190 treatment methods, 261 trifluoroacetic acid, 165, 252 279 Index tumor, 193, 194, 197, 200 tumor growth, 194 tumors, 189, 190, 198, 199 tumour, 199 tumours, 198 tungstates, 24 tungsten, 34, 57 tungsten carbide, 34, 57 tunneling, 250 Turbulent, 204 two-dimensional, 47, 48, 56, 59 U UK, 156 ultrasonic vibrations, 83 ultrasonic waves, 10, 14, 19, 43, 140, 158, 165 ultrasonography, 195 ultraviolet, 206, 208, 210, 263 ultraviolet irradiation, 206, 210 uniform, vii, 1, 15, 29, 35, 38, 40, 44, 47, 49, 51, 72, 85, 160, 162, 244, 251 urea, 22, 25, 42, 164, 165 UV, 18, 20, 24, 54, 208, 209, 211, 218, 219, 220, 237, 239, 240, 241, 246, 256, 260 UV light, 24, 256 UV-radiation, 211 UV-Visible spectroscopy, 260 V vacuum, 38, 221, 222, 233 values, 23, 64, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 87, 88, 94, 96, 97, 98, 139, 147, 149, 150, 152 van der Waals, 222, 234, 238, 240, 244, 257 van der Waals forces, 222, 238 vanadium, 14, 15, 52, 114 vanadium oxides, 15 vapor, viii, 2, 63, 147, 214, 222 variation, 91, 147, 160 vascular endothelial growth factor, 200 vegetable oil, 173, 184 velocity, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 85, 86, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96 vibration, 64, 67, 84, 85, 87, 89, 91, 94, 96, 161, 205, 233, 260 violent, 110, 202 viscosity, 98, 137 visible, 20, 21, 53, 54, 65, 238 VOCl3, 114 volatility, 77, 161 W wastewater, 103, 204, 208, 209, 210, 263 wastewater treatment, 103, 204, 208, 263 water clusters, 145 water vapour, 203 water-soluble, 229, 238 wave number, 89 weak interaction, 138, 153 workers, 47, 165, 168, 176, 177, 203, 205, 208 X xenografts, 195 XPS, 31, 35, 248, 250, 251, 252, 254 X-ray analysis, 11 X-ray diffraction, 48, 134, 137, 222, 223 X-Ray diffraction, 256 XRD, 14, 18, 19, 27, 30, 40, 55, 221 xylene, 43, 224, 232, 242 Y yield, ix, 2, 36, 57, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 157, 164, 165, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 182, 196, 227, 233, 234, 235 yttria-stabilized zirconia, 28 Z zeolites, 168, 182 zeta potential, 254 zinc, 12, 24, 55, 110, 111, 112, 168, 174, 176, 184, 185, 206 Zinc, 22, 55, 110, 111, 174 zirconia, 28, 29, 56 zirconium, 31, 56 Zn, 12, 13, 22, 24, 107, 110, 111, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 174, 216, 232 ZnO, 12, 13, 14, 28, 29, 51, 52, 56, 232 ZnO nanorods, 12, 13, 28, 51, 52 ZnO nanostructures, 12, 13, 14, 51 ...CHEMICAL ENGINEERING METHODS AND TECHNOLOGY SONOCHEMISTRY: THEORY, REACTIONS, SYNTHESES, AND APPLICATIONS No part of this digital document may be reproduced,... found on Nova‘s website under the E-books tab CHEMICAL ENGINEERING METHODS AND TECHNOLOGY SONOCHEMISTRY: THEORY, REACTIONS, SYNTHESES, AND APPLICATIONS 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OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Sonochemistry : theory, reactions, syntheses, and applications / [edited by] Filip