Concepts of RDBMS and SQL Server 2000 Themes and Concepts of Biology Themes and Concepts of Biology Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Biology is the science that studies life What exactly is life? This may sound like a silly question with an obvious answer, but it is not easy to define life For example, a branch of biology called virology studies viruses, which exhibit some of the characteristics of living entities but lack others It turns out that although viruses can attack living organisms, cause diseases, and even reproduce, they not meet the criteria that biologists use to define life From its earliest beginnings, biology has wrestled with four questions: What are the shared properties that make something “alive”? How those various living things function? When faced with the remarkable diversity of life, how we organize the different kinds of organisms so that we can better understand them? And, finally—what biologists ultimately seek to understand—how did this diversity arise and how is it continuing? As new organisms are discovered every day, biologists continue to seek answers to these and other questions Properties of Life All groups of living organisms share several key characteristics or functions: order, sensitivity or response to stimuli, reproduction, adaptation, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, and energy processing When viewed together, these eight characteristics serve to define life Order Organisms are highly organized structures that consist of one or more cells Even very simple, single-celled organisms are remarkably complex Inside each cell, atoms make up molecules These in turn make up cell components or organelles Multicellular organisms, which may consist of millions of individual cells, have an advantage over single-celled organisms in that their cells can be specialized to perform specific functions, and even sacrificed in certain situations for the good of the organism as a 1/16 Themes and Concepts of Biology whole How these specialized cells come together to form organs such as the heart, lung, or skin in organisms like the toad shown in [link] will be discussed later A toad represents a highly organized structure consisting of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems (credit: "Ivengo(RUS)"/Wikimedia Commons) Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli Organisms respond to diverse stimuli For example, plants can grow toward a source of light or respond to touch ([link]) Even tiny bacteria can move toward or away from chemicals (a process called chemotaxis) or light (phototaxis) Movement toward a stimulus is considered a positive response, while movement away from a stimulus is considered a negative response The leaves of this sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) will instantly droop and fold when touched After a few minutes, the plant returns to its normal state (credit: Alex Lomas) Concept in Action 2/16 Themes and Concepts of Biology Watch this video to see how the sensitive plant responds to a touch stimulus Reproduction Single-celled organisms reproduce by first duplicating their DNA, which is the genetic material, and then dividing it equally as the cell prepares to divide to form two new cells Many multicellular organisms (those made up of more than one cell) produce specialized reproductive cells that will form new individuals When reproduction occurs, DNA containing genes is passed along to an organism’s offspring These genes are the reason that the offspring will belong to the same species and will have characteristics similar to the parent, such as fur color and blood type Adaptation All living organisms exhibit a “fit” to their environment Biologists refer to this fit as adaptation and it is a consequence of evolution by natural selection, which operates in every lineage of reproducing organisms Examples of adaptations are as diverse as unique heat-resistant Archaea that live in boiling hot springs to the tongue length of a nectar-feeding moth that matches the size of the flower from which it feeds All adaptations enhance the reproductive potential of the individual exhibiting them, including their ability to survive to reproduce Adaptations are not constant As an environment changes, natural selection causes the characteristics of the individuals in a population to track those changes Growth and Development All organisms grow and develop according to specific instructions coded for by their genes These genes provide instructions that will direct cellular growth and development, ensuring that a species’ young ([link]) will grow up to exhibit many of the same characteristics as its parents 3/16 Themes and Concepts of Biology Although no two look alike, these kittens have inherited genes from both parents and share many of the same characteristics (credit: Pieter & Renée Lanser) Regulation Even the smallest organisms are complex and require multiple regulatory mechanisms to coordinate internal functions, such as the transport of nutrients, response to stimuli, and coping with environmental stresses For example, organ ...Int. J. Med. Sci. 2009, 6 http://www.medsci.org 287IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall JJoouurrnnaall ooff MMeeddiiccaall SScciieenncceess 2009; 6(5):287-295 © Ivyspring International Publisher. All rights reserved Review Revision of late periprosthetic infections of total hip endoprostheses: pros and cons of different concepts Bernd Fink  Department of Joint Replacement, General and Rheumatic Orthopaedics, Orthopaedic Clinic Markgröningen gGmbH, Kurt-Lindemann-Weg 10, 71706 Markgröningen, Germany  Correspondence to: Prof. Dr. med. Bernd Fink, M.D., Department of Joint Replacement, General and Rheumatic Ortho-paedics, Orthopaedic Clinic Markgröningen gGmbH, Kurt-Lindemann-Weg 10, 71706 Markgröningen gGmbH, Kurt-Lindemann-Weg 10, 71706 Markgröningen, Germany, Phone: ++49-7145-912201, Fax: ++49-7145-912922, E-mail: b.fink@okm.de Received: 2009.04.16; Accepted: 2009.09.02; Published: 2009.09.04 Abstract Many concepts have been devised for the treatment of late periprosthetic infections of total hip prostheses. A two-stage revision with a temporary antibiotic-impregnated cement spacer and a cemented prosthesis appears to be the most preferred procedure although, in recent times, there seems to be a trend towards cementless implants and a shorter period of anti-biotic treatment. Because of the differences in procedure, not only between studies but also within studies, it cannot be decided which period of parenteral antibiotic treatment and which spacer period is the most suitable. The fact that comparable rates of success can be achieved with different treatment regimens emphasises the importance of surgical removal of all foreign materials and the radical debridement of all infected and ischaemic tissues and the contribution of these crucial procedures to the successful treatment of late peripros-thetic infections. Key words: periprosthetic infections, hip endoprostheses Introduction Periprosthetic infections occur with an incidence of less than 1% of patients but nevertheless are a se-rious complication of hip arthroplasties [1,2]. When early infections occur, within 4 weeks of implantation, the implant can be left in place with a high probability of cure whereas late infections require prosthesis re-vision to eradicate the infection [3,4]. In such cases, one can differentiate between one-stage and two-stage revisions. In the former a new prosthesis is implanted immediately after the removal of all foreign material in one operation. Two-stage revision involves an ini-tial operation to remove all foreign materials and this is followed by an interim phase of 6 – 10 weeks, either left as a Girdlestone situation or with the implantation of a cement spacer. Individual aspects of both forms of revision have been treated very differently in the past so, in the following paragraphs, the different concepts are summarized and their respective ad-vantages and disadvantages discussed. One stage revision The advantage of the one-stage revision is that only one operation is required and functional prob-lems associated with a Girdlestone situation, such as leg shortening and instability, or, in the case of a ce-ment spacer, spacer fracture, abraded particles from the spacer or bone resorption, can be avoided. Most surgeons have used bone cement laden with antibiot-ics during the re-implantation whereby the antibiotic contained in the cement or added to it is specific for the pathogen involved [5-7]. A prerequisite for this procedure is the isolation of the organism(s) THE VOCABULARY AND CONCEPTS OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY ffirs.qxd 5/20/2005 9:02 AM Page i THE VOCABULARY AND CONCEPTS OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY SECOND EDITION Milton Orchin Roger S. Macomber Allan R. Pinhas R. Marshall Wilson A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication ffirs.qxd 5/20/2005 9:02 AM Page iii Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada. 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ISBN 0-471-68028-1 Printed in the United States of America 10987654321 ffirs.qxd 5/20/2005 9:02 AM Page iv CONTENTS 1 Atomic Orbital Theory 1 2 Bonds Between Adjacent Atoms: Localized Bonding, Molecular Orbital Theory 25 3 Delocalized (Multicenter) Bonding 54 4 Symmetry Operations, Symmetry Elements, and Applications 83 5 Classes of Hydrocarbons 110 6 Functional Groups: Classes of Organic Compounds 139 7 Molecular Structure Isomers, Stereochemistry, and Conformational Analysis 221 8 Synthetic Polymers 291 9 Organometallic Chemistry 343 10 Separation Techniques and Physical Properties 387 11 Fossil Fuels and Their Chemical Utilization 419 12 Thermodynamics, Acids and Bases, and Kinetics 450 13 Reactive Intermediates (Ions, Radicals, Radical Ions, Electron-Deficient Species, Arynes) 505 14 Types of Organic Reaction Mechanisms 535 15 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 591 v ftoc.qxd 6/11/2005 9:32 AM Page v vi CONTENTS 16 Vibrational and Rotational Spectroscopy: Infrared, Microwave, and Raman Spectra 657 17 Mass Spectrometry 703 18 Electronic Spectroscopy and Photochemistry 725 Name Index 833 Compound Index 837 General Index 849 ftoc.qxd 6/11/2005 CHAPTER BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITY Concepts Community structure Species diversity Spatial structure Nutrition structure Species interactions Definition the group of different species, occupy a given area interacting either directly or indirectly Definition Community has specific attributes that population doesn’t have: food chains, food webs, ecological pyramids changing of physical environmental factors materials and energy are accumulated and modified environmental improvement by advantageous ways Community’s names Distribution place Dominant species Life forms Categories Community’s boundary Many communities have obvious boundaries However, many communities not have obvious boundaries which overlap on each others, set up ecotones or buffer zones between main communities Ecotone community Community structure The number of species and their relative abundance define diversity Spatial structure and nutrition structure Interactions between populations in community Species component and number of individuals in each species Based on the Based on function the role Autotrophs Group of dominant species Group of minor species Group of random species Heterotrophs Consumers Decomposers Types of consumers Consumers Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores Relation between species component and number of individuals in species The more diverse of the number of species in community – the less number of individuals in species and in reverse From pole zone to equatorial zone, from open sea to coast, number of species is increasing, number of individuals in each species is decreasing In the development process of community, the number of species is increasing From low altitude to high altitude, from sea surface to oceanbed, number of species as well as number of individuals in species is decreasing Relation between species component and number of individuals in species To count Species diversity the number of species Diversity of community determines Ecosystem diversity Genetic diversity Interactions between populations in community Interactions between populations in community Amensalism Negative Positive interactions interactions Competition Predation Interaction between Commensalism Plants and Animals Protocooperation Mutualism Amensalism A inhibited – B unaffected (- & 0) www.rfviet.com thugian.com.vn www.tin247.com agriviet.com rimf.org.vn Competition (populations inhibit one another) Species compete with each others when their ecological niches coincide with each others Principle “cạnh tranh loại trừ”: There can not have two species which have coincided ecolodical niches Competition is one of motives of evolution Competition Occurs when limitation of living resources The closer of species to each other (in category) the more cutthroat competition If two species (different taxonomy) compete with each other – the one which has higher evolution level will be the winner If two species (same taxonomy) compete with each other – the one which has higher biological potential will be the winner The two species will live peacefully together if both of them have ability to separate ecological niches The two species (different taxonomy) also can live together Mô hình toán cạnh tranh quần thể N1: số lượng cá thể loài 1, với dung lượng K1 tốc độ tăng trưởng r1 Tương tự loài N2, K2 r2 dN KN  rN dt K dN dt dN dt = r1 N ( ) (4.1) = r2 N ( ) (4.2) K - N -α1N K1 K2 - N - α2N1 K2 1 2 hệ số cạnh tranh quần thể N1 N2 ngược lại Mô hình toán cạnh tranh quần thể theo (4.1) r1N1 [(K1 - N1 - N212) / K1] = dN1/dt = Biểu thức khi: r1 = 0; N1 = 0; K1 - N1 - N2 12 = N1 = K1 - N2 12 (4.3) N1=0 N2=K1/12 (điểm A, hình 4.1a) N2=0 N1=K1 (điểm B, hình 4.1a) theo (4.2) r2N2 [(K2 - N2 - N121) / K2] = dN2/dt = Biểu thức Chapter 02 - Basic Chemistry of Cells Chapter 02 Basic Chemistry of Cells Multiple Choice Questions Which of the following elements is important in smaller quantities than is true for the six major elements in living things? A carbon B iron C oxygen D nitrogen E hydrogen Only six types of atoms—carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur— make up about 95% of the body weight of organisms Blooms Level: Analyze Gradable: automatic Learning Outcome: 02.01.01 List the six types of atoms basic to cells Section: 02.01 Topic: Chemistry Which six elements are the main components in living organisms? A carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur B copper, iron, magnesium, sodium, water, zinc C carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphate, sulfate D calcium, hydrogen, iron, potassium, sulfur, water E aluminum, magnesium, nitrogen, silicon, sodium, sulfur Only six types of atoms—carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur— make up about 95% of the body weight of organisms Blooms Level: Remember Gradable: automatic Learning Outcome: 02.01.01 List the six types of atoms basic to cells Section: 02.01 Topic: Chemistry 2-1 Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education All rights reserved No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education Chapter 02 - Basic Chemistry of Cells Which of the following is positively charged? A proton B electron C atomic mass D neutron E isotope A proton is a subatomic particle with positive charge, located within the nucleus of an atom and has one atomic mass unit Blooms Level: Apply Gradable: automatic Learning Outcome: 02.01.02 Describe the locations and charges of the subatomic particles Section: 02.02 Topic: Chemistry Which of the following changes would cause an atom to become a different element? A increase the number of neutrons B increase the number of electrons C increase the number of protons D decrease the number of neutrons E decrease the number of electrons All atoms of an element have the same number of protons Blooms Level: Apply Gradable: automatic Learning Outcome: 02.01.02 Describe the locations and charges of the subatomic particles Learning Outcome: 02.01.03 Distinguish between the atomic symbol, number, mass, and isotopes Section: 02.02 Topic: Chemistry 2-2 Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education All rights reserved No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education Chapter 02 - Basic Chemistry of Cells A neutral atom of phosphorus was found to have an atomic number of 15 and a mass number of 31 What is the total number of electrons in this atom? A 16 B 15 C 31 D E 46 The atomic number not only tells you the number of protons, but it also tells you the number of electrons when the atom is electrically neutral Blooms Level: Analyze Gradable: automatic Learning Outcome: 02.01.02 Describe the locations and charges of the subatomic particles Learning Outcome: 02.01.03 Distinguish between the atomic symbol, number, mass, and isotopes Learning Outcome: 02.02.02 Determine how many electrons are in the outer shell of a neutral atom when provided only with the atomic number Section: 02.02 Topic: Chemistry A chemist found one atom with protons, neutrons and electrons Another atom has protons, neutrons and 10 electrons Which of the following statements is correct? A Both atoms have the same mass number B Both atoms have -2 electrical charge C Both atoms are isotopes of the same element D Both atoms are chemically non-reactive and would not interact with other atoms E Both atoms have fulfilled the octet rule All atoms of an element have the same number of protons The mass number is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons The charge atom is determined by the number of electrons and protons Atoms with electrons filling the outer shell are following the octet rule Blooms Level: Evaluate Gradable: automatic Learning Outcome: 02.01.02 Describe the locations and charges ... organisms Biology is very broad and includes many branches and sub disciplines Examples include molecular biology, microbiology, neurobiology, zoology, and botany, among others 14/16 Themes and Concepts. .. within cells and perform specialized functions All living things are made of cells; the cell itself is the smallest 6/16 Themes and Concepts of Biology fundamental unit of structure and function... is the collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the zones of life on Earth It includes land, water, and portions of the atmosphere The Diversity of Life The science of biology is very broad