Đang tải... (xem toàn văn)
An Overview of the Endocrine System tài liệu, giáo án, bài giảng , luận văn, luận án, đồ án, bài tập lớn về tất cả các l...
I NTERNATIONAL J OURNAL OF E NERGY AND E NVIRONMENT Volume 3, Issue 4, 2012 pp.553-566 Journal homepage: www.IJEE.IEEFoundation.org ISSN 2076-2895 (Print), ISSN 2076-2909 (Online) ©2012 International Energy & Environment Foundation. All rights reserved. An overview of the EU Member States support schemes for the promotion of renewable energy sources Andreas Poullikkas, George Kourtis, Ioannis Hadjipaschalis Electricity Authority of Cyprus, P.O. Box 24506, 1399 Nicosia, Cyprus. Abstract In this work, an overview of the European Union (EU) Member States support schemes for the promotion of renewable energy sources (RES) is provided. In particular, the status of the electricity generation capacity as well as the RES mixture in the Member States is described. Moreover, the different support schemes such as, investment support, feed-in tariffs (FiTs), tradable green certificates, and fiscal and financial measures which the Member States have adopted for the promotion of RES technologies are discussed in detail. Some Member States are implementing a single support scheme for the promotion of RES for power generation (RES-E), e.g., seven Member States use FiTs, or implement a hybrid support scheme by combining all or some of the four categories of the RES-E supporting schemes. Although, these support schemes have increased the penetration of the RES-E technologies in the Member States, still there is a long way in order to achieve the 2020 target. The reason for this may be that the way these schemes have been used so far, i.e., either as single support schemes or in combination of FiTs or tradable green certificates with investment support and fiscal and financial measures, has been ineffective. A more effective combination could be a hybrid scheme consisting of FiTs with tradable green certificates measures, as in the case of Italy and United Kingdom, that will increase the RES-E penetration and eliminate the possible technical problems which will arise from this increased penetration and have an effect in the stability of the power system. Copyright © 2012 International Energy and Environment Foundation – All rights reserved. Keywords: RES directive; Feed-in tariffs; Green certificates; Renewable energy sources. 1. Introduction The European Union (EU) has already tuned its energy policy into achieving maximum carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions reduction from power generation plants. In this context, it has already set out a strategic objective of achieving at least a 20% reduction of greenhouse gases by 2020 compared to 1990 levels [4]. This strategic objective represents the core of the new European energy policy. Recognizing the positive effects of renewable energy sources (RES) technologies towards achieving this goal, the EU has taken a range of specific actions in the direction of enhancing the integration of RES in the existing European power generation system as a major step towards the reduction of global warming and climate change phenomena. Specifically, an action plan in the form of an EU Directive on the promotion of the use of energy An Overview of the Endocrine System An Overview of the Endocrine System Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Communication is a process in which a sender transmits signals to one or more receivers to control and coordinate actions In the human body, two major organ systems participate in relatively “long distance” communication: the nervous system and the endocrine system Together, these two systems are primarily responsible for maintaining homeostasis in the body Neural and Endocrine Signaling The nervous system uses two types of intercellular communication—electrical and chemical signaling—either by the direct action of an electrical potential, or in the latter case, through the action of chemical neurotransmitters such as serotonin or norepinephrine Neurotransmitters act locally and rapidly When an electrical signal in the form of an action potential arrives at the synaptic terminal, they diffuse across the synaptic cleft (the gap between a sending neuron and a receiving neuron or muscle cell) Once the neurotransmitters interact (bind) with receptors on the receiving (postsynaptic) cell, the receptor stimulation is transduced into a response such as continued electrical signaling or modification of cellular response The target cell responds within milliseconds of receiving the chemical “message”; this response then ceases very quickly once the neural signaling ends In this way, neural communication enables body functions that involve quick, brief actions, such as movement, sensation, and cognition.In contrast, the endocrine system uses just one method of communication: chemical signaling These signals are sent by the endocrine organs, which secrete chemicals—the hormone—into the extracellular fluid Hormones are transported primarily via the bloodstream throughout the body, where they bind to receptors on target cells, inducing a characteristic response As a result, endocrine signaling requires more time than neural signaling to prompt a response in target cells, though the precise amount of time varies with different hormones For example, the hormones released when you are confronted with a dangerous or frightening situation, called the fightor-flight response, occur by the release of adrenal hormones—epinephrine and norepinephrine—within seconds In contrast, it may take up to 48 hours for target cells to respond to certain reproductive hormones 1/6 An Overview of the Endocrine System Visit this link to watch an animation of the events that occur when a hormone binds to a cell membrane receptor What is the secondary messenger made by adenylyl cyclase during the activation of liver cells by epinephrine? In addition, endocrine signaling is typically less specific than neural signaling The same hormone may play a role in a variety of different physiological processes depending on the target cells involved For example, the hormone oxytocin promotes uterine contractions in women in labor It is also important in breastfeeding, and may be involved in the sexual response and in feelings of emotional attachment in both males and females In general, the nervous system involves quick responses to rapid changes in the external environment, and the endocrine system is usually slower acting—taking care of the internal environment of the body, maintaining homeostasis, and controlling reproduction ([link]) So how does the fight-or-flight response that was mentioned earlier happen so quickly if hormones are usually slower acting? It is because the two systems are connected It is the fast action of the nervous system in response to the danger in the environment that stimulates the adrenal glands to secrete their hormones As a result, the nervous system can cause rapid endocrine responses to keep up with sudden changes in both the external and internal environments when necessary Endocrine and Nervous Systems Endocrine system Nervous system Signaling mechanism(s) Chemical Chemical/electrical Primary chemical signal Hormones Neurotransmitters Distance traveled Long or short Always short Response time Fast or slow Always fast Environment targeted Internal Internal and external 2/6 An Overview of the Endocrine System Structures of the Endocrine System The endocrine system consists of cells, tissues, and organs that secrete hormones as a primary or secondary function The endocrine gland is the major player in this system The primary function of these ductless glands is to secrete their hormones directly into the surrounding fluid The interstitial fluid and the blood vessels then transport the hormones throughout the body The endocrine system includes the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands ([link]) Some of these glands have both endocrine and non-endocrine functions For example, the pancreas contains cells that function in digestion as well as cells that secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon, which regulate blood glucose levels The hypothalamus, thymus, heart, kidneys, stomach, small intestine, liver, skin, female ... Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 2 - 1 Chapter 2 An Overview of the Financial System Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 2 - 2 An Overview of the Financial System • Primary function of the Financial System is financial Intermediation • The channeling of funds from households, firms and governments who have surplus funds (savers) to those who have a shortage of funds (borrowers). • Direct finance vs. Indirect finance Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 2 - 3 An Overview of the Financial System II Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 2 - 4 Structure of Financial Markets I Debt Markets • Short-term (maturity < 1 year) – the Money Market • Long-term (maturity > 10 year) – the Capital Market • Medium-term (maturity >1 and < 10 years) Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 2 - 5 Structure of Financial Markets II • Equity Markets - Common stocks – Some make dividend payments – Equity holders are residual claimants • Primary Market - New security issues sold to initial buyers • Secondary Market - Securities previously issued are bought and sold • Brokers and Dealers Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 2 - 6 Structure of Financial Markets III Exchanges • Trades conducted in central locations (e.g., Toronto Stock Exchange and New York Stock Exchange) Over-the-Counter (OTC) Markets • Dealers at different locations buy and sell Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 2 - 7 Structure of Financial Markets IV Money and Capital Markets • Money market – trade in short-term debt instruments (maturity < 1 year) • Capital Market – trade in longer term debt (maturity > 1 year) Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 2 - 8 Financial Market Instruments I Money Market Instruments: • Government of Canada Treasury Bills • Certificates of Deposit • Commercial Paper • Repurchase Agreements • Overnight Funds Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 2 - 9 Financial Market Instruments II Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. 2 - 10 Financial Market Instruments III Capital Market Instruments – debt and equity instruments with maturities greater than 1 year. – Stocks – Mortgages – Corporate bonds – Government of Canada bonds [...]... inequality of information between counterparties 2- Function of Financial Intermediaries II 1 Reduce Transactions Costs • Financial intermediaries make profits by reducing transactions costs • They reduce transactions costs by developing expertise and taking advantage of economies of scale 2- Function of Financial Intermediaries III 2 Risk Sharing • Create and sell assets with low risk characteristics and then... currency other than the country in which it is sold • Eurocurrencies – foreign currencies deposited in banks outside the home country 2- World Stock Markets 2- Function of Financial Intermediaries I Financial Intermediaries • Engage in An Overview of the Computer System le s s o n 1 This lesson includes the following sections: • The Parts of a Computer System • Looking Inside the Machine • Software: Bringing the Machine to Life The Parts of a Computer System • What is a Computer? • Hardware • Software • Data • Users • A computer can convert data into information that is useful to people. • A complete computer system includes four distinct parts: Hardware Software Data User The Parts of a Computer System - What is a Computer? A computer is an electronic device used to process data. • A computer's hardware consists of electronic devices; the parts you can see and touch. • The term "device" refers to any piece of hardware used by the computer, such as a keyboard, monitor, modem, mouse, etc. The Parts of a Computer System - Hardware • Software – also called programs – consists of organized sets of instructions for controlling the computer. • Some programs exist for the computer's use, to help it manage its own tasks and devices. • Other programs exist for the user, and enable the computer to perform tasks for you, such as creating documents. The Parts of a Computer System - Software • Data consists of raw facts, which the computer can manipulate and process into information that is useful to people. • Computerized data is digital, meaning that it has been reduced to digits, or numbers. The computer stores and reads all data as numbers. • Although computers use data in digital form, they convert data into forms that people can understand, such as text, numerals, sounds, and images. The Parts of a Computer System - Data Ten different symbols in the decimal system Numbers above 9 use more than 1 digit [...]... software and application software Bringing the Machine to Life – System Software • System software exists primarily for the computer itself, to help the computer perform specific functions • One major type of system software is the operating system (OS) All computers require an operating system • The OS tells the computer how to interact with the user and its own devices • Common operating systems... called the central processing unit (CPU) It manages all devices and performs the actual processing of data The CPU consists of one or more chips attached to the computer' s main circuit board (the motherboard) Looking Inside the Machine - Memory • Memory also consists of chips attached to the motherboard • Memory holds data and program instructions as the CPU works with them This memory is called Random... is Software? • System Software • Application Software Bringing the Machine to Life – What is Software? • Software is a set of electronic instructions that tells the computer how to do certain tasks A set of instructions is often called a program • When a computer is using a particular program, it is said to be running or executing the program • The two most common types of programs are system software... (RAM) • An Overview of the Computer System le s s o n 1 This lesson includes the following sections: • The Parts of a Computer System • Looking Inside the Machine • Software: Bringing the Machine to Life The Parts of a Computer System • What is a Computer? • Hardware • Software • Data • Users • A computer can convert data into information that is useful to people. • A complete computer system includes four distinct parts: Hardware Software Data User The Parts of a Computer System - What is a Computer? A computer is an electronic device used to process data. • A computer's hardware consists of electronic devices; the parts you can see and touch. • The term "device" refers to any piece of hardware used by the computer, such as a keyboard, monitor, modem, mouse, etc. The Parts of a Computer System - Hardware • Software – also called programs – consists of organized sets of instructions for controlling the computer. • Some programs exist for the computer's use, to help it manage its own tasks and devices. • Other programs exist for the user, and enable the computer to perform tasks for you, such as creating documents. The Parts of a Computer System - Software • Data consists of raw facts, which the computer can manipulate and process into information that is useful to people. • Computerized data is digital, meaning that it has been reduced to digits, or numbers. The computer stores and reads all data as numbers. • Although computers use data in digital form, they convert data into forms that people can understand, such as text, numerals, sounds, and images. The Parts of a Computer System - Data Ten different symbols in the decimal system Numbers above 9 use more than 1 digit [...]... software and application software Bringing the Machine to Life – System Software • System software exists primarily for the computer itself, to help the computer perform specific functions • One major type of system software is the operating system (OS) All computers require an operating system • The OS tells the computer how to interact with the user and its own devices • Common operating systems... called the central processing unit (CPU) It manages all devices and performs the actual processing of data The CPU consists of one or more chips attached to the computer' s main circuit board (the motherboard) Looking Inside the Machine - Memory • Memory also consists of chips attached to the motherboard • Memory holds data and program instructions as the CPU works with them This memory is called Random... is Software? • System Software • Application Software Bringing the Machine to Life – What is Software? • Software is a set of electronic instructions that tells the computer how to do certain tasks A set of instructions is often called a program • When a computer is using a particular program, it is said to be running or executing the program • The two most common types of programs are system software... (RAM) • Tổng quan Hệ điều hành (An Overview of the Operating Systems) Tổng quan Hệ điều hành (An Overview of the Operating Systems) Bởi: Khoa CNTT ĐHSP KT Hưng Yên Windows Driver Model cung cấp khung cho điều khiển thiết bị hoạt động hệ điều hành hệ thống—Windows 98/Windows Me Windows 2000/Windows XP Như thảo luận tóm lược lịch sử trước đây, hai cặp hệ điều hành sản phẩm hai đường phát triển song song Thật ra, tham chiếu tới cặp trước hệ thống với tóm tắt “Windows 98/Me” để nhấn mạnh di sản chung họ để and to ghép đôi đơn giản XP Mặc dù tới người dùng cuối hai cặp hệ thống giống nhau, chúng làm việc khác Ở đoạn này, Tôi giới thiệu tổng quan ngắn gọn hai hệ thống 1/3 Tổng quan Hệ điều hành (An Overview of the Operating Systems) Tổng qua Windows XP Hình 1-1 tóm tắt cao sơ đồ chức hệ điều hành Windows XP, khía cạnh nhấn mạnh đặc trưng mà quan trọng tới người mà viết điều khiển thiết bị Mọi tảng mà Windows XP chạy hỗ trợ hai kiểu thi hành Phần mềm thực hay user-mode kernel-mode Một chương trình user-mode điều muốn tới, nói, đọc liệu từ thiết bị gọi giao diện lập trình ứng dụng (API) ReadFile Một module hệ thống thi hành KERNEL32.DLL API việc kéo theo chức API ngữ NtReadFile Đề cập tới khía cạnh để có thêm thông tin API ngữ Chúng thường nói NtReadFile gọi quản lý Vào/ra Thuật ngữ quản lý Vào/ra lạc đường không mô đun thực đơn với tên Hệ điều hành giao tiếp với thiết bị trình điều khiển riêng Nhiều thủ tục phục vụ NtReadFile Họ vận hành kernel-mode thứ tự để phục vụ vài ứng dụng để tương tác với thiết bị cách API gốc NtReadFile thuộc API Windows XP Hệ điều hành Windows NT bao gồm số hệ thống để thực thi ngữ nghĩa vài hệ điều hành tồn Đã có hệ thống OS/2, POSIX, hệ thống Win32 Những hệ thống 2/3 Tổng quan Hệ điều hành (An Overview of the Operating Systems) thực việc tạo mà user-mode hướng tới API gốc, mà thực kernel-mode Một user-mode DLL có tên (rather redundantly, I’ve always thought) NTDLL.DLL bổ sung API gốc cho đối tượng gọi Win32 Mỗi mục vào DLL trình bao bọc mỏng xung quanh gọi tới chức kernel-mode maf thật thực chức Việc gọi sử dụng giao diện cộng tác hệ thống phụ thuộc để chuyển điều khiển ngang qua ranh giới user-mode/kernel-mode Trên xử lý Intel hơn, giao diện công tác hệ thống sử dụng dẫn SYSENTER Trên xử lý Intel cũ hơn, sử dụng giao diện cấu trúc INT với với chức viết mã x2E Trên xử lý khác, chế khác sử dụng Mặc dù, bạn không cần hiểu chi tiết chế để viết điều khiển thiết bị Tất cần hiểu chế cho phép chương trình chạy user mode gọi chương trình mà thực kernel mode ý định trở lại người gọi user-mode Không có chuyển mạch ngữ cảnh luồng xuất thời gian xử lý: tất thay đổi mức đặc quyền thực mã (cùng với vài chi tiết khác lập trình viên hợp ngữ ý quan tâm xung quanh) Hệ thống Win32 đa số lập trình viên ứng dụng quen thuộc với thi hành chức kết hợp phổ biến với hệ giao diện đồ hoạ Windows Một điều khiển thiết bị cần truy nhập thật phần cứng để thực IRP Trong trường hợp IRP_MJ_READ tới loại vào/ (PIO) chương trình hóa thiết bị, truy nhập có lẽ đưa mẫu (dạng) (của) thao tác đọc định hướng cổng vào/ra ghi nhớ đăng ký thiết bị Những bọ phận điều khiển, họ thực kernelmode nói trực tiếp tới phần cứng họ, sử dụng phương tiện cung cấp lớp trừu tượng hóa phần cứng (HAL) để truy nhập phần cứng Một thao tác đọc có lẽ bao gồm gọi EAD_PORT_UCHAR để đọc byte liệu từ cổng Vào/ra HAL thường sử dụng phương pháp platform-dependent thật thực thao tác HAL thường lệ sử dụng phương pháp phụ thuộc tảng để thật thực thao tác Trên máy tính x86, HAL sử dụng lệnh IN; tảng Windows XP tương lai khác đó, có lẽ thực công việc nạp vào nhớ Sau trình điều khiển kết thúc với thao tác Vào/ra, hoàn thành IRP việc gọi thủ tục dịch vụ kernel-mode đặc biệt Hoàn thành cuối việc xử ... targeted Internal Internal and external 2/6 An Overview of the Endocrine System Structures of the Endocrine System The endocrine system consists of cells, tissues, and organs that secrete hormones... replacement, and routine monitoring by the endocrinologist These include 4/6 An Overview of the Endocrine System disorders of the pituitary gland that can affect growth and disorders of the thyroid gland... 3/6 An Overview of the Endocrine System The ductless endocrine glands are not to be confused with the body’s exocrine system, whose glands release their secretions through ducts Examples of exocrine