UNIT WHAT’S IN A NAME? TEACHER: Good morning, everybody Good morning, Felipe, Monica, Theo… and I can’t remember your name STUDENT 1: Patricia TEACHER: Right, Patricia Those are all beautiful names, and that’s our topic today – names Names are a cultural universal This means everyone uses names A person’s name can tell us a bit about a person’s family Today, we’ll begin by looking at first names and how people choose names for their children And then, we’ll talk about family names, and look at the different categories of family names Although the scope of the lecture today is English-language names, we can use the same approach, you know, to look at names from any culture Let’s take a brief look at first, or given, names, there are several ways parents choose the first name for their child The first way is by family history, parents may choose a name because it is passed from generation to generation, for example, the firstborn son might be named after his father or grandfather Although family names are also passed to daughter, it is usually as a middle name Adding “junior” or “the second” – for example, William Parker the second – is only done with boys’ not with girls’ names The second way parents choose a name is after a family member or friend who has died recently, or after someone they admire, like a well-known leader or a famous musician Although most English first names mean something, for example “Richard” means powerful and “Ann” means grace, nowadays meaning is not the main reason people select their baby’s name The third way is to provide a “push” for the child Parents want to choose a name that sounds very “successful.” A strong name might help them in the business world, for example Or they might choose a name that works for either gender, like Taylor or Terry So, given these three methods, what is the most common way parents choose a name? Many parents choose a name simply because they like it, or because it’s fashionable or classic Fashions in names change just as they in clothes One hundred years ago, many names came from the Bible – names such as Daniel, and Anna and Hannah and Mathew Then, fifty years ago, Biblical names went out of fashion Nowadays names from the Bible are becoming popular again Similarly, parents often choose classic names, names that were popular in 1900, 1950, and are still popular now Classic names for boys include Thomas, David, Robert, and Michael And for girls: Anna, Elizabeth, Emily and Katherine, just to name a few They’re classic They never go out of style Let’s look at the origin of last names, also called family names or surnames Researchers have studied thousands of last names, and they’ve divided them into categories The categories are: place names, patronymics, added names, and occupational names, a recent survey showed that of the 7,000 most popular names in the United States today, 43 percent were place name, 32 percent were patronymics, 15 percent were occupational names, and percent were added names The first category is place names Place names usually identified where a person lived or worked Someone named John Hill lived near a hill, for example And the Rivers family lived near a river, if you hear the name Emma Bridges, … What image you see? Do you see a family that lives near a bridge? If you do, you get the idea The second category is patronymics that’s P-A-T-R-O-N-Y-M-I-C-S A patronymics is the father’s name, plus an ending like S-E-N or S-O-N The ending means that a child, a boy, is the son of his father, the names Robertson, Peterson, and Wilson are patronymics Robertson is a son of Robert, Peterson is a son of Peter, and so on The third category is added names Linguists sometimes call this category “nicknames,” but when most of us hear the word “nickname”, we think of a special name a friend or a parent might use The word “nickname” is actually an old English word that means an additional name, an added name So I’ll use the term “added name’” This category of last names is fun because the names usually described a person Reed, Baldwin and Biggs are examples Reed was from “red” for red hair Baldwin was someone who was bald Someone who had little or no hair And Biggs? STUDENT 2: Someone big? TEACHER: Yeah, someone big, right Now, if we look around the room, we could probably come up with some new last names; like, uh, Curly or Strong Now, the fourth category is occupational names The origin of the family name was the person’s occupation The most common examples still used today are Baker (someone who bakes bread), Tailor (someone who sew clothes), Miller (someone who makes flour for bread), and Smith … Now, Smith is actually the most common name in the western English-speaking world The name comes from an old English word, smite that’s S-M-I-T-E, which means to hit or strike in the old days, a smith made metal things for daily life, like tools Every town needed smiths What’s interesting is that many languages have a family name that means Smith In Arabic it is Haddad, H-A-D-D-A-D In Spanish it is Herrera, HE-R-R-E-R-A In Italian it is Ferraro, F-E-R-R-A-R-O And in German it is Schmidt, spelled S-C-H-M-I-D-T All these names mean Smith Though names may tell us something about someone’s family history, you need to keep in mind that they may not tell us much at all about the present For example, there’s usually not much connection between the origin of the name and the person who has it now Take the name Cook, for instance A person named Cook today probably doesn’t cook for a living Also, many people change their names for various reasons Lot of people who have moved the United States have changed their names to sound more American This happens less now than in the past, but people still it People also use pen names or stage names to give themselves a professional advantage For example, the writer Samuel Clemens used the pen name Mark Twain, and Thomas Mapother IV uses the stage name Tom Cruise So, let’s recap now, in today’s lesson We looked at how parents choose English first names We also looked at some common origins of family names, in the next class, we’ll look at how names are given in Korea and in Japan This is covered in the next section of the book That’s all for today UNIT ENGLISH: A GLOBAL LANGUAGE? TEACHER: Today’s topic is English as a global language I know many of you speak English as a second language, right? How about u, Hiroshi? Is English your first language? STUDENT 1: No, my first language is Japanese English is my second language TEACHER: And how about you, Patricia? STUDENT 2: English is my second language, too My first language is Spanish TEACHER: See, many of you use English as a second language, even as a global language to communicate with other people who speak English as a second language Today, I want to give you two contrasting points of view on whether or not English is a global language The first is that English is obviously a global language People who support this point of view believe English is the language people all over the world use to communicate and that it is gradually replacing other languages The second point of view is that English is not truly a global language, because it is not the main language spoken by most people worldwide Supporters of this view say that even though many people speak some English worldwide, English has not replaced other languages They acknowledge that people use English every day, for many reasons, but this doesn’t mean English is replacing other languages, nor does it make English the main language spoken in the world First, let/s examine the first view First of all, English is the dominant language of business travel and science When people need a common language, they often use English Think about it English is often used at tourist information centers, in international hotels, at airports If you use a taxi in Rome, and you can’t speak Italian, the taxi driver is more likely to use English than any other languages It is used at business meetings and international sports events The European Union uses English, along with French, at its meetings… ASEAN, the Asian trade group, uses English at its meetings Can you think of other situations in which English is used as a common language? STUDENT 2: How about this class? All of us are listening to you in English TEACHER: Absolutely Educational settings are a great example Any others? STUDENT 3: How about a chartroom on the Internet? I sometimes go to chat rooms and everyone is using English TEACHER: Excellent example The Internet has created a lot of international communities and people often use English In fact, most people who use the Internet know English This helps support the view that English is a global language The second major reason that people believe English is a global language is that it is the official language of more than seventy-five countries This means these countries use English in schools, banks, business, and government Of these seventy-five countries, English may be the only official language of the country, like in England, or English may be used along with other official languages, like in the Philippines, Singapore, and India In countries like India, where so many languages are spoken, you can see how using English as an official language makes it easier for people to communicate The third reason to support the global argument is that every year about billion people study English Why? What are some of the reasons? Hiroshi, how about you? STUDENT 1: Well, now to study, and someday I want to be in international business TEACHER: That’s a solid reason How about you, Oksana? STUDENT 3: I’m not really sure I just think it will help me in the future somehow TEACHER: There’s a more general reason The point is, people want and need to learn English because it offers the opportunities To sum up, English is used every day by many people People all over the world come in contact with each other for many reasons They need a common language, a language to facilitate communication Being proficient in English gives someone and advantage in these situations OK I have given you many examples of how English is used in a variety of situations Nevertheless, does this mean that English is a global language? Let’s look at why some people don’t believe English has replaced other languages First, there are about three times as many people who speak Chinese as their first language as those who speak English as a first language And in many countries where some people use English for work each day, they don’t use English anywhere else even in Englishspeaking countries, there are millions of people who prefer to speak a language other than English at home, with friends, or at work Second, I mentioned before that seventy-five countries have English as their official language This doesn’t mean all, or even most of the people in these countries can speak English For example, in India, most sources agree that only about percent of the population speaks English That’s a small percentage! Third, how much English does a person need to know to be called an English speaker? People may learn some English for specific situations, such as the taxi driver I mentioned earlier However, I think you would all agree with me that a taxi driver who knows a few phrases like “Where are you going?” or “What is the name of your hotel?” isn’t really a proficient English speaker Another example is Air speak, the English chat is used by air traffic controllers and pilots A pilot for Japan Airlines or an air traffic controller in Paris needs to know Air speak But they may learn only the English words they need for these jobs, and therefore they can’t be considered English speakers The point here is that people all over the world may use English for work or other situations Nevertheless, this doesn’t mean they are fluent in English They still use their first language for daily communication English is not their main language So, what does this all mean? I think it’s safe to say that English will continue to be the main language used in many international settings, because As I said earlier, people all over the world need a common language And, for now, English is that language But, English won’t replace other languages for most daily communication and this, to me, is what a global language really is, one that replaces others for most everyday communication Some people are afraid of this The worry that as people use English more and more, their ability in their first language will decline I think people will use English along with other languages We are moving into a global culture, and as this continues, I think people from non-English speaking countries will want to maintain their culture, including their first language They may still want to learn English, but I don’t see them giving up their own language for English What you think? I’m going to stop there I know that’s a lot of information to digest We’ll continue talking about some of the differences in the English words used in various countries like Australia, Singapore, and the Philippines That’s all for today Come see me if you have any questions UNIT HIGH ANXIETY: PHOBIAS TEACHER: Good afternoon Today we’re going to turn to a new topic in psychology and start looking at some “specific psychological problems.” There are a variety of mental problems that can affect us in our daily life – some are not so serious, like a fear of cats or of insects, and others are more serious Now as psychologists, we try to study these different problems and find ways to help people I want to start the discussion by talking about a fairly common kind of psychological problem – a phobia, that’s P-H-O-BI-A First, I’ll explain what a phobia is, and then I’ll talk about some theories on why people have phobias As you can probably know, a phobia is a fear So any of you have phobias? Oh, come on, you can tell me; I’m a psychologist Yes, Monica? STUDENT 1: I have a fear of swimming I don’t like to go near the ocean TEACHER: OK, that’s not an unusual phobia Anyone else? Ali? STUDENT 2: I hate dogs I mean, I just don’t like them When I see a big dog, actually any dog, I just get nervous, so I avoid them TEACHER: OK, that’s another common phobia Thanks for sharing those examples of phobias A phobia is not a normal fear; it is an extreme fear – a very strong fear For example, my brother, who’s a successful artist, had computer phobia He didn’t simply dislike using computers He used to have a very strong fear of using them Psychologists have come up with three characteristics of a phobia People display these three characteristics if they have a phobia, not just a normal fear Now first, a phobia is not a rational response It’s a very strong reaction, too strong for the situation For my brother, this meant he had a very strong physical reaction if someone asked him to use a computer He started shaking violently and had trouble breathing Once, he even started choking Physical reactions like this are common Second, a phobia often lasts for a long time, for months or even years In my brother’, it lasted several years Third, the reaction is too strong for a person to control For example, even if my brother told himself not to be afraid at the computer, it didn’t help He still felt very afraid Usually, people avoid whatever it is they are so afraid of So, in my brother’s case, he avoided using a computer OK, so those are the three characteristics of phobias It’s an extreme, irrational response, it’s long-lasting, and it’s uncontrollable STUDENT 3: So uncontrollable means even if you try to control it, you can’t? TEACHER: Yes, it means you can’t control it by trying to deny you feel the phobia There are ways to treat phobias and we’ll talk about those in a minute Yes? STUDENT 4: What happened to your brother? Did he get over it? TEACHER: Yes, he did The main thing was that he decided that he wanted to get over it, and he was treated by a psychologist Now he uses computers all the time OK, so let’s spend a minute going over some classifications of phobias Phobias are classified by the thing or situation that the person fears Greek or Latin names are usually used to describe the fear Here’s an example: hypno, H-Y-P-N-O, means sleep, so fear of sleep is hypnophobia Cyno, C-Y-N-O, means dog So a fear of dogs is …cynophobia, right? Here’s another example Aerophobia Listen to the first part, Aero What’s the fear? Aero as in airplane – Aerophobia is fear of flying Let’s turn now to the causes of phobias One theory is that a phobia is learned This means something happens that causes someone, or in a sense “teaches someone” to feel afraid For example, Ali could have learned to be afraid of dogs if he was attacked and injured by one as a child People can also learn to have phobias by watching how other people react In fact, doctors find that phobias tend to run in families for example, let’s imagine that Ali’s mother has always been afraid of dogs Whenever Ali and his mother were together and saw a dog, his mother would get very scared, very nervous When Ali saw how his mother reacted, he would then gradually become very scared, too He would then have developed cynophobia from watching his mother So, you can see that there are two ways of learning can be involved in phobias So, the first theory is that a phobia is learned Learned either by direct experience or by watching the reactions of others The second theory says that a phobia is only a sign of a deeper problem This means that the phobia isn’t the whole problem Let’s take another example I once treated a teenager who was very afraid of the dark He couldn’t be in a dark room by himself He was terrified to go outside at night, and so on According to this theory, when he acted afraid of the dark, he was really showing his fear of something else In therapy, it was revealed that he was afraid of his father His father was very strict when he was young, and once his father made him sit in a dark room when he did something bad According to this theory, his fear of the dark was a sign of his deeper, real fear of his father Yes, question? STUDENT 4: So what did you do? Did he have to talk with his father? TEACHER: Well, no, we couldn’t that But recognizing that he was really afraid of his father and not the dark, was the key step in the treatment Now he’s cured No more fear of the dark OK, so let’s think about these two theories and about the main difference between them The first theory says that the phobia is the problem itself Right? And the second theory said phobia is a sign of a deeper problem the person has Why is this difference important? It’s mostly important in deciding how to treat the person According to the first theory, if a phobia is learned, perhaps it can be unlearned A psychologist who follows this theory will try to teach someone to react differently, to behave differently when he or she feels afraid Changing the person’s behavior is the goal On the other hand, a psychologist who believes the second theory may start by trying to teach the person to react differently, but the doctor is interested in more than that The doctor’s objective, or goal, is to help the patient reveal the deeper psychological problem, because it will be easier to treat the phobia if the deeper problem is identified and worked on as well I want you to think for a minute about the significance of having these two theories or any competing theories What does it mean? It tells us that psychologists, like any scientists, have to continue to research, to learn, and to test treatments we believe will be effective based on research Treatments improve the more we learn I’m going to stop there for today In the next class, I want to talk about other psychological problems Read the next until in your book before the next class that’s all for today UNIT TV: WHAT WE WATCH? TEACHER: Good morning Who watched TV last night? Ah, most of you OK, today we are going to talk about an important part of the media – TV Specifically, TV viewing and TV dramas Now first, I’ll give you some background, then we’ll discuss what makes this type of programming, dramas, so popular worldwide OK Let’s get started Most of you would agree that watching TV is part of most people’s lives Now statistics vary on how much TV people watch, but research show that quite a few Americans, on average, exceed six hours of TV per day An English professor name Cecilia Tychy has studied TV for many years In her book, Electronic Hearth: Creating an American Television Culture, she discusses how the TV has become the center of activity at home We walk into a room, turn on the TV, and suddenly the outside world becomes less important People use TV to tune out, or forget, about the outside world We’re safe to relax and join the world of the TV shows Do you ever feel this way about TV? … Yes Many of you are nodding She also sees our culture as being defined by TV Now, by this she means that TV has a huge influence on our attitudes, on what we like to eat, on what we like to wear, on what we like to talk about For example, popular TV shows are discussed at work, at school, in coffee shops Why, even children four or five years old this with their favorite shows This shows that we live in a TV culture Improved technology has contributed further to our TV culture Satellite services, in particular, have expanded the TV programming in many parts of the world There are now hundreds of TV channels people can watch and the options continue to expand: game shows, sports, news, talk show, comedies, TV dramas, movies, … And with cable and satellite there are a lot of choices Nielsen Media Research studies people’s TV viewing habits in the U.S They monitor which show are popular and with whom For example, popular shows have included the game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? And the reality TV show Survivor They were very, very popular and watched by millions of people of all age groups Now all of this is really background What I want to focus on today is one form of a popular TV show that is popular with many people of many age groups This is TV dramas, specifically TV dramas known as soap operas, or, in Spanish, telenovelas Some of you might be familiar with telenovelas Telenovelas and soap operas in the U.S are similar but have one big difference – the number of episodes they have Telenovelas and TV series end after about 200 episodes… The story eventually ends Soap operas in the U.S., however, continue day after day for many year and may never end Well, for example, The Guiding Light has been on for more than 12,000 episodes, and on it goes Can you believe that? More than 12,000 episodes! Soap operas started in the United States in 1959, with the show The Guiding Light These TV shows were called soap operas because the main advertisers were companies that made soap Now, this type of programming is popular all over the world Dozens of countries make them own soap opera shows Mexican soap operas have been voted the most popular TV show of the year in countries such as Korea and Russia Japanese soap operas are sent to Belgium U.S soap operas are watched worldwide The Latin American soap opera, Betty La Fea, or Betty The Ugly, was a huge success in the U.S Brazilian telenovelas are the most widely distributed television shows in the world and have been seen in more than 100 countries And there are many other examples What is it about these shows that makes them popular everywhere? And why people from very different cultures all enjoy watching the same soap opera? Well, there are a couple of reasons One reason suggested by Robert C Alien, who has done extensive research on television viewing, is that many soap operas deal with universal themes that people all over the world understand Themes are topics – for example, family, love, personal struggle, money problems, marriage problems, health problems, job problems Viewers not need to know the culture in order to understand the family problems in the show Now according to Ima Phillips, one of the creators of The Guiding Light, another reason is that people identify with the characters They feel the characters are just like them To quote her from an interview, “they (the soap operas) deal with life as we know it” Now by this she mean the families in soap operas deal with problems of everyday life And so, as people watch every day, day after day a special bonder feeling develops between them and the TV family They get to know the characters and their problem The TV family’s welfare becomes important There is a sense of community, of sharing, of family All of these things contribute to character loyalty If any of you have watched a show regularly, you know what I mean You watch it because you identify with the characters Now, writers of TV shows understand that TV viewers want to have a group of characters to know and care about As Wendy Richie, former executive producer of General Hospital put it, “the audience wants a personal, human connection, and when they get it they are devoted This means they become very loyal to the TV characters they watch every day To give an interesting example from As the World Turns: Some years back, the writers wanted to have the main character, Bob Hughes, get shot on Friday Well, that Friday turned out to be Christmas Eve The producers of the show told the writers, “No, no, no…he can’t be shot on this Friday’s show Do you know why?” STUDENT 1: Because it was too violent? TEACHER: Well, no, not because it was too violent, but they didn’t want him shot on the Friday before Christmas STUDENT 1: Why? I mean why not? TEACHER: Because the audience would worry all weekend about him They wouldn’t know if he was alive or dead, and they would not enjoy Christmas So, the writers had to change the story, and have him shot after Christmas I mean the viewers really identify with their characters as if they’re real people Writers for evening TV also try to create character loyalty, but not with a continuing story Instead each week, the story begins and ends However, each week the same characters appear and viewers watch because they know the characters and they care about them, like friends A great example of this was the show Seinfeld There were four main characters: Jerry, George, Kramer and Elaine They each had their own problems, their own personalities Viewers got to know them, and wanted to see what would happen to them Then you think about it, don’t good writers usually this? They develop our interest in the characters so that we want to keep reading, or keep watching TV The next time you watch a soap opera, think about the themes that make these shows so popular worldwide Think about how as people watch each day, they get to know the characters and become a part of that TV community OK, that’s all for today Uh, it’s time for you to go home and watch some TV! UNIT LEARNING DIFFERENTLY TEACHER: Hello everyone I think we can get started now As we have studied in this class there are many different ways of learning And there are many different learning problems Some people have problems with reading, or math, or with expressing their ideas in words Some people have memory problems – for example, they have difficulty remembering what they hear or read Other people have problems holding a pencil or pen so that they can write As educators, these are challenges that we need to understand, because everyone deserves an education – and it’s our job to promote learning Today I’d like to talk about one common cause of learning problems – the term “dyslexia”, that’s D-Y-S-L-E-X-I-A is from Greek It means difficulty with words and language In the first part of my talk, I’ll briefly explain what dyslexia is and give you some general background about it Then, in the second part, I will present one doctor’s explanation of why people with dyslexia have learning difficulties OK, what is dyslexia? Dyslexia means a difficulty with reading or writing Before about 1970, researchers thought dyslexia was a visual problem A problem seeing letters and words correctly But this theory was never confirmed to be true Researchers have now concluded that the main problem may be that dyslexics have trouble matching sounds with letters in words because their brains work differently from other people’s Let me explain that Every word is made up of sounds, right? The sound units are called “phonemes.” Let’s take the word “cat” Now someone who is not dyslexic will read the word “cat” and be able to break it into the sounds, the phonemes C-A-T However, someone who has dyslexia has trouble breaking down the word into sounds, and as a result has trouble reading the word There are other problems people with dyslexia may have, and not everyone who is dyslexic has the same problems That’s why there is no definition of dyslexia that is accepted by everyone We know, however, that a dyslexic person’s brain works differently from other people’s Here are a few examples of students with dyslexia and their learning problems Anna know the answer to a question, but says the wrong words Thomas studies hard for a spelling test He can say how each word is spelled, but he cannot write the words correctly on the test Kurt tries to pay attention in class, but he has trouble sitting still and listening He can’t concentrate, and his teachers think he doesn’t care about school Seiji has trouble with the order of things, such as the steps in a math problem, his history lessons, or even his own daily schedule Susan has trouble following directions She may confuse left and right… Yes, you have a question? STUDENT 1: I don’t understand about the boy who can’t sit still TEACHER: The boy who can’t concentrate in class? STUDENT 1: Yes, I mean how is that dyslexia? TEACHER: Well, typically the child has trouble following spoken direction or understanding the steps in a lesson, and so he becomes very nervous, or upset and can’t concentrate OK? STUDENT 1: Oh, OK So the dyslexia prevents him from concentrating? TEACHER: Right These are some of the challenges for people with dyslexia And as I said earlier, no two people have identical problems Of course, there are other reasons why a student might not pay attention in class, or have trouble reading However, these are problems someone with dyslexia may have because a dyslexic person’s brain works differently from other people’s Another question, yes? STUDENT 2: How common is dyslexia? TEACHER: It’s estimated that 10 percent of all school children are dyslexic STUDENT 2: Wow, that’s a lot I heard that it only affects boys That’s not true, is it? TEACHER: No research has confirmed that both genders can have dyslexia OK, so that gives you an idea of the problem, but what causes dyslexia? Researchers think that there may be a genetic basis for dyslexia, that the problem is inherited from the mother or the father This is based on the fact that about 85% of children with dyslexia have either a mother or father who is dyslexic What’s interesting – as well as challenging for us, educators, is that these kids generally score high on intelligence tests, but they usually can’t read, write, or spell at the same level as their classmates This can be a problem because other people, even their teachers, often don’t believe that the kids are very intelligent In addition, dyslexics often feel like there’s something wrong with them because they can’t learn the same way other kids at school can They often feel stressed and blame themselves, especially when other people say they’re lazy and not trying Many of them try very hard to learn, but still have trouble In this part of the lecture, I’ll present the work of Dr Harold Levinson, a psychologist who has studied dyslexia for over 25 years To help us understand dyslexia, he tells us to think of our brains as TV sets, and to think of the parts in our brains that receive information as computer chips Every day, these chips, the parts in our brains receive information, right? Now this information enter the brain as signals of what we see or hear or touch, and so on Now the job of these brain parts is to tune in the signals to different channels in our brain Your brain receives the signals just as your TV sets at home does, like it tunes in, say, Channel or Channel Now, if these computer chips aren’t working right, they can’t receive the signals correctly Nor can they tune in the correct channels So the signals drift around and become unclear, and as the signal drift, this causes problems For example, if a child’s brain cannot receive the signals on a page as she reads, she has difficulty reading If a child cannot tune in the signal he hears in class, he has difficulty understanding what the teacher tells him If a signal drifts, this can also control energy levels, our ability to concentrate, our ability to distinguish what is important and unimportant This is why some children have difficulty sitting still in class The good news is that after many years of research, Dr Levinson and others have concluded that the brain can learn to fix the drifting Children who receive help often learn to deal with their individual problems and better in school Naturally, it’s best if the schools intervene and give help when the children are very young It’s also important that teachers, and you, future teachers, be flexible about how you teach, and consider the different learning needs of students with dyslexia… In some special schools for dyslexic learners, the teachers read to the students They don’t require the students to read or write to learn Teachers present lessons in a variety of ways Students can take tests orally, rather than in writing, and reading and writing are taught as separate skills This approach recognizes that these students are very capable of learning, but need to be taught in a different way because they learn differently This is a very positive step So today I’ve given you some general ideas about what dyslexia is, and what educators are doing to help these students learn OK, well, that’s enough for today We’ll talk more about this in the next class UNIT IMMIGRATION: BOUNDS FOR THE UNITED STATES TEACHER: All right Let’s get started U.S immigration is our topic today I know many of you are immigrants, so you know something about this topic As you may know by my last name, I have a German background; my parents immigrated to the U.S from Germany about fifty years ago… Yes, question? STUDENT: Does that mean you’re an immigrant? TEACHER: Well, no my parents are immigrants They came to the States from Germany I’m the first generation German-American because I was born here First, we’ll talk briefly about immigration, the history of immigration to the U.S., and the story of diversity in the U.S To immigrate means to move from one country to another It’s a permanent move By contrast, if you go to live and work in France for two years, you don’t immigrate there; you move there temporarily, because you plan to return to your country So to immigrate means to move to another country to live there indefinitely Immigration happens all over the world Most people it to improve their economic or social situation What I’ll now is give you a brief chronology of U.S immigration Let’s start with the colonial period, the first wave of immigrants, in the seventeenth century Most immigrants were from Western Europe Although the Spaniards arrived in 1513, the first permanent settlement in North America was one that the British started in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia People were not prohibited from immigrating by the British; anyone could come Life was difficult, and some people did not survive but people felt it was worth the risk to have a better life in the colonies The French, Spanish, and Dutch also came, but in smaller numbers I should also point out that about 20 percent of the population at this time was African American However, most weren’t immigrants; they were brought from Africa as slaves Today we’re limiting our discussion to voluntary immigrants – to people who choose to come to the US Now, by 1775, the US population had grown to about 2.5 million The country was growing fast Some thought too fast So in the 1790s, law were passed to control immigration for the first time The Naturalization Act of 1798 required immigrants to live in the US a certain number of years before they became citizens The second big wave of immigration happened between 1840 and 1920 During this wave, about 37 million people came to the US The industrial revolution had begun in Europe, causing a big shift from farming to factory jobs Many left for the US, hoping to continue doing the farming jobs they knew About 80 percent of these second wave immigrants were from all over Europe During this second wave, Chinese workers also came to the US, mostly as contract workers They arranged, or contracted, to work for an American company before they left home Most of them worked in the gold mines of California, and later built railroads Then laws were passed in the 1880s to keep most contract workers out Now let’s see, where are we? Ah, yes, uh, 1891, the US Congress created the INS, the Immigration and Naturalization Service, to control immigration Any of you who want to immigrate to the US have heard of the INS Up until 1891, each state had its own law and could decide which immigrants could enter So no one really controlled the total number of people allowed in each year After 1891, the federal government made the laws instead A year later, in 1892, the INS opened Ellis Island, in New York Harbor Ships would go past the Statue of Liberty, the symbol of a new life for many people, and stop at Ellis Island Have any of you seen Ellis Island? Or the Statue of Liberty? You have, Stefan? STUDENT 2: Yes, I have The Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island TEACHER: What did you think? STUDENT 2: Very impressive Interesting, too TEACHER: yes, it is interesting now that Ellis Island has been made into a museum It’s an important part of American history Between 1892 and 1954, when Ellis Island was closed, about 12 million immigrants entered through there, most from Europe I’d encourage you all to go for a visit Let’s go back for a minute About million people entered the US between 1900 and 1910 As a result, the US government decided that it needed to limit the number of immigrants This led to a series of new laws First, the Immigration Act of 1917 was passed to restrict who could enter Then in 1921, the US Congress passed a quota system This meant they decided that a certain number of people from each country could enter the US each year For example, million from Germany could enter Once that number had immigrated, no more were allowed until the next year That’s how the quota system worked During this period say up until the 1960s, the US was called a “melting pot” The attitude was that immigrants had to give up their traditions and cultures in order to create a uniform society People were expected to forget about being Italian or Chinese They were expected to learn English and to adjust to American ways of doing things Now, let’s look at the third wave, the period from 1965 to the present time In 1965 the quota system was abolished Instead, a limit of 290,000 was set on the total number of people who could enter each year During the 1970s and 1980s, about 80 percent of the immigrants were from Latin America and Asia, and only 20 percent were from Europe and elsewhere So if you compare the second and third waves, you see that in the second wave it was mostly Europeans and in the third wave it was mostly Latin Americans and Asians Again, economic opportunity was the main reason people immigrated Each year after 1965, many people wanted to immigrate to the US, many more than the 290,000 limit This led to the Immigration Act of 1990 The Immigration Act of 1990 raised the yearly limit from 290,000 to 700,000 However, from 1990 to the present, the actual number has been closer to million, one reason for this being that the US needs workers for many of its service jobs, such as in restaurants or hotels or in farming In recent years, many people in the US have come to realize that the country’s greatest strength is the diversity of its people So, the old melting pot ideal has been replaced with the ideal of cultural diversity, with recognizing the importance of Americans’ many different cultural backgrounds, you can see this today in strong communities that are KoreanAmerican, Japanese-American, Italian-American, Mexican- American, and so on Any questions about this? Susan? STUDENT 3: I’m confused I thought the melting pot was a good thing, that people should mix together and form a strong society TEACHER: Yes, I think you’re right – we want to mix together and form a strong society But now the metaphor is that we want to eat a mixed salad, where each ingredient keeps its original flavor, too Does that sound like a good thing? Student 3: Yes, it makes sense TEACHER: Well, let’s sum up There were several waves of immigration into the US The earlier waves were mostly Europeans, while the later waves have been mostly people from Latin America and Asia The main reason has always been economic; they are looking for better jobs and a better life than they had in their home country In the next class, I’m going to talk about current immigration laws We’ll start there next time That’s all for today UNIT WHO’S CALLING THE SHOTS? TEACHER: Good morning Hope you had a good weekend Today we’re going to start talking about styles of business management Styles of business management vary from country to country, company to company, and from person to person One approach to good management now considered important worldwide is team building Team building is only part of what makes someone a good manager, but it underlies many good management practices When team building, the manager does things to help employees work together effectively as a group, as a team This is based on the idea that the manager’s job isn’t simply to tell people what to do, but to help solve problems and help people communicate so they work well together This approach emphasizes employee relations and it benefits the company It hasn’t always been this way Not so many years ago there was an attitude in American companies, of “What the manager says, goes.” Employees were expected to what they were told But we’re seeing a new paradigm because companies have realized that employees don’t their best work when they’re treated like this This was a big change in American management style, perhaps influenced by the Japanese model First, in order to build a team, a good business manager knows that different people are good at different things and values the special skills that each employee brings to the company A good manager needs to find a way to let the employees know that their particular skills are important to the company The employees are then more likely to their best when they feel valued, and value each other A strong manager knows how to build a team of employees who help each other their best work So, what can a manager to help employees feel they’re valued, like part of the team? Let’s consider a situation at a company called the ABC company Let’s say there’s a new manager in the office, Mrs Gomez, and she’s made some changes One day, an employee – Mrs Parks - decides to approach Mrs Gomez about some problems she is having at work Mrs Parks has worked at the company for more than ten years The new changes make it difficult for her to her job well She’s stressed, and this is affecting her job performance So, Mrs Gomez and Mrs Parks talk Mrs Gomez listens She knows she has made some changes, and that the office isn’t being run like it was before But she tells Mrs Parks to try her best, and give it more time Oh, I see a question Anna? STUDENT1: I’m not clear What kind of changes are you talking about? TEACHER: Oh Well, let’s say one change is that, before, you gave a rough draft of your report to the secretary, and she edited it and sent it out Now, the secretary doesn’t this for you You have to it yourself She changed the way the office was organized STUDENT 1: Oh, OK TEACHER: Later that night, Mrs Gomez thinks about what Mrs Parks said She thinks it’s possible that other people in the office are having problems, too Mrs Gomez knows that she needs a strong team to be a successful manager She also needs a stable group of employees She doesn’t want people to leave She decides she needs to get an accurate idea of the employees’ perspectives She decides to give the employees an opportunity to share their ideas She wants to show them, she values their work and their experience at the company So Mrs Gomez makes a team-building plan She begins by scheduling a meeting for the next day to talk about the changes she has made, to give the employees an opportunity to say what problems they’re having and to ask questions At the end of the meeting, she gives the employees some questions to answer in writing to make it easy for them to share their idea She tells them she will use the answers they write and the ideas from the meeting to decide on the next step in the office Let’s consider the kind of questions she gives them She wants questions that focus on the work itself, questions that would be easy for an employee to answer honestly Questions like: A Is it clear to you what your responsibilities are? B Do your know who to talk to if a task is unclear? C Do your team members support you? If not, what specific things could they to help you a better job? D What was done in the past that you think worked better? These questions are about the work, about how the office is organized, and about working together They don’t focus on the employee’s feelings about the manager Mrs Gomez reads their answers to the questions She also checks her notes from the meeting She decides to modify the way she has reorganized the office Not big changes – just a few small ones She realizes that some of the old ways were better So, she makes a few changes back to how the office was organized before She also comes up with a six-month plan for improvement, and tells the employees they will all review the plan together in six months What message is she communicating to the employees by these actions? Well, first, she’s telling them she considers their ideas important; she values their opinions Second, she is telling them she is in charge, but she values what they say Third, she’s telling them that change is not necessarily good if there is no good reason for it In other words, she didn’t need to make so many big changes when she started as manager And, finally, she’s telling them that she is human, that she can admit her mistakes, and that she’s willing to what benefits the group This puts her on the road to gaining their support, and to being a successful manager Now, on to the third part of the plan Mrs Gomez plans a picnic at the park near their office They have lunch, play games, and talk They laugh and joke and relax, by the end of the day, they know each other better Hopefully, this will help them work together better, as well Let’s review the three parts of Mrs Gomez’s team-building plan She had a meeting, she gave employees questions about the office organization, and she planned a fun activity to help them get to know each other We can see that her plan is based on the importance of solving problems, and on the belief that communication is vital in order to succeed as a team This is a key point: her plan is based on the idea of solving problems and employees sharing ideas Any questions? Felipe? STUENT 2: Well, I’ve studied some business management courses, and I understand that it’s important to develop communication and build up team players, but isn’t us just a waste of time to have these “fun” activities? TEACHER: Well, a lot of managers think it’s a waste of time, especially in the short term But, in the long run, it’s definitely not a waste of time In fact, it’s often a great way to save time in team-building Let’s stop here Today we discussed team building and why it has become important In the next class, I want to talk about other group activities managers can use to build a team We’ll start there next time That’s all for today UNIT RIGHT AND WRONG ON THE NET TEACHER: Good morning Did anyone hear the news about the teenager in New York who hacked into a bank’s database and stole about 30,000 credit card numbers over the weekend? Hacking is related to computer ethics – that’s our topic today Computer ethics deals with the proper use of information technology, such as computers and the Internet By proper use, I mean socially responsible use We’ll first talk about what ethical behavior is and how this applies to computer use First, I want to make sure we all know what ethics is Anyone? Yes, John STUDENT 1: It’s about right and wrong TEACHER: Yes OK, Jennifer? STUDENT 2: And it’s about being a good person, doing what’s right TEACHER: Yes, ethics includes both of these ideas It deals with moral judgments, with what is acceptable or unacceptable to Now we learn ideas about what is right and wrong from our families, our friends, and from the culture we live in because of differences in our backgrounds, we may not always agree on what is right and wrong However, for our discussion today, I will define for you what I mean by an ethical action An ethical action is something someone does that benefits someone and doesn’t hurt anyone So, for example, if you see a man drop some money, and you pick the money up and give it to him, this is an ethical action On other hand, if you pick the money up and don’t give it back to the man, this benefits you, but hurts the man This is not an ethical action Now what about computers? What are the ethical boundaries for using computers and the Internet? Most people agree that it is wrong to steal from a store Would they also say it’s wrong to copy music files from the Internet? Or, to take another example, most people agree that it is wrong to open an envelope and read a letter to someone else Would they also say it’s wrong to read someone else’s email? In the past decade or so, many people have started using computers and the Internet, so these issues have become important In 1992, the Computer Ethics Institute was founded in the United States This is a research, education, and policy study group whose goal is to increase awareness of the ethical issues that are likely to come up as technology develops One concept the Computer Ethics Institute has developed is the Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics These rules are important guidelines the Institute thinks all computer users should follow Now some of you may be familiar with the Ten Commandments from the Bible, like, uh, “Thou shalt not kill” or “Thou shalt honor thy father and thy mother.” The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics have been written in the same style of language used in the Ten Commandments from the Bible For example, they use the phrase “Thou shalt not.” “Thou shalt not” means don’t or you shouldn’t Let’s look at each commandment of rule The first commandment says: Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people Simple enough, right? Number Thou shalt not interfere with other people’s computer work I interpret this to mean don’t use a computer in any way that will affect or change the work someone else is doing Don’t move or edit someone else’s files without telling them Number Thou shalt not snoop in other people’s files To snoop means to try to find out something without another person knowing it If you look at someone else’s files on the computer or read their email, you’re snooping Respect other people’s privacy Number Thou shalt not use a computer to steal There are situations on the Internet in which you have to decide if you are stealing or not, like downloading music files, as I mentioned earlier Number Thou shalt not use a computer to say things that are untrue It is up to you to be truthful in your website, in your e-business, and in your email Number Thou shalt not use a software to for which you have not paid In other words, if the software is free on the Internet, it’s okay to download and use it However, it is not okay to copy software from a friend, because you didn’t pay for it Number Thou shalt not use other people’s computer resources without telling them, or without paying them For example, you shouldn’t use someone else’s computer, password, or Internet connection without asking them first Number Thou shalt not appropriate someone else’s ideas Appropriate is spelled A-P-P-R-O-P-R-I-A-T-E … It means to take words someone else wrote and say they’re yours Uh, for example, you have to write a report for school If you copy a term paper from the Internet and hand it in, you’re breaking the rule Copying even a few sentences off the Internet and presenting them as you own is breaking the rule Number The ninth commandment says: Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you are writing Now, this applies mostly to computer programmers Social consequences means how the program you’re writing might affect others in society Could hackers possibly use your program to illegally gain access to a computer system? Skillful hackers can hack into banks and into credit card companies; they can alter accounts and steal money They can also create viruses that can cause billions of dollars of damage worldwide Number 10 The tenth commandment says: Thou shalt always use a computer in ways that are respectful of others For example, sending unfriendly email to someone or about someone or creating websites with negative messages are examples of breaking the rule OK, the Computer Ethics Institute has sent these guidelines to many large companies and to schools across the United States However, there’s no way to enforce these rules Nevertheless, they would like to see schools, in particular, utilize these rules to help students develop a strong sense of computer ethics OK, any questions or comments at this point? STUDENT 1: How are we supposed to remember all those rules? TEACHER: Well, there are a lot of rules, but they all point down to a couple of principles: respect and fairness Respect what belongs to others and use resources fairly Does that help? STUDENT 1: Yeah, I guess so TEACHER: Good Let’s go back to ethics Now increasingly, schools are seeing that students need to be taught computer ethics as part of the school curriculum Some schools have come up with acceptable-use policies, or rules about what is or isn’t OK for students to regarding computer use This is how the Computer Ethics Institute would like to see schools utilizing the rules Generally, it’s considered wrong to steal someone else’s password or to read someone else’s email It’s also considered unacceptable in college classes for a student to download a term paper off the Internet and pretend that he or she wrote it This is call “plagiarism,” and it’s a good example of breaking rule numbered Students are permitted to use the Internet for research, but are instructed to write the information in their own words and to explain where they got the information Now the ten rules are guidelines for us to follow These rules help us to be aware of the ethical uses of technology Let’s stop here for today Think about these rules this week and we’ll talk about them And read the next chapters for next week UNIT WHERE WILL IT GO? TEACHER: The topic for today’s class is land as a resource Land, water, trees, oil… these are all resources, and as future environmental scientists, you need to understand how to manage these resources As the world population increases, managing land resources will become a greater priority Land is a limited resource Today, I’m going to divide the lecture into two parts First, we’ll look at some of the factors contributing to pressures on the land we have, and then I want to turn to some of the ways people worldwide are trying to address land problems and meet the needs of future generations Think of it as first the bad news, then the good news Let me start by saying there is less good productive land now than there was even ten years ago By productive land I mean land that is fertile, that we can use to grow food and raise animals Each year more and more land becomes degraded We are losing productive land Worldwide, new dry areas are developing and expanding This is happening on every continent except Antarctica I don’t mean existing deserts like the Sahara are getting bigger I’m talking about new dry areas, areas where land has been declining in quality You can see these areas in the map in your book Why are these areas forming and expanding? What you think? Theresa? STUDENT 1: It’s the climate, isn’t it? The earth is getting, you know, hotter because of global warming, so water gets evaporated and the land dries out TEACHER: OK Marcel, you agree? STUDENT 2: Well, yeah It has to be the weather What else could it be? TEACHER: Well, different reasons have been given Some people contribute it to global warming or to climate changes They say nature simply produces dry regions, like the Sahara Desert, as well as wet regions, like the Amazon Rainforest … Well, let’s think about this Is it only the weather? Let’s see if there are other factors contributing to this trend Is nature, or the weather, really the problem? According to a large group of scientists, the weather isn’t the main factor Instead, they say, people are the main factor When they say people are the main problem, they mean people’s actions – how people use and manage land Poor land management, overpopulation, poor farming techniques, too many animals, and so on, can all affect the land Look at the chart in your book As you can see, researchers have identified several ways human activities contribute to the problem The first is overgrazing by farm animals They say about 35% of the loss of productive land is due to overgrazing by farm animals The second is overcutting of trees, which leads to about 30% of the loss And lastly, 28% of the loss of good land is from methods of farming Overgrazing, overcutting, and farming methods Let’s look at these one at a time The first is overgrazing Good topsoil is lost or damaged because of overgrazing by farm animals Overgrazing means the animals eat too many of the plants There are several bad results of overgrazing First, there aren’t enough plants left to hold the soil in place Then, the topsoil is eroded by wind and rain; they carry it away Second, as the animals walk around, the soil is compacted, and gets very hard If the soil is too hard, rainwater isn’t absorbed into the soil, and this causes the soil to stay dry and warm As the soil gets drier, even fewer plants can grow This, in turn, causes the animals to walk around more and more, in order to find enough food to eat And, this causes the ground to get packed down even more, and get even drier, and so on So, you can see that overgrazing can create this cycle Second, overcutting of trees also contributes to the loss of good land The main problem is too many trees are cut and not replanted For years we’ve heard about how this is happening on a large scale in the Amazon Rain Forest in Brazil Trees, like land, are a resource we depend on They’re vital to the whole environmental balance on earth If trees are cut down and not replanted, there is nothing to hold the good soil Wind and water carry the good soil away and it erodes quickly, leaving land that is dry and less productive So, overcutting is another reason why land quality is declining Third, farming methods are another big factor In some places, traditional methods that have been used for hundreds of years no longer work well Why they no longer work well? Partly because the populations is increasing, and farmers aren’t equipped to meet these new demands, and partly because the soil is getting worn out More people need to be fed from less land As a result, some farmers may use too much fertilizer on the limited land they have, or not let the land rest from year to year, causing it to become less fertile Irrigation is a huge factor many of us don’t think about Irrigation water often has salt in it, and when the salt built up in the soil, the soil can no longer be used for farming Currently, about one third of the irrigated land in the world has too much salt in in Irrigation has taken a heavy toll on good land So, basically, how people use the land seems to be a bigger factor in the decrease of productive land than weather Of course, weather is not the main reason for the problem Some of the extremes in the weather caused by global warming can make the situation worse for people who live in these dry areas But the weather alone is not the main issue The decline of productive land is a worldwide problem Currently, about one third of the world’s land area is considered unproductive because it is too dry and damaged OK, so that’s the bad news Now let’s turn to the good news What are countries doing to help preserve land as a resource? As experts learn more about this worldwide problem, they have tried to find ways to address it Right now there are several organizations, the United Nations for one, that are working to help people They try to help countries or communities look at their specific problems and figure out what possible changes they can make to protect their land They talk to people about their farming methods, their animals, and how they use trees and other resources Farmers might try to grow genetically engineered crops that don’t hurt the soil as much, or plant new trees, or raise fewer animals, or build new irrigation systems that leave less salt in the soil They look for local solutions that will work best for that country this includes looking at what has been done traditionally and implementing modern farming methods in ways that respect the local culture So, let’s review what we covered today I mentioned that about one third of the available land worldwide has become dry and less productive The main reason for land degradation is people’s actions, including overgrazing by animals, overcutting of trees, and farming methods As scientists learn more, we need to work to help countries make specific changes and for farmers to become better equipped so that they can preserve the good land that is left Let me just add that if we look at the estimates of what the world population will be fifty years from now – about billion people – it helps us see that protecting the good land that’s left needs to be a high priority I’ll stop there We’ll continues with this next class That’s all for this afternoon UNIT 10 IT’S IN THE DNA TEACHER: Good morning Today we’ll talk about an important topic in biology – DNA and DNA testing Can anybody tell us what DNA stands for? STUDENT 1: Deoxyribonucleic acid … TEACHER: Right It’s the molecule that carries genetic information in all living cells Now first, we’ll look at what DNA is and when it was discovered Then, we’ll look at DNA testing and several applications, or uses of testing This is an exciting topic for biologists because the more we learn about DNA, the more we see how science may change our lives – from health care to our relationships OK, what does DNA look like? STUDENT 1: It looks like two strings, kind of wrapping around each other TEACHER: Yes, exactly There’s a simple drawing of one in your book As you can see, a molecule of DNA consists of stands of chemical compounds arranged in a twisted pattern Inside the human cell are chromosomes The DNA is organized in twenty-three pairs of chromosomes in the cell Genes are arranged on the chromosomes and these carry fundamental genetic information like hair color, eye color, or characteristics that aren’t as visible, such as intelligence, and a lot more Scientists have been studying DNA for a long time First, in 1860, Gregory Mendel made important discoveries: tiny particle he called genes, and, that genes carry information from cell to cell Now this was really the beginning Then, in 1953, J.D Watson and Francis Crick discovered and described the DNA structure Their work was so important that they received the Nobel Prize in 1962 For the 1st time, scientists could understand exactly how DNA tells the cells what to This generated more DNA research, and by the end of the 20th century, scientists made other important discoveries Probably the most important work was reading of the human genome, the complete set of human DNA Uh, this was a huge job, but after 10 long years in June, 2000, the head of the Project announced that they had identified the complete set of human genes Uh, this was a huge deal Most people saw this as the beginning of a whole new era in DNA research Scientists could read all of the genetic messages in the human body! This is, of course, a very brief history of the study of DNA All right, let’s consider DNA testing One important use of DNA testing is testing identity, which is also called DNA fingerprinting Here’s how a DNA fingerprint is done Scientists take a small sample of someone’s hair or skin, which contains DNA Next, they treat the sample with chemicals and make a film, like a small photograph On this film there is a visible pattern of black bars This pattern of black bars is unique for each person So, a DNA sample from your hair identifies you, it’s like your finger printer; it identifies you and you only I see a question, Miguel? STUDENT 2: Does the DNA from hair or skin or blood all look the same? TEACHER: No, not exactly The DNA from your hair will look like hair DNA but it will be uniquely your DNA pattern It’s sort of like all noses look like noses, right? But your nose looks like your nose only Now I want to look at applications, or uses, of DNA testing First, how it can be used by doctors, and second, how it can be used by the police Within health-care, one important use is to identify potential for health problems Researchers have found some genes linked to a defect in chromosome 4, and Alzheimer’s disease is liked to a defect in chromosome 19 A genetic link means that doctors know that if someone has defects in these genes, they’re more likely to get these health problems; their potential is increased Notice, I didn’t say “researchers have found that some genes defects cause specific diseases.” There is simply a link After doctors perform DNA testing, they can then decide the best way to use the information For example, they may give medication to a patient to prevent a disease from ever starting Genetic testing can also be used to decide which medicine to give someone This is called targeted medicine To me, this is very exciting and promising There are tiny differences in DNA from person to person These differences can affect which patients will be helped by a drug, and who may be harmed by it This is, uh, a tremendous advantage It saves lives and money Now, let’s look at how DNA testing is used by police The police can use fingerprints to identify and trace criminals All they need is a small amount, or trace, of blood or hair from the crime scene If the DNA samples from the crime scene and the suspect match, the results, at least in the United States, can be used as evidence in court So, DNA testing can be used to help put someone in prison In much the same way, DNA testing can be used to help innocent people in prison People in prison can now try to use DNA testing for crimes that happened, say, 10 years ago If their DNA fingerprint doesn’t match DNA fingerprint from the crime scene, this can help them get a new trial and perhaps get them out of prison As you can see there are benefits to DNA testing However, there are also some concerns that this type of information might be used against us in the future Now let’s consider how DNA testing could be used against you What if a company you wanted to work for asked you to take a DNA test? And what if your DNA test showed that you had a gene defect linked to a certain type of cancer? Would the company decide not to hire you? People also worry about health insurance They’re afraid they might not be able to get health insurance if their DNA test shows they’re at a higher risk for certain diseases As a result, in the United States, some laws have been passed to protect the privacy of medical records Now DNA testing has other possibilities that we won’t discuss today But in any case, many people think about the negative uses of testing – the fear that it will be used against people or to create “perfect” babies Others think about police being able to trace criminals and possible advances in healthcare But, another way to think about it is that it tells us more about who we are, and that’s the goal of biology – to understand nature I guess I’ll stop there for today In the next class, I want to talk in more depth about uses of DNA testing by doctors OK, we’ll start there next time That’s, uh, that’s all for today UNIT 11 STAYING HEALTHY TEACHER: Good afternoon Have you heard in the news that there is a new outbreak of Ebola in Central Africa? This outbreak is an example of what we’re going to talk about today There has been plenty in the news about medical problems around the world There are new strains of malaria, West Nile virus, and ongoing news about AIDS It seems the Incidences of many contagious diseases are increasing, even with the great progress being made in healthcare So there are many challenges for doctors and healthcare workers, as future public health workers, it’s important for you to have a realistic view of these challenges, and also to develop a sense of optimism in meeting them Why are diseases spreading more rapidly? Well, we are traveling overseas more than ever before As more and more people travel, infectious diseases are transmitted more often and more quickly How many of you traveled overseas in the past months? … A lot of you Where did you go? STUDENT 1: To Taiwan TEACHER: How about you? STUDENT 2: I went to Turkey TEACHER: And you? STUDENT 3: Brazil TEACHER: So you see, just among us, we’ve probably been around the world recently! Along with these infectious diseases, there has been an increase in the number of people with allergies and breathing problems Some believe this is due to pollution Are any of you allergic to anything? To understand these problems, it helps to understand what our immune system is and why the world we live in makes our immune system work very hard Let me explain briefly what the immune system is The immune system is the system in our bodies that fights diseases The job of the immune system is to defend the body against things that may harm us, that may make us sick For example, when someone sneezes on us on a crowded train… Oh, I hate when that happens! How healthy we are depends on how well we can fight and destroy the “bad guys” the germs or microorganisms that can hurt us To have immunity means to be able to fight them off It’s very important to have a strong immune system if we want to stay healthy Here’s a key point We develop immunity to what is around us, to what we are exposed to So if you live in Tokyo, you develop immunity to microorganisms in Tokyo, if you live in Paris, you develop immunity to what is dangerous in Paris, and so on Adapting to the environment takes time this is called adaptive immunity Adaptive immunity means people who are exposed to the causes of a disease develop the ability to fight the disease So, for example, a girl gets disease, say chicken pox That girl develops immunity to chicken pox, and she won’t get chicken pox again Now, how about someone from the U.S taking a boat trip on the Amazon River, or someone from Taiwan traveling to Africa? These people are in new places, places that have bacteria and viruses that cause diseases But the person’s immune system hasn’t adapted to fight those diseases so the person might get sick Then if that person returns home from a trip and is sick, he or she might be contagious But the people back home won’t have the ability to fight the disease either, their immune systems won’t know how This is how infectious diseases can be transmitted to other people To resist disease, someone must have immunity That’s very important We can have immunity by developing it, like the little girl with chicken pox, or by being immunized One way to get immunized is to get an immunization shot, for example, a shot for cholera People often get shots before they travel to build up their immunity This does help, but in any, our immune systems have to work harder and harder when we come into contact with new microorganisms In recent years we have learned more about a variety of immune system problems Probably the most well-known is AIDS, or acquired immune deficiency syndrome, caused by HIV, human immunodeficiency virus Most of us know the terms AIDS and HIV, but let’s look at what the letters stand for The I-D in AIDS stands for immune deficiency “Deficient” means lacking, to not have enough of something So people with AIDS lack of immunity They can’t fight infections or diseases Now back to allergies A lot of people don’t thinks of allergies as being an immune problems but they are In fact, allergies are the most prevalent immune problem we have today An allergy is a reaction to something that shouldn’t normally affect people Allergic reactions are really an action of the immune system As I said earlier, the immune system is working too hard Another way to think about it is that the immune system makes a mistake The mistake is that it fights to protect you against something that is not dangerous to you, like cat, flowers, or grass Allergic reactions like sneezing, red itchy eyes, or difficulty breathing can make people uncomfortable, but are common and generally not too serious However, some people can develop a much more serous reaction that affects the whole body This is called an anaphylactic reaction – A-N-A-P-H-Y-L-A-C-T-I-C This can be very dangerous In fact, someone can die if no medicine is given to stop reaction We treat allergies the same way that we try to prevent infectious diseases We try to build up the immune system by introducing small amounts of the allergen to the body This makes us less sensitive to the allergen and teaches our bodies not to react so strongly Well, let’s conclude this here We all have some immunity challenges These challenges won’t go away anytime soon because we are going to continue to travel, and so on But, we can take some control of the situation by being aware that the various diseases, allergies, and environmental illnesses are linked at some level; they all have to with our immune system Then we can take some positive steps We can try to live a healthy lifestyle by eating well, exercising, controlling stress, and being happy Yes, some research shows that happy people are healthier And, of course, by being aware of the risks we face when we travel in countries that are very different from our own Are there any questions? … Cynthia STUDENT 1: So when you have an allergy to something, like cat hair, you’re saying that you can cure it by becoming healthier? TEACHER: Yes, it helps to be in good health That will reduce the symptoms STUDENT 1: Then can you avoid getting some disease like cholera or AIDS by staying healthy and having a strong immune system? TEACHER: Well, perhaps, but some microorganisms are so strong that they can attack even very healthy immune systems … So, our immune systems protect us We can develop immunity to diseases by being exposed to them, by adapting, or by getting immunized, usually by shots Allergies are the most common immune system problems In an allergic reaction, the immune systems is working to fight something that doesn’t really cause us harm And finally, a healthy lifestyle can help us build up our immunity We’ll stop here Please read the next unit for next time UNIT 12 PREPARE, PREPARE TEACHER: Good morning, everybody Did any of you hear about the earthquake in California yesterday? You did? Well Fortunately, no one was seriously hurt Today, I want to talk about what can be done in these types of situations In the urban planning professions, we need to know the scope of urban problems and make plans –in advance – for dealing with them We’ll start by talking about the difference between natural hazards and natural disasters I’m going to give you some ideas about planning, about preparing for a natural hazard OK, first some background Let’s look at what I mean by natural hazard Natural hazards are things that happen in nature that can be dangerous to us – like earthquakes, typhoons, hurricanes, tsunamis, fires, mudslides, volcanic eruptions, avalanches, floods, and tornadoes…many natural hazards A hazard, then, is something that can be dangerous Now, I want to make a distinction between a natural hazard and a natural hazard As I just said, with a natural hazard there is the potential for a lot of damage In contrast, a natural disaster means terrible things happen and normal life is interrupted People are killed; there is a lot of destruction Disasters are what we hear about on the new You know as well as I that we can’t stop earthquakes or hurricanes So, I want to focus on ways we can limit the impact, how we can prepare to significantly reduce deaths, injuries, and damage when they occur Preparing is vital What a country does to prepare is based on the natural hazards that occur in that country Now let’s consider planning It’s not easy to initiate an emergency response plan There are many things to consider At a minimum, it takes scientific information, money, and cooperation between scientists and the government of a country Scientists and governments need to share information This isn’t always easy to – for a number of reasons First, a country may not be able to use scientific information because it doesn’t have the money In a perfect world, governments would have all the money that they need, but in the real world, they don’t, so governments have to set priorities for spending Governments, especially in developing countries, often have to choose between taking care of problems they have now, like needing new roads and schools, and spending money to plan for problems they might have if a natural disaster strikes A great example is building materials Scientists know that building materials are very important in minimizing the destruction caused by natural disasters Some governments are aware that these materials will save lives, but they not have the money to use them Second, government have to decide how and when to use information from scientists Scientists can’t say definitely, 100%, that a storm will happen, or exactly when it will happen their information is not precise So, a government has to decide what to if the scientific data tell them something is likely to happen It can wait and nothing, or it can tell people to prepare… Now let’s suppose the government tells people to leave their homes So they do, and it costs a lot of time and money for people to leave What happens if there is no earthquake, or only a very small earthquake? Will people be willing to leave the next time the government tells them to? Before I talk more about planning, I’m going to tell you about two volcanic eruptions Think about how planning, or lack thereof, was a factor in both In November 1985, the volcano Nevado Del Ruiz erupted in Colombia For one year before this, the volcano had been making noises Scientists knew chat the volcano might erupt, but they could not say when it would happen The volcano kept making noises, but the people living nearby didn’t leave Scientists had mad maps of the most dangerous areas and given these maps to the government The government, however, wasn’t able to use the information before Nevado Del Ruiz erupted When the volcano erupted, it melted snow and ice at the top of the volcano and suddenly a lot of water rushed down the sides of the volcano, causing huge mudflows This is when disaster struck The mudflows moved quickly through several towns More than 25,000 people were killed in a very short time They weren’t prepared This was a major disaster The second example is the volcano chat erupted in the late 1990s on the island of Montserrat in Caribbean It had been inactive for over a hundred years, but in 1995 it started making noises Scientists watched the volcano very closely, and told the government what was going on The government told the people who lived nearby that they had to move So, the people were evacuated From 1995 on, the volcano continued to be active After five years, however, only about nineteen people had been killed A major disaster was avoided Now let’s consider these two examples From the information we have, we know that one country was better prepared than the other We don’t know why There could be many reasons It’s complicated, and I don’t want to sound too critical here, but we can see that Montserrat’s plan made a huge difference: Only nineteen people died there while 25,000 people died in Colombia OK Let’s turn now to initiating an emergency response plan What basic things you think any country needs in a plan? What’s the first thing? Yes Allen STUDENT: Knowing what’s going to happen TEACHER: Well, yes, but, uh, as we discussed, we can’t know with 100% certainty what’s going to happen The first stage is really made up of pans: gathering information (doing research), and planning how to provide for people basic needs for food, water, and so on First, scientists need to gather information from all over the world about the type of hazards chat occur in their country Then they can use the information from their research to try to predict what will happen in the future, and plan accordingly For example, Japan uses this type of information about earthquakes when it makes new buildings, roads, and so on This is difficult because the research cannot give them precise information In the second stage, the government must be prepared to provide for peoples basic needs if there is a natural disaster They need to a minimum of things They need to organize enough emergency supplies, such as food, bottled water, medicine, and so on And they need to communicate to the people beforehand about where these supplies are located People need to know where to go The second stage also covers exactly what everyone needs immediately after a natural disaster occurs – police, emergency rescue workers, citizens, et cetera – and where they should go, how to get there and so on This enables people to help themselves So, the second stage involves providing information and supplies to people The third stage of an emergency response plan is to recover This means planning for what to in the days and weeks following the disaster, and how the government will enable people to return to normal life after the damage is done, it may take years to rebuild after, say, an earthquake The plan should include who, when, and how For example, who will rebuild houses and roads, when it will be done, and how it will be paid for This is only a brief introduction to making a plan We can’t stop natural disasters, they’re going to happen But we can limit the damage they cause In the next class, we’re going to discuss what countries are doing to build sager buildings in earthquake areas We’ll talk about the material being used If you have any questions, come see me / UNIT 12 PREPARE, PREPARE TEACHER: Good morning, everybody Did any of you hear about the earthquake in California yesterday? You did? Well Fortunately, no one was seriously hurt Today, I want to talk about what can be done in these types of situations In the urban planning professions, we need to know the scope of urban problems and make plans –in advance – for dealing with them We’ll start by talking about the difference between natural hazards and natural disasters I’m going to give you some ideas about planning, about preparing for a natural hazard OK, first some background Let’s look at what I mean by natural hazard Natural hazards are things that happen in nature that can be dangerous to us – like earthquakes, typhoons, hurricanes, tsunamis, fires, mudslides, volcanic eruptions, avalanches, floods, and tornadoes…many natural hazards A hazard, then, is something that can be dangerous Now, I want to make a distinction between a natural hazard and a natural hazard As I just said, with a natural hazard there is the potential for a lot of damage In contrast, a natural disaster means terrible things happen and normal life is interrupted People are killed; there is a lot of destruction Disasters are what we hear about on the new You know as well as I that we can’t stop earthquakes or hurricanes So, I want to focus on ways we can limit the impact, how we can prepare to significantly reduce deaths, injuries, and damage when they occur Preparing is vital What a country does to prepare is based on the natural hazards that occur in that country Now let’s consider planning It’s not easy to initiate an emergency response plan There are many things to consider At a minimum, it takes scientific information, money, and cooperation between scientists and the government of a country Scientists and governments need to share information This isn’t always easy to – for a number of reasons First, a country may not be able to use scientific information because it doesn’t have the money In a perfect world, governments would have all the money that they need, but in the real world, they don’t, so governments have to set priorities for spending Governments, especially in developing countries, often have to choose between taking care of problems they have now, like needing new roads and schools, and spending money to plan for problems they might have if a natural disaster strikes A great example is building materials Scientists know that building materials are very important in minimizing the destruction caused by natural disasters Some governments are aware that these materials will save lives, but they not have the money to use them Second, government have to decide how and when to use information from scientists Scientists can’t say definitely, 100%, that a storm will happen, or exactly when it will happen their information is not precise So, a government has to decide what to if the scientific data tell them something is likely to happen It can wait and nothing, or it can tell people to prepare… Now let’s suppose the government tells people to leave their homes So they do, and it costs a lot of time and money for people to leave What happens if there is no earthquake, or only a very small earthquake? Will people be willing to leave the next time the government tells them to? Before I talk more about planning, I’m going to tell you about two volcanic eruptions Think about how planning, or lack thereof, was a factor in both In November 1985, the volcano Nevado Del Ruiz erupted in Colombia For one year before this, the volcano had been making noises Scientists knew chat the volcano might erupt, but they could not say when it would happen The volcano kept making noises, but the people living nearby didn’t leave Scientists had mad maps of the most dangerous areas and given these maps to the government The government, however, wasn’t able to use the information before Nevado Del Ruiz erupted When the volcano erupted, it melted snow and ice at the top of the volcano and suddenly a lot of water rushed down the sides of the volcano, causing huge mudflows This is when disaster struck The mudflows moved quickly through several towns More than 25,000 people were killed in a very short time They weren’t prepared This was a major disaster The second example is the volcano chat erupted in the late 1990s on the island of Montserrat in Caribbean It had been inactive for over a hundred years, but in 1995 it started making noises Scientists watched the volcano very closely, and told the government what was going on The government told the people who lived nearby that they had to move So, the people were evacuated From 1995 on, the volcano continued to be active After five years, however, only about nineteen people had been killed A major disaster was avoided Now let’s consider these two examples From the information we have, we know that one country was better prepared than the other We don’t know why There could be many reasons It’s complicated, and I don’t want to sound too critical here, but we can see that Montserrat’s plan made a huge difference: Only nineteen people died there while 25,000 people died in Colombia OK Let’s turn now to initiating an emergency response plan What basic things you think any country needs in a plan? What’s the first thing? Yes Allen STUDENT: Knowing what’s going to happen TEACHER: Well, yes, but, uh, as we discussed, we can’t know with 100% certainty what’s going to happen The first stage is really made up of pans: gathering information (doing research), and planning how to provide for people basic needs for food, water, and so on First, scientists need to gather information from all over the world about the type of hazards chat occur in their country Then they can use the information from their research to try to predict what will happen in the future, and plan accordingly For example, Japan uses this type of information about earthquakes when it makes new buildings, roads, and so on This is difficult because the research cannot give them precise information In the second stage, the government must be prepared to provide for peoples basic needs if there is a natural disaster They need to a minimum of things They need to organize enough emergency supplies, such as food, bottled water, medicine, and so on And they need to communicate to the people beforehand about where these supplies are located People need to know where to go The second stage also covers exactly what everyone needs immediately after a natural disaster occurs – police, emergency rescue workers, citizens, et cetera – and where they should go, how to get there and so on This enables people to help themselves So, the second stage involves providing information and supplies to people The third stage of an emergency response plan is to recover This means planning for what to in the days and weeks following the disaster, and how the government will enable people to return to normal life after the damage is done, it may take years to rebuild after, say, an earthquake The plan should include who, when, and how For example, who will rebuild houses and roads, when it will be done, and how it will be paid for This is only a brief introduction to making a plan We can’t stop natural disasters, they’re going to happen But we can limit the damage they cause In the next class, we’re going to discuss what countries are doing to build sager buildings in earthquake areas We’ll talk about the material being used If you have any questions, come see me  ... Well, for example, The Guiding Light has been on for more than 12, 000 episodes, and on it goes Can you believe that? More than 12, 000 episodes! Soap operas started in the United States in 1959,... people’s Another question, yes? STUDENT 2: How common is dyslexia? TEACHER: It’s estimated that 10 percent of all school children are dyslexic STUDENT 2: Wow, that’s a lot I heard that it only... Or the Statue of Liberty? You have, Stefan? STUDENT 2: Yes, I have The Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island TEACHER: What did you think? STUDENT 2: Very impressive Interesting, too TEACHER: yes,