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Understanding International Law Conway W Henderson WILEY-BLACKWELL Understanding International Law Understanding International Law Conway W Henderson A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication This edition first published 2010 © 2010 Conway W Henderson Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007 Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell Registered Office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom Editorial Offices 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148–5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell The right of Conway W Henderson to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Henderson, Conway W Understanding international law / Conway W Henderson p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-4051-9764-9 (hardcover : alk paper) – ISBN 978-1-4051-9765-6 (pbk : alk paper) International law I Title KZ3410.H46 2010 341–dc22 2009033118 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Set in 10.5/13pt Minion by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India Printed in Singapore 2010 This book is dedicated to Victoria, my bride of twenty-five years, on our Silver Wedding Anniversary Contents List of Boxes Preface List of Abbreviations Part I Making the World More Lawful The Rise of International Law xi xiii xiv The Nature of International Law The Roles of International Law The Early Beginnings of International Law Dueling Philosophies Contending Modern Approaches Operating Conditions: What Helps and What Hinders? Chapter Summary 13 16 20 22 A World of Actors: A Question of Legal Standing 27 Actors The State International Government Organizations Non-government Organizations Multinational Corporations Individuals Insurgents Ethnic Groups Terrorists Mercenaries and Private Military Companies Domestic Actors Chapter Summary 28 28 33 36 39 42 44 46 49 50 51 52 viii Contents The Sources of International Law: Creating Law without Government 57 Customary Law Treaty Law The Role of Principles Judges and Publicists Other Sources The Scope of International Law Chapter Summary 58 65 72 75 77 78 79 The Efficacy of International Law 85 Legislating International Law Enforcing International Law Adjudicating International Law The Incorporation of International Law Can There Be a Future World Government? Chapter Summary 86 90 94 106 109 110 Jurisdiction: Domain over Places and Persons 115 Territorial Jurisdiction Law of the Sea Airspace Outer Space Satellites The Polar Regions Nationality Dual Nationality Alien Status Sovereign Immunity and Act of State Extraterritoriality Extradition Chapter Summary 116 117 124 126 128 130 132 135 137 140 141 143 145 Part II Making the World Safer 149 Diplomacy in Pursuit of Peace 151 A Brief History of Diplomacy The Rules of Diplomacy for States Two Special Issues concerning Embassies Rules for the Consular Relations of States The Peaceful Settlement of Disputes The Operating Conditions of Diplomacy The Rules of Diplomacy for IGOs 152 155 158 160 163 166 168 454 Index McCain, John 272 McCarthy, Joe 172 McCarthyism 172 McGuffin, John 271 Mead, Margaret 212 Meadows, Donnella 323 Measure to Prevent International Terrorism 226 Medellin, Jose Ernesto 163 media 6, 129 mediation 165 medications 365–6 Medieval Age 10, 12, 356 Medvedev, Dmitri 192 membership of an international society memoranda of understanding 77 Mendes, Chico 344 mercantilism 356 mercenaries 50, 239–41 merchant law (lex mercatoria) 11, 12, 356 see also commercial law Mercosur 369 mergers of states 31 Mesopotamia Mexico abduction of Dr Alvárez-Machaín 144 consuls 163 drugs 382 environment 332, 333, 342 Estrada Doctrine 28 extradition 145 NAFTA 369 nationality 133 micro-loans 380 Microsoft v Commission of the EU case 366 Military Commission Act (2006, USA) 272 military power of states 32 militias 312 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 347, 371–2 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 323 Milosevic, Slobodan 48, 104, 260 Mindszenty, Cardinal Josef 159 ministers 156 Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) 199–201 Missouri v Holland case 107–8 Mistry, Dinshaw 201 Mitchell, Margaret 365 Mladic, Ratko 104, 278 Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration 367 Model Regulations to Control the Movement of Firearms, Ammunition, and Firearms Parts and Components 206 Moldova 203 Monaco 32 money laundering 381 monism, incorporation of international law 106–7 Montevideo Convention on Asylum (1933) 63 Montevideo Convention on Extradition 144 Montevideo Convention on Political Asylum 159 Montevideo Convention on the Nationality of Women 134 Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States (1933) 28 Montreal Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation 126 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer 330, 331, 348 Moon Agreement 127, 192 moot issues 77 Morgenthau, Hans 17–18, 94, 166, 181 Morocco 45, 269, 299 Mortensen v Peters case 108 Morton, Jeffrey S 51 Moscow Declaration 250 Moscow Treaty 192 Moser, Johann Jakob 15 most favored nation (MFN) rule 375 Mueller, John 212 Muldoon, James P., Jr 153 multifunctional IGOs 33 Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) 361 multinational corporations (MNCs) 39–40 aliens 139–40 arbitration 97, 367 codes of conduct 40, 78, 378–9 Index FDI 377–9 globalism versus regionalism 368 good and bad effects 378 human rights 312 multiple independently targeted re-entry vehicles (MIRVs) 183, 191 municipal law Musharraf, Pervez 195 Mussolini, Benito 254 mustard gas 198, 199, 254 mutually assured destruction (MAD) 182 Myanmar (Burma) 275 Naím, Moisés 380 Namibia 99, 100 Napoleon Bonaparte 10, 11, 236, 239 Napoleon III 144 Napoleonic Wars 67 Nasr, Hassan 144 National Arbor Day 339–40 nationalism 47 nationality 132–5, 393 dual 135–7 extraterritorial jurisdiction 141 National Liberation Front (FLN) 45 National Liberation Movements (NLMs) 45, 48 nation-states 28 see also states naturalization 134 natural law 13–15 early beginnings of international law 9, 13 human rights 14, 44, 288 individuals 42 principles 74 Nature Conservancy 327 nature of international law 4–6 Naulilaa incident 227 Nauru 32 necessity principle 238 needs 355, 356 negotiations 164–5 cultural differences 162 treaties 69 neocolonialism 358–9, 374 neo iudex in sua causa principle 73 neo-mercantilism 371 Nepal 239, 275 455 nerve gases 198 Netherlands 11, 60, 249, 293 neutrality, laws of 79 new diplomacy 153 New International Economic Order (NIEO) 370–1 New York Arbitration Convention 97, 367 New Zealand Antarctica 130 Disarmament Agency 186 fisheries 335 incorporation of international law 108 indigenous peoples 305 Nuclear Tests case 77, 326 NGO Watch 384 Nicaragua 62, 101, 224, 305 Nice Treaty 36 Nigeria 45, 51, 233, 383 Nimitz, Chester 266 Nixon, Richard 197, 361 Nobel Peace Prize Amnesty International 311 Bono 312 Dunant, Henri 216 environmentalists 345 global warming 327 Gore, Al 323 ICBL and Jody Williams 37, 204 IPCC 323 Maathai, Wangari 340 Suu Kyi, Aung San 312 UN Peacekeepers 232 Yunus, Muhammad 380 non-economic goals 384–5 non-government organizations (NGOs) 36–9, 395 arbitration 97 arms limitations 204, 206 child soldiers 275 constructivism 20 diplomacy 155 English School 19 environment 349 global civil society 20 global governance 20 humanitarian interventions 230 human rights 287 legislating international law 86, 87 456 Index non-government organizations (NGOs) (cont'd) liberalism 18 transparency 384 non-hazardous waste 337 non-refoulement principle 296 non-state actors diplomacy 155 human rights 311–12 role of international law Noriega, Manuel 91, 159–60 norms North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) 33, 65, 171, 369 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 35–6 arms limitations 184, 185 Bosnia 230, 257, 259 collective self-defense 224 Kosovo North Korea aggression 221 biological weapons 197 diplomacy 155 Korean War 219, 265 missiles 200–1 nuclear program 128, 165, 182, 186, 188–9, 191, 194–5 restrictions on entry 137 rogue state 32 North Sea Continental Shelf case 60, 74, 76 North–South relationship 358–9, 370–80 North Vietnam 31, 167–8, 265 Norway 77–8, 117, 118, 130, 131, 337, 341 Nottebohm, Friedrich 135 Nuclear Club 182, 189–90, 191, 196, 202 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Convention/ Treaty (NPT) 87, 183, 189–90, 191, 192 nuclear power 127, 330–1 Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) 194 Nuclear Tests case 77, 326 nuclear weapons arms limitations 181–3, 184, 186, 189–92, 193–5 environment 326, 345–6 France 77, 326 Iran 168 legality 75, 77, 192–3 Marshall Islands Nuclear Claims Tribunal 96 preemptive defense 225 preventive diplomacy 154 regime 187–96 utility 195–6 nuclear weapons free zones (NWFZs) 192 nuclear winter 182 nullem crime sine lege principle 252 Nunn–Lugar Act (1991, USA) 194–5 Nuremberg Military Tribunal/Charter 103, 250, 276, 277 aggression 221 crimes against humanity 252, 253 crimes against peace 251–2 genocide 254, 256 individuals 43 war crimes 263, 264, 266 Nuremberg Principles 87, 88 Nye, Joseph S., Jr 21 Obama, Barack Afghanistan War 185 arms limitations 186, 192 Blogojevich 384 Cuba 385 environment 329 Guantánamo 239, 272 terrorism 229 objects of international law, actors as 28 O’Brien, John 73, 76 O’Connell, Mary 231 Oda, Judge Shigeru 163 Oeter, Stefan 137 offensive weapons 186 old diplomacy 153 Olmert, Ehud 236 Oman 292 Omar al-Bashir 106 One Hundred Years War 213 One Laptop Per Child 377 One World Trust 38, 384 open diplomacy 166 Open Skies Agreement 183, 187 opinio juris sive necessitates 58, 60 Optional Protocol of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations Index Concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes 163 oral agreements 77–8 order of international relations Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 360, 361–2, 378, 383, 383 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) 206 Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) 199 Organization of African Unity (OAU, later African Union) 45, 50, 310 Organization of American States (OAS) 33, 171 arms limitations 205, 206 Charter 66 collective self-defense 224 diplomacy 154, 159, 164, 173 environment 348 human rights 302, 304, 305, 309 Inter-American Court of Human Rights 102 peacekeeping 233 POWs 239 regionalism 21 Roman Catholic Church 154 Organization of Islamic Conference 310 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) 370, 375, 379 organized crime 380–2 orientation of weapons 186 origins of international law 9–13 Oslo Convention 334 Oslo University 386–7 Ottawa Convention 183, 203, 204 Ottoman Empire 13 outer space 77, 126–30 Outer Space Treaty 77, 87, 127, 192 Oxfam 206, 377 Oxford Manual on the Laws and Customs of War on Land 180, 214, 248, 263 ozone depletion 329–30, 331 pacta sunt servanda 73 incorporation of international law 107 states 29, 30 Pact of Paris see Kellogg–Briand Pact 457 Padilla, Jose 189 Paine, Thomas 288 Pakistan Bangladesh’s break away from 45, 229–30 biological weapons 197 conventional weapons 203 Kashmir 117, 237 missiles 200, 201 nuclear weapons 182, 188–92, 194–5 peacekeeping 232 territorial jurisdiction 117 women’s rights 302 Palau 32 Palestine civilians in war 237, 238 conventional weapons 203 Israelis 45, 235, 236–7 Jordan River 333 peacekeeping 232 Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Services of the United Nations 34 UN 38 Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) 38, 45, 107 diplomacy 155, 172 Israeli aggression 221, 226 Pan-African Parliament (PAP) 90 Panama 91, 122, 159, 194, 223 papal nuncio 157 Papenfuß, Dieter 31 Papua New Guinea 50–1 Paquette Habana and Lola case 60–1 Paraguay 218 Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property 365 Paris Convention for the Regulation of Aerial Navigation 124 Paris Declaration 214–15 Partial Test Ban Treaty 191 particular treaties 69 passive personality 141–2 passports 161–3 patents 365 Pax Americana peace breaches 219, 221 dividend 185 enforcement 232–3 458 Index peace (cont'd) environment 346 laws of 79 threats 219 treaties 234 Peace Brigades International 311 peacebuilding 232 peacekeeping 231–2, 393–4 Pelindaba Treaty 192 Penˇa-Irala, Americo Norberto 64 Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) 95, 96, 164, 169, 367, 111 Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ) 76, 98–9 adjudicating international law 95 Danzig Railway case 42, 43 diplomacy 169 establishment 164 Greenland 77–8, 117 Lotus, SS 141, 142 principles 74 permanent residency status, aliens 137 Persia 9, 13, 152, 370 Persian Gulf War aims 213 bombing 265 Iraqi nuclear weapons program 182, 189 just war principles 214 natural law 14 satellites 128 UN 44, 92 persistent objector principle 63 persona grata 156 persona non grata 156–7, 161 Peru 63–4, 101, 103, 159 petro-dollars 379 Philippines 119, 278, 311 philosophies 13–16 physical differences among states 32 Physicians for Human Rights 311 Pinochet, General Augusto 145 piracy/pirates Alien Torts Claim Act (1789, USA) 65 intellectual piracy 365 legal personality 28, 42 sea, law of the 122–3 Somalian 32 plenipotentiary powers 153 Poland 42, 43, 203, 268–9, 289 polar regions 130–2 Polisario Front 269 political ideologies of states 32 political instruments of dispute settlement 164 political offenses 144 political repression 295–6, 301 political rights 292–6 political science 3, political space pollution atmospheric 325–6 water 331, 332, 333–4 Population Connection 324 population levels 32, 324 Portugal 16, 118 positive peace 151 positivism 13, 14, 15, 28 individuals 42 legislating international law 86 rules of war 213 poverty 336, 337 Poverty Summit 377 power distribution 21–2 military 32 ratios, arms limitations 186 Prebisch, Raul 359 preclusion arrangements 192 preemptive defense 224–5 premises, embassies 157 Pretty, Diane 293–4 preventive diplomacy 154, 232 Princeton Principles on Universal Jurisdiction 143, 221, 228 principles 72–4 Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting 129 Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth From Outer Space 128 Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space 127 prisoners of war (POWs) 238–9, 266–9 private law 12, 78–9, 393 private military companies (PMCs) 50–1, 239–41 Index privileges and immunities 156, 169–71 problems of international law 392–5 progressive development of international law 88, 155 Project on International Courts and Tribunals (PICT) 94 Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) 194 Pro Mujer 380 property rights, demise of 299 proportionality principle 91, 238 Prosecutor v Tadic´ case 254, 263 prospects of international law 392–5 protectionism 356, 357, 360 protective principle, extraterritorial jurisdiction 142 Protestantism 11, 51 Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition 205–6 Protocol on Control of Nitrogen Oxide 326 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctica Treaty 336 Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants 326 protocols 66, 157 Prussia 46 publicists 13, 14–16, 73–7 public law 12, 78, 393 Pufendorf, Samuel von 14, 76 Putin, Vladimir 192 Qatar 299 quotas 357 race and racism 300–1 Radhabinodh, Judge 278 radioactive bombs 187–9 radioactive waste 337, 338 Radwan v Radwan case 162 Rainforest Action Network 349 rainforests 338, 339, 340, 344 Ramsar Convention 343 rape 73, 76, 104, 262, 274–5 Rarotonga Treaty 192 ratification stage, treaties 69, 70 Reagan Ronald 58, 91, 123, 127, 224, 321, 339 459 Reagan Doctrine 224 realists 3, 16–18, 110 command law 94 power distribution 21 rebus sic stantibus 71–2, 73 reciprocity 6, 375 recognition of states 28–9 recycling 337 Red Cross see International Committee of the Red Cross Red Cross treaty 215, 216 Reed v Covert case 107 Reformation 10–11 refugees 134, 135, 296 regimes regional courts 101–2 regional international law 79, 63, 159 regionalism 21, 368–70 regional trade agreements (RTAs) 368–9 registration state, treaties 70 regulatory role of international law religious freedom 295 religious organizations 51–2 Renaissance 11, 12, 13, 16 Renan, Ernest 47 rendition 272 renounced citizenship 134 Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Services of the United Nations 34, 76 repatriation of POWs 269 reprisals 58, 91, 227 res communis airspace 124 outer space 129 sea, law of the 118, 122 reservations, treaties 69–70 res judicata principle 73 restrictive immunity 140 retorsion 91, 168, 227 reverse-engineering 365 Rhine River Commission 153 Rhodesia 29, 221, 301, 385 Ricardo, David 357 Rice, Condoleezza 163 ricin 196 rights of actors 28 IGOs 33 460 Index rights of actors (cont'd) individuals 42, 43 insurgents 44, 45 states 29, 30 see also human rights Rio Declaration (Earth Charter) 322, 344, 346 Rio Treaty 224 riparian states 332–3 rise of international law 3–4, 22–4 contending modern approaches 16–20 early beginnings 9–13 nature of international law 4–6 operating conditions 20–2 philosophies 13–16 roles of international law 6–9 Rising Tide 349 rivers 332–3 rogue states 32–3, 186 roles of international law 6–9 Roman Catholic Church (RCC) 51 diplomacy 154, 155, 157 early beginnings of international law 10–11 human rights 293, 312 rules of war 213 Roman Empire 67 declarations of war 233–4 diplomacy 152 early beginnings of international law 9, 10 rules of war 213 trade 356 Romania 173, 289 Roman law 9, 10, 67 Roman war 213 Roosevelt, Franklin D 197 Roosevelt, Theodore 135 Rosegrant, Susan 167 Ruggie, John Gerhard 19 rules Rummel, R J 253, 255 Rush–Bagot Agreement 180 Russia Arctic 131 arms limitations 184 Bretton Woods institutions and the WTO 368 Chechens 49, 189 Council of Europe 102, 308 diplomacy 166–7 environment 332 G-8 360 Georgia 49 humanitarian intervention 230, 231 Iraq War 220 Kosovo 48 landmines 37 physical characteristics 32 Revolution 357 Rwanda 230, 232, 241 crimes against humanity 253, 254 ethnic groups 47 genocide 256, 257, 260–1, 279 rape 262 war crimes 263 see also International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda Sachs, Jeffrey D 373, 380 Saddam Hussein 47, 198, 199, 254, 257, 383, 385 St Petersburg Declaration 180 salmonella 196 sanctions 384–5 Sandline International 50–1 San Marino 32 Santiago Declaration 309 sarin 198 satellites 126, 128–30, 187, 201 Saudi Arabia 161, 379 Savan, Benon 383 Save the Children 275 Schabas, William A 293 Schachter, Oscar 89 Schooner Exchange v McFadden case 140 scope of international law 78–9, 393 sea environmental issues 327, 328, 333–5 law of the 117–24 levels 327, 328 Seabed Mining Authority 123–4 Seabed Treaty 182, 192 Sea Shepherd 349 sea turtles 343 second-generation rights 290 Index Second Lateran Council 180 Second World War aggression 220–1 aims 213 aliens 138 belligerent occupation 236 biological weapons 196, 197 bombs 193, 215, 237, 264–5 core international crimes 247, 250 deaths 184, 253 declarations of war 234 diplomacy 156, 162 Doolittle mission 61, 264–5 economic effects 357 Eichmann 145 ethnic groups, USA 47 Geneva Conventions 215 genocide 76 IGOs 33 League of Nations 218 Nuremberg and Tokyo tribunals 43, 103 Pearl Harbor attack 228, 251 political ideologies 32 UN 218 Versailles Treaty 67–8 secret diplomacy 166 Seko, Mobutu Sese 383 self-defense 4, 91, 92, 223–5 in an age of terror 225–9 self-determination 290, 292 ethnic groups 47–8, 49 indigenous peoples 305 insurgents 45 self-executing treaties 107 self-help, enforcement of international law 90–1, 92–3 September 11, 2001 attacks 49, 226 airspace 125 collective self-defense 224 NATO 35–6 passports and visas 161 war on terror 228 Serbia NATO 35, 48, 49, 92, 237 rogue state 32 see also Bosnia; International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia; Kosovo Sèvres Treaty 250 461 sex trade industry 292 sexual orientation 305–7 sharia laws 291 Shengen Agreement 36, 382 shrimp trade 343 shuttle diplomacy 153–4, 166 sic semper tyrannis 272–3 Sierra Leone 44, 51, 105, 233, 262, 279 signature stage, treaties 69 Simmons, Beth A 93 Singapore 291 Singapore Declaration 369 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs 381 Single European Act 369 Six Day War 225, 236 Slaughter, Anne-Marie 4, 31, 76, 274 slavery 289, 292 Slovakia 31, 109, 333 Small Arms Survey 206 Small Arms Trade Transparency Barometer 206 smallpox 196 smart sanctions 385 Smith, Adam 357, 358 smuggling arms 204 drugs 382 sea, law of the 121 wildlife 342 social constructivism 19 social engineering socially constructed nature of human rights 289 social nature of international relations 18 social rights 296–300 social structure of international society 20 soft law 78, 87 Sohn, Louis B 110 soil 335–8 Solomon, Susan 323 Solzhenitsyn, Alexander 134 Somalia 32, 122, 173, 230, 232, 273 sources of international law 57–8, 77–8, 79–82, 393 customary law 58–65 judges and publicists 75–7 principles 72–4 462 Index sources of international law (cont’d) scope of international law 78–9 treaty law 65–72 South Africa aggression 221 ANC 45 apartheid 292, 301 conventional weapons 205 economy 370 missiles 201 nuclear weapons 182, 189 private military companies 241 Southwest Africa 100, 101 South Korea 125, 189, 201, 219, 221 South Ossetia 49 South Vietnam 31 Southwest Africa 99, 100, 101, 254 sovereign immunity 140–1 sovereignty English School 19 geostationary orbit 129 intervention 229, 230 natural resources 339 Soviet Nuclear Threat Reduction Act (1991, USA) 194–5 Soviet Union airspace 125 arms limitations 183, 184 bombing 265 Chernobyl 29–30, 330 creation 357 crimes against humanity 253 Cuban Missile Crisis 155 diplomacy 155, 158 economy 358 fragmentation 29, 30, 31 genocide 259 nationality 134 NATO 35 outer space 77, 126, 127, 128 peacekeeping 233 polar regions 130 Reagan Doctrine 224 satellites 126 Second World War 220, 250, 268–9 UN Security Council 219 space see outer space space-launched vehicles (SLVs) 201 Spacey, Kevin 367 Spain Barcelona Traction case 41 Basque region 48 closed-sea doctrine 16, 118 early beginnings of international law 9–10, 11 hegemony 22 Napoleon’s occupation 236 Paquette Habana and the Lola case 61 Thirty Years War 11 Spanish–American war 61 Spanish Civil War 235 Special Court for Sierra Leone 44, 105 Spitsbergen (Svalband) Treaty 131 Sri Lanka 225, 237, 275 Stalin, Joseph 181, 253, 277, 358 standardizing the global economy 363–4 stare decisis 75 state doctrine 30 state immunity 29 stateless persons 134–5 state responsibility 29–30, 138–9, 325–6 states 28–33, 394 “state secrets” privilege 272 state succession 30–1 state terror 295–6 Statute of the International Court of Justice Article 38: 58, 59, 72 judges 75, 76 members 99 principles 72 reservations 70 Statute of the International Criminal Court 87, 105–6 aggression 221 child soldiers 275 judges 76 principles 72 rape 262, 274 terrorism 228 USA 22, 70 war crimes 263–4, 274 Statute of the International Law Commission 88 steady state, human population 324 Steiner, Henry J 291 Steinhardt, Ralph G 128, 129 Index Stockholm Agreement 183 Stockholm Chamber of Commerce 97 Stockholm Conference 320–1, 323 Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment 320, 344 Stockholm International Peace Research Institute 207 St Petersburg Declaration 180 straits 120–1 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I and II) 183, 187, 191 Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) 184, 191–2 Strategic Offensive Reduction Treaty (SORT) 192 strategic weapons 186–7 Strong, Maurice 322 Suárez, Francisco 14 subjects of international law, actors as 28 submarine warfare 237, 265–6 subsidies, agricultural 374, 375–6 Sudan 32, 106, 197, 233, 257 desertification 336, 345 ethnic cleansing 261–2 ICC 279 Sudetenland 167 Suez Canal 232 Sugihara, Chiune 162 Suharto, President 383 summit diplomacy 153–4, 166 super states 36 supervening impossibility of performance 72 suppliers groups 193–4 supranational authority 20, 36, 369 Suu Kyi, Aung San 312 sustainable development 321, 324 Sweden 11, 189 Switzerland 165, 342, 383 Syria 32, 91, 197, 225, 233 Tadic´, Dusko 254, 263 Taiwan 189, 201 Talaq rules 162 Taliban 36, 226, 237, 382 Tamil Tigers 225, 237 Tanganyika 31 Tani Hisao, General 275 463 Tanzania 31, 91, 230 tariffs 357, 375 Tate, Jack 140 “Tate letter” 140 Taylor, Charles 105, 279 tear gas 198 Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Agreement 364 technology 166, 324, 330, 335 terra nullius 10, 304 territorial asylum 159 territorial jurisdiction 116–17 territorial sea 119–20 Terrorism Research Center (TRC) 242 terrorism/terrorists 49–50 airspace 125, 126 arms limitations 197, 198, 201 biological weapons 197 chemical weapons 198 diplomacy 161, 168, 173 extradition 144 passive personality principle 141–2 self-defense 224, 225–9 UN 35 universal jurisdiction 143 war on see War on Terrorism Thailand 366 theater weapons 186–7 third-generation rights 290 Thirty Years War 11, 213 Three Gorges Dam 331 Threshold Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 182 Thucydides 16 Titanic 61 Tlatelolco Treaty 192 Tojo Hidki 277 Tokyo Convention on Offenses and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft 125 Tokyo International Military Tribunal/ Charter 43, 103, 221, 250, 276, 277–8 crimes against humanity 252, 253 crimes against peace 251–2 POWs 268 rape 262, 274–5 Tordesillas, Treaty of 118 tort 65 464 Index torture customary law 64, 65 extradition 144 global governance 20 USA 269–72 Torture Victims Protection Act (1991, USA) 65 tourism 339, 340 track-two diplomacy 155 trade flow 374–6 Trade Related Aspects of International Property Rights (TRIPS0 365 Trail Smelter case 142, 325–6 transit passage 120–1 transnational corporations (TNCs) see multinational corporations transnational organized crime 380–2 transparency corruption 384 NGOs 38 private military companies 51 treaty law 70 Transparency International (TI) 38, 53, 384 travaux préparatories 69 treason 136 Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation 348 Treaty for the Preservation and Protection of Fur Seals 320 treaty law 58, 65–72 legislating international law 86–7 principles 73 as superior law 109 Treaty to Ban Anti-Personnel Landmines 37 Trelleborg 377–8 triads 381 tribunals 96, 276–80 Trident submarines 200 Tripartite Declaration of Principles Concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy 378 Truman, Harry 181, 187, 278 Truman Proclamation 61–2 tuna 342 Tunisia 221, 226, 299, 310 Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement 103 tu quoque defense 266 Turkey Armenian genocide 248, 250, 252, 254, 257, 258 Cuban Missile Crisis 155 customary law 59 Euphrates River 333 Europe 13 human rights 299, 310 Kurds 49 Lotus, SS 141, 142 occupation of Cyprus 237 turtles 343 Tutsis 47, 104, 232, 254, 257, 260–1 Uganda 91, 137, 230, 276 Ukraine 189, 195, 201 ultima ratio Regis, war as the unequal treaties 67–8 UN Headquarters Agreement (1947, USA) 107, 171, 172 unifunctional IGOs 33 unilateral pronouncements 77 Union Carbide 378 Union of International Associations 53 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics see Soviet Union United Kingdom see Great Britain/United Kingdom United Nations (UN) 33, 23, 242 Administrative Tribunal (UNAT) 96, 172 aggression 221 Center on Transnational Corporations 40 Charter 66 child soldiers 275, 276 codes of conduct, MNCs 40, 378 collective recognition of states 28, 29 “comfort women” 275 Commission on Human Rights 174, 239, 289, 307, 308, 314 Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) 97, 367 Commission on Narcotic Drugs 381 Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) 346–7 Commission on the Status of Women 302 Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) 126 Index Committee on Torture 272 Compensation Commission 44 Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) 371, 375 conventional weapons 204–5 conventions 65–6 core international crimes 250–1, 257 creation crime and corruption 381, 382, 383 customary law 58 Development Program (UNDP) 306, 327, 371–3 diplomacy 152, 153, 154, 166, 169–70, 171–4 disillusionment 16 Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) 307, 368 economy 358, 368, 371, 373 Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 126, 298–9, 300, 303 Emergency Force (UNEF) 232 enforcing international law 92–3 environment Environmental Program (UNEP) 323, 346 Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 328–9 Global Compact 40 High Commissioner for Human Rights 306, 307, 344 High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 34, 296, 307, 312 host agreements 34 human rights 287, 289, 307–8 Human Rights Commission 89 ICTR see International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ICTY see International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia IGOs 33 individual responsibility 44 International Children’s Fund (UNICEF) 303, 312 International Trade Law Commission 89 Interpol 384 intervention 229, 230 Kosovo 48, 92 465 Legal Affairs office 89 legal personality 34–5 legislating international law 86–9 mercenaries 50, 240, 241 MNCs 39, 40 NATO 35 NGOs 38, 39 Office on Drugs and Crime 381, 383 Operations in the Congo 232 outer space 126, 127–8, 146 peacekeeping 231–3 Persian Gulf War 14, 214 polar regions 131 private military companies 51 problems and prospects of international law 393–4 Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Services of the United Nations 34 role of international law Roman Catholic Church 154 sanctions 385 satellites 128 sea, law of the 146 Security Council self-defense 223 self-determination 47–8 Somalian piracy 32 Southwest Africa 100 sovereign immunity 141 Special Court for Sierra Leone 105 territorial jurisdiction 116 terrorism/terrorists 35, 50, 225, 226 torture 20 treaty law 65–6, 69, 70, 71, 72 Treaty Series (UNTS) 72, 80, 350 UDHR see Universal Declaration of Human Rights war United States of America 9/11 attacks 35–6, 49, 226 actors 28 acts of state 141 Afghanistan War 6, 237 airspace 125 Algeria Declaration 42 aliens 137, 138 arbitration 95 arms limitations 183 466 Index United States of America (cont’d) Berenson case 103 bombing 264, 265 Caroline incident 224 Civil War see American Civil War Colombia 235 Constitution 75, 107, 133, 252, 299 corruption 383 Cuba 384–5 Cuban Missile Crisis 155 customary law 61–2, 64–5 Darfur 262 Declaration of Independence 288, 299 Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man 291 declarations of war 234 Department of State website 80, 175 drugs 382 economy 357–8, 359–60 Ehime Maru and state responsibility 139 enforcing international law 91, 92 environment Environmental Protection Agency 93 extradition 143, 144, 145 First World War 47, 265 Geneva Conventions 217 global market 21 government 85 Grenada 223 hegemony 6, 8, 22, 68, 357, 395 human rights 288, 291, 308 ICC 106 ICJ 101 incorporation of international law 107–8, 109 international order international tribunals 279–80 Internet 129, 364 Iran 91, 96 Iraq War 6, 237, 299 judges 75 Korean War 92, 219, 220, 265 Kosovo 48 landmines 37 Libya 58 military expenditure 185 military power 32 nationalism 47 nationality 133, 134, 136–7 Nicaragua 62, 101 nuclear testing 326 outer space 77, 126, 127 Panama 91, 223 peacekeeping 232, 233 Persian Gulf War 92, 214, 219, 220 piracy 122–3 polar regions 130, 132 POWs 238–9, 269 private military companies 50, 51, 239, 241 problems and prospects of international law 396 realism 16, 18 reprisal 91 retorsion 91 Revolution 266 rogue states 32 satellites 126, 128 sea, law of the 7, 119, 120, 121, 122–3, 124 Second World War 47, 220, 250 self-defense 223, 224, 226 sovereign immunity 140 Spanish–American War 61 torture 64, 65, 269–72 Trail Smelter case 142, 325–6 treaty law 70 Truman Proclamation 61–2 UN 34–5 Vietnam War 167–8, 346 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) 44, 87, 89, 288, 289, 290, 291 democracy 296 economic, social, and cultural rights 296, 297 ethnic groups 48 group rights 300, 302 nationality 133 property rights 299 religious freedom 295 sexual orientation 306 Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity 300 universal jurisdiction principle 143, 228 Universal Postal Union 89, 153, 169, 170 universal treaties 68, 69 Index University of Michigan 350 Uruguay Round 363 US Holocaust Museum 281 Vatican 154, 157, 159 Vattel, Emerich de 14–15, 76 Venezuela 101, 309 verification of arms 187 Versailles Treaty 43, 67–8, 69, 234, 249 vertical law 5, 10 Vieira de Mello, Sergio 174 Vienna Congress 152, 157, 159 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 330 Vienna Convention of States in Respect of State Property, Archives, and Debts 31 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations see Consular Convention Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations see Diplomatic Convention Vienna Convention on the Representation of States in their Relations with International Organizations of a Universal Character 170 Vienna Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of Treaties 31 Vienna Conventions on the Law of Treaties 33, 65, 66, 68, 70–4, 107 Vietnam 31, 230, 259 Vietnam War 167–8, 198, 265, 273, 279, 346 visas 137, 161 Vitoria, Francisco de 14 Volcher, Paul A 383 Voltaire 10, 291 voluntary compliance with international law von Glahn, Gerhard 76 VX nerve agent 198 Waltz, Kenneth 182 Walzer, Michael 213 wants 355, 356 war 92 aliens 138 deaths 184, 212 declarations of 233–4 diplomacy 167–8 467 economic costs 360 environmental impact 345–6 internal 234–5 laws of 79 numbers of 212 outlawry problems and prospects of international law 393–4 treaty law 72 war crimes 35, 87, 250, 263–76 assassination 272–4 bombing 264–5 child soldiers 275–6 POW mistreatment 266–9 rape 76, 104, 274–5 submarine warfare 265–6 torture 269–72 War Crimes Act (1996, USA) 272 Ward, Barbara 323, 373 War on Terrorism (WOT) 184–5, 228–9, 238, 270–2 Warsaw Pact 35, 184, 233 warships 120 Washburn University School of Law Library 23 Washington Naval Conference/Treaty 181, 186 Washington Treaty see Antarctic Treaty Wassenaar Arrangement 205, 206 waste materials 337 water 331–5 Watkins, Michael 167 Watson, Adam 19 Watts, Sir Arthur 59 weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) 187, 201 Webster, Daniel 224 Weitz, Eric D 258 Wellman, Carl 290 West Germany 31 Westphalian system diplomacy 152 early beginnings of international law 10, 11–12, 13 individuals 42 religious freedom 295 self-help 90 states 394 territorial jurisdiction 116 468 Index whales 4, 341–2, 348 White, Nigel 105 Wight, Martin 9, 18, 19 Wildenhaus, Joseph 120 wildlife 340–3 William II of Hohenzollern 249 Williams, Jody 37, 204 Wilson, Woodrow 28, 47, 69, 70, 166, 218 Wilmer, Franke 304, 305 Wirz, Henry 248, 249 Wolf, Martin 373 Wollstonecraft, Mary 301 women 301–2, 344, 373, 380 Women’s Environment and Development Organization (WEDO) 344 Wong Kim Ark 133 World Bank 171, 358, 360–1 Convention for the Settlement of Investment Disputes 367 corruption 383 creation Forest Carbon Partnership Facility 340 Global Environmental Facility 346 globalism versus regionalism 368 human rights 297 International Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) 97 loans 379 World Charter for Nature 321, 346 World Climate Conference–3 330 World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance 301 World Conference on Human Rights 290, 291 World Conservation Union 342, 343 World Council of Churches 51 world courts 97–101 World Disarmament Conference 181 World Economic Forum (WEF) 360 World Environmental Day 327 World Federalist Movement 110 world government 109–10 World Health Organization (WHO) 33 Convention on Tobacco Control 70, 89, 298 diplomacy 169, 170 environmental concerns 347 female circumcision 302 human rights 297–8 nuclear weapons 193 World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) 97, 365, 367 World Medical Association 302 World Order Models Project (WOMP) 110 World Resources Institute 327 World Summit on Sustainable Development (Earth Summit Two) 322–3 World Summit Outcome 226 World Trade Organization (WTO) 33, 358, 360 anti-globalization protests 378 arbitration 97 creation environment 343 globalism versus regionalism 368 medications 366 subsidies 376 World Wildlife Fund (WWF) 37, 349 yakuza 381 Yale University 175, 281 Yamashita, General Tomoyuki 278 Yang Tae-young 96 Yassin, Sheikh Ahmed 273 Yasukuni Shrine 277 Yemen 198, 273 Yugoslavia crimes against humanity 253–4 fragmentation 29, 30, 31 genocide 259–60 see also Bosnia; International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia; Kosovo; Serbia Yunus, Muhammad 380 Zaire 383 Zambia 221 Zangger, Claude 193 Zangger Committee 193–4 Zanzibar 31 zero population growth (ZPG) 324 Zizianoff, Princess 160 Zoellick, Robert B 383 Zouche, Richard 15 ... 77 78 79 The Efficacy of International Law 85 Legislating International Law Enforcing International Law Adjudicating International Law The Incorporation of International Law Can There Be a Future... Making the World More Lawful The Rise of International Law xi xiii xiv The Nature of International Law The Roles of International Law The Early Beginnings of International Law Dueling Philosophies... status of international law This chapter begins with a discussion of international law as to whether it is real law followed by a section on the roles international law can play to serve international