Clinical Brain Mapping Notice Medicine is an ever-changing science As new research and clinical experience broaden our knowledge, changes in treatment and drug therapy are required The authors and the publisher of this work have checked with sources believed to be reliable in their efforts to provide information that is complete and generally in accord with the standards accepted at the time of publication However, in view of the possibility of human error or changes in medical sciences, neither the authors nor the publisher nor any other party who has been involved in the preparation or publication of this work warrants that the information contained herein is in every respect accurate or complete, and they disclaim all responsibility for any errors or omissions or for the results obtained from use of the information contained in this work Readers are encouraged to confirm the information contained herein with other sources For example and in particular, readers are advised to check the product information sheet included in the package of each drug they plan to administer to be certain that the information contained in this work is accurate and that changes have not been made in the recommended dose or in the contraindications for administration This recommendation is of particular importance in connection with new or infrequently used drugs Clinical Brain Mapping Daniel Yoshor, MD Associate Professor Department of Neurosurgery Baylor College of Medicine Chief of Neurosurgery St Luke’s Episcopal Hospital Houston, Texas Eli M Mizrahi, MD Chair, Department of Neurology Professor of Neurology and Pediatrics Baylor College of Medicine Chief of Neurophysiology St Luke’s Episcopal Hospital Houston, Texas New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto Copyright © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher ISBN: 978-0-07-180596-4 MHID: 0-07-180596-6 The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-0-07-148441-1, MHID: 0-07-148441-8 All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps McGraw-Hill eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs To contact a representative please e-mail us at bulksales@mcgraw-hill.com TERMS OF USE This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc 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Dedication To our parents, Shulamit and Joseph Yoshor, and Julia and Isaac D Mizrahi, who encouraged and sustained us; and to our patients who inspire and teach us v This page intentionally left blank Contents Contributors ix Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv SECTION I: TECHNIQUES Chapter Surface Anatomy as a Guide to Cerebral Function Gareth Adams, Jared Fridley, and Daniel Yoshor Chapter Structural Imaging for Identification of Functional Brain Regions .13 Jean C Tamraz and Youssef G Comair Chapter Functional MRI for Cerebral Localization: Principles and Methodology 31 Michael S Beauchamp Chapter Functional MRI: Application to Clinical Practice in Surgical Planning and Intraoperative Guidance 45 Michael Schulder and Robin Wellington Chapter Neuropsychological Testing: Understanding Brain–behavior Relationships 55 Mario F Dulay, Corwin Boake, Daniel Yoshor, and Harvey S Levin Chapter The Wada Test: Intracarotid Injection of Sodium Amobarbital to Evaluate Language and Memory 79 Brian D Bell, Bruce P Hermann, and Paul Rutecki Chapter Extraoperative Brain Mapping Using Chronically Implanted Subdural Electrodes .93 David E Friedman and James J Riviello, Jr Chapter Brain Mapping in the Operating Room 103 Sepehr Sani, Edward F Chang, and Nicholas M Barbaro Chapter Anesthesia for Brain Mapping Surgery 109 Nicholas P Carling, Chris D Glover, Daryn H Moller, and Ira J Rampil Chapter 10 Clinical Applications of Magnetoencephalography in Neurology and Neurosurgery 119 Panagiotis G Simos, Eduardo M Castillo, and Andrew C Papanicolaou Chapter 11 Optical Spectroscopic Imaging of the Human Brain—Clinical Applications 131 Hongtao Ma, Minah Suh, Mingrui Zhao, Challon Perry, Andrew Geneslaw, and Theodore H Schwartz vii viii CONTENTS Chapter 12 Electrocorticographic Spectral Analysis 151 Mackenzie C Cervenka and Nathan E Crone Chapter 13 Pediatric Brain Mapping: Special Considerations 167 Robert J Bollo, Chad Carlson, Orrin Devinsky, and Howard L Weiner SECTION II: SYSTEMS Chapter 14 Mapping of the Sensorimotor Cortex .189 Roukoz Chamoun, Krishna Satyan, and Youssef G Comair Chapter 15 Mapping of Human Language 203 Nitin Tandon Chapter 16 Mapping of the Human Visual System 219 Muhammad M Abd-El-Barr, Mario F Dulay, Paul Richard, William H Bosking, and Daniel Yoshor Chapter 17 Mapping of Hearing .241 Albert J Fenoy and Matthew A Howard Chapter 18 Mapping of Memory 269 Jeffrey G Ojemann and Richard G Ellenbogen Index 277 Contributors Muhammad M Abd-El-Barr, MD, PhD Department of Neurosurgery University of Florida Gainesville, Florida Nicholas P Carling, MD Department of Pediatrics (Anesthesiology) Texas Children’s Hospital Baylor College of Medicine Houston, Texas Gareth Adams, MD, PhD Department of Neurosurgery Baylor College of Medicine Houston, Texas Chad Carlson, MD Comprehensive Epilepsy Center Department of Neurology New York University School of Medicine New York, New York Nicholas M Barbaro, MD Department of Neurological Surgery Indiana University School of Medicine Indianapolis, Indiana Eduardo M Castillo, PhD Department of Pediatrics, Center for Clinical Neurosciences Departments of Neurosurgery and Neurology University of Texas—Health Science Center at Houston Houston, Texas Michael S Beauchamp, PhD Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy University of Texas Health Science Center Houston, Texas Mackenzie C Cervenka, MD Department of Neurology The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Baltimore, Maryland Brian D Bell, PhD Department of Neurology University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health Department of Neurology W.S Middleton Memorial Veterans Hospital Madison, Wisconsin Roukoz Chamoun, MD Department of Neurosurgery Baylor College of Medicine Houston, Texas Corwin Boake, PhD Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation University of Texas Medical School Houston, Texas Edward F Chang, MD, PhD Department of Neurological Surgery University of California San Francisco, California Robert J Bollo, MD Department of Neurosurgery Baylor College of Medicine Neurosurgery Service Texas Children’s Hospital Houston, Texas Youssef G Comair, MD Department of Neurosurgery American University of Beirut Beirut, Lebanon Nathan E Crone, MD Department of Neurology The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Baltimore, Maryland William H Bosking, PhD Max Planck Florida Institute Jupiter, Florida ix 270 SECTION II SYSTEMS Figure 18–1 Schematic diagram showing some of the areas involved in memory Though the medial temporal regions (black, left panel) are well known to show memory deficits with lesions, cortical regions including lateral temporal, parietal, and frontal lobe (black, right panel, indicating approximate regions involved) play a role in various memory processes MEMORY ANATOMY Memory deficits can result from lesions in various brain regions (Fig 18–1) Limbic system lesions are classically associated with significant memory problems, especially when bilateral In addition to medial temporal structures, damage to the fornix, mamillary bodies, and anterior thalamic nuclei are all associated with memory disturbances, each with specific designated syndromes Frontal lobe damage seems to affect memory as well, though the nature of the deficit may not be obvious on cursory clinical evaluation.8,10 However, on tests of interference in the memory process, frontal lobe patients perform quite poorly and their clinical complaints of memory loss often reflect problems with semantic memory retrieval, such as being unable to remember names or places For some patients following epilepsy surgery, material specific memory (verbal vs nonverbal material) may be the most affected process Attempts to identify these processes have been ongoing, if only partially successful From an anatomic perspective of memory, the neurosurgically relevant observations are limited to two major findings First, it is consistently seen that memory deficits are lateralized and thus resections of the dominant hemisphere temporal lobe will be more likely to give verbal memory deficits compared to nondominant resections Second, the deficit may not be directly linked to hippocampal resection When a memory deficit is found following temporal lobe resection, a traditional view may suggest that this be due to medial temporal resection However, one of the few studies of the effect of resection on deficit found that the extent of lateral, rather than medial temporal lobe resection was the best predictor of postoperative memory deficit.11 ᭤ TECHNIQUES FOR ASSESSMENT OF MEMORY FUNCTIONAL IMAGING Investigators using fMRI have attempted to activate the medial temporal lobe reliably.12−15 However, it has been noticed for some time that a simple memory task is more likely to activate frontal lobe systems than the hippocampus.1,7,8 More successful efforts to activate the hippocampus and medial temporal lobe have focused on tasks that require the patient to assess stimuli for novelty or for specific relations between stimuli.12 In addition to an incomplete understanding of the physiology of hippocampus and medial temporal lobes (e.g., What activates them?) technical limitations of fMRI include the relatively small size of the hippocampus and local susceptibility artifacts from the nearby aerated petrous bone.16 These limitations are not insurmountable and the next few years are likely to bring progress in the understanding, if not the mapping, of these functions NONINVASIVE ASSESSMENTS For elective cases, such as surgical treatment of epilepsy, a thorough neuropsychological assessment can be invaluable for understanding memory function In particular, well-defined cases of dominant hemisphere mesial CHAPTER 18 MAPPING OF MEMORY 271 temporal sclerosis are typically associated with decreases in measures of verbal learning Preoperative verbal memory performance is a very strong negative indicator of memory loss with surgery.17 A variety of studies have shown material specific deficits depending on the side of surgery,18,19 which may have variable affects on activities of daily living CEREBRAL AMOBARBITAL (WADA) The intracarotid amobarbital (Wada) test (see chapter 6) is frequently used to assess memory dominance for preoperative neurosurgical evaluation It has been used to identify which candidates for temporal lobectomy might be at risk for global amnesia due to preexisting dysfunction of the side opposite to that considered for surgery It has also been reported to be a predictor of verbal memory decline from anterior temporal lobectomy20,21 ; however, the actual predictive value may be relatively low and depend on the type of psychological test used.22 CORTICAL STIMULATION There have been a very limited number of studies using cortical stimulation to map memory Stimulation through intraoperative or extraoperative mapping11,23 can be applied during a short-term memory task with the electrical current applied during encoding, storage, or retrieval (see Fig 18–2) Errors in any aspects of memory can be found focally throughout frontal, temporal, or parietal cortex (see Fig 18–3) In one reported series of patients, resection of neocortical sites showed a greater decline in postoperative verbal memory than those with resec- Figure 18–2 Type of stimuli used for memory mapping A typical trial would include a target presentation (encoding), which is named, a distracter task during storage, and a recall cue (retrieval) Stimulation during any of these stages can result in the eventual inability to recall the target With this technique, correct recall can occur even if stimulation induces a naming error during target presentation If the error occurs with stimulation during recall or if the error is due to disruption of language circuits, an error at target presentation naming would be expected, as oppose to an error only with stimulation during recall implying that the site stimulated is specific for memory retrieval Figure 18–3 A typical map of memory may find errors (asterisks) in several temporoparietal sites including fairly anteriorly in lateral temporal cortex tions sparing these sites.23 This would be in line with findings that the extent of lateral temporal resection is a predictor of postoperative verbal memory declines11 in dominant temporal lobectomy Further support for the role of the lateral temporal lobe in memory comes from the observation that experiential phenomenon can occur from lateral temporal lobe structures alone.24 INTRACRANIAL RECORDINGS The study of memory with electrical recordings has been of long interest, but intracranial studies are rare Repeat exposure to an item can alter the response of a sensory evoked potential and novelty responses, such as the P300, can be modified by repeated exposure.25 Frontal lobe changes in high-gamma (chi band) frequency have been reported preliminarily with working memory tasks, consistent with fMRI findings.26 Extensive research on intracranial recordings from the lateral temporal lobe27 or hippocampus28 has provided some insight on basic mechanisms of the neuronal basis for memory in these regions ᭤ CLINICAL APPLICATION Memory mapping techniques used to determine a “risk versus benefit ratio” in a neurosurgical setting have largely focused on patients undergoing anterior temporal lobe resection (ATR) of seizure foci Neuropsychological assessment, intracarotid injection of amobarbital (Wada testing), and more recently fMRI, are the primary tools used to determine the functional status of the temporal lobe to be resected The “functional adequacy” model 272 SECTION II SYSTEMS would predict greater risk of decline if memory is adequately supported by the temporal lobe to be resected.29 On the other hand, if memory is poor for the ipsilateral temporal lobe before surgery, then the risk is reduced because there may be a limited amount of function or nothing to lose Memory mapping techniques are also used to determine the functional status of the temporal lobe contralateral to the side of resection The “cognitive reserve” model would predict better memory outcome for patients with a functional contralateral temporal lobe.29 In this section, Wada testing and fMRI memory mapping validation studies are briefly reviewed Both of these techniques are discussed in further detail elsewhere in this volume (Chapters and for fMRI and Chapter for Wada testing) There is also an extensive discussion of the utility of presurgical neuropsychological assessment in predicting postsurgical memory decrements associated with ATR in Chapter is predictive of increased risk of postsurgical verbal memory decline (e.g., Stroup et al (2003)17 , Kneebone et al (1995)33 Furthermore, adequate Wada testing performance after injection of the hemisphere contralateral to the to be resected temporal lobe is predictive of good verbal memory outcome (e.g., Bell et al (2000)30 , Chiaravalloti et al (2001)31 However, not all studies are in agreement For example, Kubu et al.39 demonstrated that patients who failed the Wada test bilaterally had relatively few losses in memory abilities after surgery (and no global amnesia), and as previously discussed, the predictive value of Wada testing is more limited when taking into account other factors such as presurgical neuropsychology-defined verbal memory ability and side of surgery.17,20,40 Few studies have evaluated Wada testing in predicting nonverbal memory decline after a nonlanguage dominant ATR with results being equivocal FUNCTIONAL MRI WADA TESTING Table 18–1 summarizes the extant literature studying the utility of Wada testing in predicting material specific memory impairments after unilateral temporal lobe resection A variation in Wada testing methods and procedures make comparisons across studies difficult However, generally speaking, most studies find that adequate patient performance after amobarbital injection of the to be resected language-dominant temporal lobe ᭤ TABLE 18–1 WADA PREDICTION OF POSTOPERATIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL MEMORY OUTCOME AFTER UNILATERAL ANTERIOR TEMPORAL LOBE RESECTION Predicts Verbal Memory Decline Does not Predict Verbal Memory Decline Baxendale et al (2007)20 Bell et al (2000)30 Chiaravalloti and Glosser (2001)31 Joiket et al (1997)32 Kneebone et al (1995)33 Lacruz et al (2004)34 Lee et al (2005)35 Loringet al (1995)21 Sabsevitz et al (2001)36 Stroupet al (2003)17 Wyllie et al (1990)37 Kirsch et al (2005)38 Kubu et al (2000)39 Lineweaver et al (2006)40 Predicts Nonverbal Decline Memory Does not Predict Nonverbal Memory Decline Lacruz et al (2004)34 Lineweaver et al (2006)40 Chiaravalloti and Glosser (2001)31 Loringet al (1990) 41 Table 18–2 summarizes all of the studies that have evaluated the efficacy of fMRI activation as a predictor of postoperative memory impairment after ATR In all of the studies, greater ipsilateral activation (or greater asymmetry vs the contralateral hemisphere; commonly known as a laterality index) is related to greater memory decline after surgery to varying degrees using different testing materials Two of the studies compared the predictive validity of both fMRI and Wada testing.42,46 Using an auditory semantic memory encoding task, Binder et al.42 showed that greater left-sided fMRI activation before surgery predicted postsurgical verbal memory decline, whereas Wada testing was noncontributory By using a visual encoding of scenes task, Rabin et al.46 showed that greater ipsilateral fMRI activation of the hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus, and fusiform gyrus predicted visual memory decline after surgery, whereas Wada testing was noncontributory FUNCTIONAL MRI VERSUS WADA TESTING Table 18–3 summarizes all of the studies that validated fMRI memory paradigms compared to Wada testing fMRI would be an attractive alternative to Wada testing in determining cognitive risks associated with surgery given that it is less invasive, can be repeated multiple times, is widely available and poses minimal risks However, it is unclear if fMRI methodology is valid and reliable enough to replace Wada testing given the variability in results shown in Table 18–3 The first studies to publish data were very promising14,15 as there was 100% concordance between fMRI and Wada in identifying CHAPTER 18 MAPPING OF MEMORY 273 ᭤ TABLE 18–2 FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (fMRI) PREDICTION OF POSTOPERATIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL MEMORY CHANGE AFTER UNILATERAL ANTERIOR TEMPORAL LOBE RESECTION Study N/Sample Task Results Binder et al (2008)42 60 left-ATR Auditory encoding animal 62 right-ATR Decision task Frings et al (2008)43 22 ATR Object location memory Janszky et al (2005)44 16 right-ATR Route learning task Powell et al (2007)45 15 ATR Visual encoding of words, pictures of common objects, and faces Rabin et al (2004)46 25 ATR Visual encoding of novel scenes Richardson et al (2004)47 10 left-ATR with HS Visual encoding of words Richardson et al (2006)48 12 left-ATR with HS Visual encoding of words Greater left-side fMRI activation before surgery predicted 11% of variance in postsurgical verbal memory decline beyond the 54% of variance accounted for by preoperative memory testing and age at onset Greater ipsilateral hippocampal fMRI activation correlated (r = 0.49) with verbal learning decline after surgery Greater ipsilateral fMRI activation before surgery correlated (r = 0.71) with visual memory decline after right-ATL Greater ipsilateral mesial temporal lobe fMRI activation (compared to contralateral activation) correlated with postsurgical verbal memory decline after left-ATR and nonverbal memory decline after right-ATR Greater ipsilateral fMRI activation of mesial temporal lobe before surgery was correlated (r = − 0.56) with visual memory decline after surgery Greater left hippocampal activation (vs right) correlated (r = 0.82) with verbal memory decline after surgery Greater left hippocampal activation, but not right hippocampus or amygdala activation, predicted worsening in word list learning ability after surgery ATR, anterior temporal lobe resection; HS, hippocampal sclerosis ᭤ TABLE 18–3 COMPARISON OF FMRI MEMORY LATERALIZATION PARADIGMS TO WADA TESTING IN INTRACTABLE EPILEPSY SURGERY CANDIDATES Study N/Sample Task Concordance Rates with Wada Branco et al (2006)49 epilepsy 60% concordance Deblaere et al (2005)50 18 TLE Visual encoding of novel patterns, scenes, and words Visual encoding of novel vs old pictures of common objects Detre et al (1998)15 Golby et al (2002)14 TLE TLE Rabin et al (2004)46 35 TLE Szaflarski et al (2004)51 TLE ET TLE, temporal lobe epilepsy; ET, extratemporal Visual encoding of scenes Visual encoding of novel patterns, faces, scenes, and words Visual encoding of novel scenes Visual encoding of novel scenes that varied in verbal encodability and the presence of people Concordance rates not reported; fMRI activation correlated with Wada results in right-TLE but not left-TLE 100% concordance 100% concordance Concordance rates not reported; correlation (r = 0.60) between fMRI and WADA asymmetry ratios for right-TLE but not significant for left-TLE 50% concordance; fMRI nonlateralizing in two cases and discordant in one case vs Wada 274 SECTION II SYSTEMS the functional status of the mesial temporal lobes Problematically, later studies showed that concordance was not perfect, and suggested that fMRI and Wada results are similar in identifying the functional status of the nonlanguage dominant hemisphere, but not the language dominant hemisphere.46,50 SUMMARY OF CLINICAL APPLICATION Practically speaking, the best predictors of memory disturbance following epilepsy surgery remain the preoperative MRI and preresection neuropsychological status Patients with normal MRI and good presurgical function have the greatest risk of new deficit The use of Wada testing still has a role in patient assessment although somewhat limited by the factors discussed previously The role of fMRI is still evolving The role of intraoperative mapping remains largely unexplored as the very nature of memory is much less well understood than other, more commonly mapped functions REFERENCES Squire LR Memory and Brain New York: Oxford University Press, 1987 Dolan RJ, Paulesu E, Fletcher P Human memory systems In Human Brain Function, edited by RSJ Frackowiak, KJ Friston, CD Frith, et al San Diego: Academic Press, 1997, pp 367-404 Ojemann JG, Buckner RL, Cortetta M, Raichle ME Imaging studies of memory and attention Neurosurg Clin N Am 1997;8:307-319 Tharin S, Golby A Functional brain mapping and its applications to neurosurgery Neurosurgery 2007;60(4 Suppl 2):185-201 Ojemann RG Correlations between specific human brain lesions and memory changes: a critical survey of the literature Neurosci Res Program Bull Suppl 1966;4:1-70 Corkin S Lasting consequences of bilateral medial temporal lobectomy Semin Neurol 1984;4:249-259 Buckner RL, Kelley WM, Petersen SE Frontal cortex contributes to human memory formation Nat Neurosci 1999;2:311-314 Ojemann JG, Kelley WM The frontal lobe role in memory Epilepsy Behav 2003;3:309-315 Baddeley A Working memory Science 1992;255:556-559 10 Kho KH, Rutten GJM, Leijten FSS, et al Working memory deficits after resection of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex predicted by functional magnetic resonance imaging and electrocortical stimulation mapping J Neurosurg 2007;106(6 Suppl):501-505 11 Ojemann GA, Dodrill CB Verbal memory deficits after left temporal lobectomy for epilepsy: mechanism and intraoperative prediction J Neurosurg 1985;62(1):101-107 12 Binder JR, Bellgowan PS, Hammeke TA, Possing ET, Frost JA A comparison of two fMRI protocols for eliciting hippocampal activation Epilepsia 2005;46:1061-1070 13 D’Arcy RC, Bolster RB, Ryner L, Mazerolle EL, Grant J, Song X A site directed fMRI approach for evaluating functional status in the anterolateral temporal lobes Neurosci Res 2006;57:120-128 14 Golby AJ, Poldrack RA, Illes J, Chen D, Desmond JE, Gabrieli JD Memory 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Baxendale S, Thompson P, Harkness W, Duncan J The role of the intracarotid amobarbital procedure in predicting verbal memory decline after temporal lobe resection Epilepsia 2007;48(3):546-552 21 Loring DW, Meador KJ, Lee GP, et al Wada memory asymmetries predict verbal memory decline after anterior temporal lobectomy Neurology 1995;45:1329-1333 22 Dodrill CB, Ojemann GA An exploratory comparison of three methods of memory assessment with the intracarotid amobarbital procedure Brain Cogn 1997;33:210-223 23 Perrine K, Devinsky O, Uysal S, Luciano DJ, Dogali M Left temporal neocortex mediation of verbal memory: evidence from functional mapping with cortical stimulation Neurology 1994;44:1845-1850 24 Moriarity JL, Boatman D, Krauss GL, Storm PB, Lenz FA Human ‘memories’ can be evoked by stimulation of the lateral temporal cortex after ipsilateral medial temporal lobe resection J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2001;71:549-551 25 van Hooff JC The influence of encoding intention on electrophysiological indices of recognition memory Int J Psychophysiol 2005;56:25-36 26 Miller KJ, Ojemann JG Electrocorticographic cortical changes during a working memory task Soc Neurosci Abs 2006;610-612 27 Ojemann GA, Schoenfield-McNeill J, Corina D Different neurons in different regions of human temporal lobe distinguish correct from incorrect identification or memory Neuropsychologia 2004;42(10):1383-1393 28 Viskontas IV, Knowlton BJ, Steinmetz PN, Fried I Differences in mnemonic processing by neurons in the human hippocampus and parahippocampal regions J Cogn Neurosci 2006;18(10):1654-1662 29 Chelune GJ Hippocampal adequacy versus functional reserve: predicting memory functions following temporal lobectomy Arch Clin Neuropsychol 1995;10:413-432 CHAPTER 18 30 Bell BD, Davies KG, Haltiner AM, Walters GL Intracarotid amobarbital procedure and prediction of postoperative memory in patients with left temporal lobe epilepsy and hippocampal sclerosis Epilepsia 2000;41:992-997 31 Chiaravalloti ND, Glosser G Material-specific memory changes after anterior temporal lobectomy as predicted by the intracarotid amobarbital test Epilepsia 2001;42: 902-911 32 Jokeit H, Ebner A, Holthausen H, et al Individual predication of change in delayed recall of prose passages after leftsided anterior temporal lobectomy Neurol 1997;49:481487 33 Kneebone AC, Chelune GJ, Dinner DS, et al Intracarotid amobarbital procedure as a predictor of material-specific memory change after anterior temporal lobectomy Epilepsia 1995;36:857-865 ´ G, Akanuma N, et al Neuropsycholog34 Lacruz ME, Alarcon ical effects associated with temporal lobectomy and amygdalohippocampectomy depending on Wada test failure J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004;75:600-607 35 Lee GP, Westerveld M, Blackburn LB, Park YD, Loring DW Prediction of verbal memory decline after epilepsy surgery in children: effectiveness of Wada memory asymmetries Epilepsia 2005;46:97-103 36 Sabsevitz DS, Swanson SJ, Morris GL, Mueller WM, Seidenberg M Memory outcome after left anterior temporal lobectomy in patients with expected and reversed Wada memory asymmetry scores Epilepsia 2001;42:1408-1415 37 Wyllie E, Naugle R, Awad I, et al Intracarotid amobarbital procedure I Prediction of decreased modalityspecific memory scores after temporal lobectomy Epilepsia 1991;32:857-864 38 Kirsch HE, Walker JA, Winstanley FS, et al Limitations of Wada memory asymmetry as a predictor of outcomes after temporal lobectomy Neurology 2005;65:676-680 39 Kubu CS, Girvin JP, McLachlan RS, Pavol M, Harnadek MC Does the intracarotid amobarbital procedure predict global amnesia after temporal lobectomy? Epilepsia 2000;41:13211329 40 Lineweaver TT, Morris HH, Naugle RI, Najm IM, Diehl B, Bingaman W Evaluating the contributions of stateof-the-art assessment techniques to predicting memory outcome after unilateral anterior temporal lobectomy Epilepsia 2006;47:1895-1903 MAPPING OF MEMORY 275 41 Loring DW, Lee GP, Meador KJ, et al The intracarotid amobarbital procedure as a predictor of memory failure following unilateral temporal lobectomy Neurology 1990; 40:605-610 42 Binder JR, Sabsevitz DS, Swanson SJ, Hammeke TA, Raghavan M, Mueller WM Use of preoperative functional MRI to predict verbal memory decline after temporal lobe epilepsy surgery Epilepsia 2008;49(8):1377-1-394 43 Frings L, Wagner K, Halsband U, Schwarzwald R, Zentner J, Schulze-Bonhage A Lateralization of hippocampal activation differs between left and right temporal lobe epilepsy patients and correlates with postsurgical verbal learning decrement Epilepsy Res 2008;78:161-170 44 Janszky J, Jokeit H, Kontopoulou K, et al Functional MRI predicts memory performance after right mesiotemporal epilepsy surgery Epilepsia 2005;46:244-250 45 Powell HW, Richardson MP, Symms MR, et al Preoperative fMRI predicts memory decline following anterior temporal lobe resection J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2007;79(6):686-693 46 Rabin ML, Narayan VM, Kimberg DY, et al Functional MRI predicts post-surgical memory following temporal lobectomy Brain 2004;127:2286-2298 47 Richardson MP, Strange BA, Thompson PJ, et al Preoperative verbal memory fMRI predicts post-operative memory decline after left temporal lobe resection Brain 2004;127:2419-2426 48 Richardson MP, Strange BA, Duncan JS, Dolan RJ Memory fMRI in left hippocampal sclerosis: optimizing the approach to predicting postsurgical memory Neurology 2006;66:699705 49 Branco DM, Suarez RO, Whalen S, et al Functional MRI of memory in the hippocampus: laterality indices may be more meaningful if calculated from whole voxel distributions Neuroimage 2006;32:592-602 50 Deblaere K, Backes WH, Tieleman A, et al Lateralized anterior mesiotemporal lobe activation: semirandom functional MR imaging encoding paradigm in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy-initial experience Radiology 2005;236:9961003 51 Szaflarski JP, Holland SK, Schmithorst VJ, et al Highresolution functional MRI at 3T in healthy and epilepsy subjects: hippocampal activation with picture encoding task Epilepsy Behav 2004;5:244-252 This page intentionally left blank INDEX Note: Page numbers followed by f and t indicate figures and tables, respectively A Acoustic processing applications, 259 AEFs See Auditory evoked magnetic fields AEPs See Auditory evoked potentials AF See Arcuate fasciculus Afterdischarge (AD) threshold, 97 Alexia, 105 Amygdala, 27 Anatomic landmarks, Anatomic modularity, 56 Anatomical localization auditory function, 8–9, 9f cortical structural anatomy, language function, 5, 7–8, 7f motor and sensory functions, 4–5 visual function, 8, 9f Anesthesia, brain mapping surgery anesthetic management, 114–15 anesthetics effects, 109 barbiturates, 110–11 benzodiazepines, 110 craniotomy, 113 dexmedetomidine, 112 etomidate, 111 general, 115–16 intraoperative cortical mapping, 104 intraoperative monitoring, 114 ketamine, 111 local anesthetics, 110 management, 114–15 nitrous oxide, 112–13 opiates, 111 preoperative care, 113–14 propofol, 112 sedatives, 109 volatile anesthetic neuropharmacology, 113, 113t Anesthetic agents barbiturates, 110–11 benzodiazepines, 110 dexmedetomidine, 112 etomidate, 111 ketamine, 111 nitrous oxide, 112–13 opiates, 111 propofol, 112 Anterior basal orbitofrontal sulci, 24f, 25 Anterior temporal lobectomy (ATL), 62–63, 63f, 79 Arcuate fasciculus (AF), 204f–205f Arteriovenous malformations (AVMs), 48 Association of deficits, 57 ATL See Anterior temporal lobectomy Attention, 60, 66 Auditory cortex electrocorticographic spectral analysis, 157 localization, 8–9, 9f optical imaging in animals and humans, 135 Auditory evoked magnetic fields (AEFs), 123 Auditory evoked potentials (AEPs), 256f–257f Auditory illusions, 259 Auditory stimulation, 43f, 137, 250 AVMs See Arteriovenous malformations B Barbiturates, 110–11 Basal temporal language area (BTLA), 213 Baseline, or Frankfurt plane, Benzodiazepines, 110 Bipolar stimulation, 95 Blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) fMRI, 31, 33, 34f, 195–96 Brain architecture, optical imaging auditory cortex, 135 language cortex, 137, 139 somatosensory cortex, 135–37, 136f visual cortex, 134–35 Brain diseases, optical imaging pathology epilepsy, 139–40 intracranial hematomas, 143–45 stroke, 141–43 traumatic brain injury, 143–45 Brain fissural patterns, 13 Brain mapping, 94 electrocorticographic spectral analysis advantages and pitfalls, 161–62 auditory function localization, 157 in clinical practice, 160–61 historical perspectives, 151 instrumentation methodology, 153 language cortex mapping, 157–58 mapping functional connectivity, 159 mapping sensorimotor function, 155–56 memory function mapping, 158–59 principles, 152–53 recording techniques and data acquisition, 154–55 signal analysis, 155 strengths and weaknesses, 159–60 subject inclusion and preparation, 153 visual function localization, 156–57 extraoperative functional mapping cortical stimulation, 96, 96f electronic principles, 95 historical perspectives, 93–94 instrumentation, 95 vs intraoperative functional mapping, 98–99 language task, 96 methodology, 94 saftey and adverse effects, 97–98 277 starting parameters, 95t subject preparation, 94 video-EEG, 96, 98t intraoperative cortical mapping anesthesia, 104 in clinical practice, 106 craniotomy, 104 electrocorticography, 105 vs extraoperative cortical mapping, 98–99 language mapping, 105–6 positioning, 104 postoperative outcomes, 106 principles, 103 sensorimotor stimulation, 105 somatosensory evoked potential recording, 104 sensorimotor cortex cerebral hemisphere, 19–20 clinical applications, 198–99 direct cortical stimulation, 192–94 electrocorticographic spectral analysis, 156–57 functional MRI, 195–96 historical perspectives, 189–90 localization, 191–92 magnetoencephalography, 196–97 positron emission tomography, 196 primary motor cortex, 190–91 somatosensory-evoked potentials, 194–95 transcranial magnetic stimulation, 197 Brain mapping in children clinical indications, 167 diffusion tensor imaging, 171 diffusion-weighted imaging, 170–71 functional MRI brain tumors, 170 cortical plasticity and reorganization, 170 epilepsy, 170 general considerations in pediatrics, 169–70 magnetoencephalography epilepsy, 173–74 functional mapping, 172–73 general considerations in pediatrics, 172 perfusion-weighted imaging, 171 positron emission tomography brain tumors, 174 epilepsy, 174–75 functional mapping, 174 general considerations in pediatrics, 174 single photon emission tomography additional clinical applications, 176 278 INDEX Brain mapping in children (Cont.) brain tumors, 175 epilepsy, 175–76 general considerations in pediatrics, 175 specific techniques, 167–68, 168f Brain mapping surgery anesthetic agents barbiturates, 110–11 benzodiazepines, 110 dexmedetomidine, 112 etomidate, 111 ketamine, 111 nitrous oxide, 112–13 opiates, 111 propofol, 112 anesthetic management, 114–15 anesthetics effects, 109 craniotomy, 113 with general anesthesia, 115–16 intraoperative monitoring, 114 local anesthetics, 110 preoperative care, 113–14 sedatives, 109 volatile anesthetic neuropharmacology, 113, 113t Brain morphology, 13, 14t Brain sulcation, 13 Brain sulci primary, 13, 14t secondary, 13, 14t tertiary, 13, 14t Brain tumors functional MRI, 47–48, 47f, 49f intrinsic, 198–99 pediatric brain mapping functional MRI, 170 positron emission tomography, 174 single photon emission tomography, 175 Brain-behavior relationship data analysis, 61 data interpretation, 61–62 evaluation methods, 58–59 historical perspective, 55–56 investigation tools attention, 60 cognitive speed, 60–61 executive functions, 61 intelligence, 59 language, 60 memory, 59–60, 60f visual perception, 60 working memory, 60 principles clinical mapping, 56–57 lesion method, 57–58 Broca’s area, 7, 8f BTLA See Basal temporal language area C Calcarine sulcus, 8, 23 Callosomarginal sulcus, 22 CBO See Cerebral blood oxygenation CBV See Cerebral blood volume Central pain, 199 Central sulcus cerebral hemisphere, 15, 15f localization, 4–5, 6f imaging approaches, 20 Cerebral amobarbital testing advantages and pitfalls, 87–88 applications, 86 in clinical practice, 87 data acquisition and data analysis language, 84–85 memory, 85–86 historical perspectives, 79–80 instrumentation methods, 81–83 invasive pediatric brain mapping, 177 principles, 79–80 recording techniques, 83–84 strengths and weakness, 87 subject preparation methods, 80–81 validation techniques, 86–87 Cerebral blood oxygenation (CBO), 141–42 Cerebral blood volume (CBV), 132 Cerebral hemisphere anterior speech area, 17f, 20–21 calcarine sulcus, 23 central sulcus, 15, 15f cingulate sulcus, 22, 22f frontal lobe, 15f, 17–18, 17f frontomarginal sulcus, 17 gyri and anterior basal orbitofrontal sulci, 24f, 25 and posterior basal temporal sulci, 24f, 25 gyri of mesial surface cingulate gyrus, 22f, 24 cuneus, 22f, 25 gyrus rectus, 23, 24f lingual gyrus, 22f, 25 medial frontal gyrus, 24 paracentral lobule, 24 precuneus, 22f, 24 supplementary motor area, 24 inferior and mesial surface, 24f, 25 inferior frontal sulcus, 15–16 inferior precentral sulcus, 15 insula of Reil, 19 intraparietal sulcus, 16, 16f lateral sulcus, 13–15, 14f lateral surface, 13 gyri, 15f, 17 limbic lobe region, 25–28, 26f mesial surface, 22, 22f mesial temporal region, 25–28, 26f occipital lobe, 18f, 19 parietal lobe, 18, 18f parieto-occipital sulcus, 22–23 posterior speech area, 18f, 21–22 precentral sulcus, 14f, 16 premotor cortex, 20 rostral sulci, 22, 22f sensorimotor cortex postcentral gyrus, 20 precentral gyrus, 19–20 striate visual cortex, 23 superior frontal sulcus, 16, 16f superior temporal sulcus, 16–17 sylvian opercula, 13–15, 14f temporal lobe, 15f, 18–19 Cerebral localization activation map creation, 39, 40f clinical inferences, 41–44, 43f data analysis, 33–39, 36f, 38f MRI and MR scanners, 33, 34f MRI data collection, 33, 35f thumbnail sketch, 31–33, 32f visualization on cortical surface, 39–41, 40f, 42f Cerebral oxygen volume (COV), 142 Cerebral sulci, 13, 14t Cingulate sulcus, 22, 22f Clinical applications functional MRI arteriovenous malformations, 48 brain tumors, 47–48, 47f, 49f epilepsy, 48, 50 stereotactic radiosurgery, 50, 50f surgical navigation, 46–47, 48f surgical planning, 46, 47f hearing, 257–59 acoustic processing, 259 speech and language processing, 260–62 language basal temporal language area, 213 multilingual patients, 212–13 notion of degeneracy, 213–14 young children, 212 magnetoencephalography vs electroencephalography, 119 evoked magnetic activity, 122 language-related brain magnetic fields, 124–26 movement-related magnetic fields, 123 somatosensory evoked magnetic fields, 123 spontaneous magnetic activity, 120–22 visual evoked magnetic fields, 123 memory functional MRI, 272, 273t functional MRI vs Wada testing, 272, 273t, 274 Wada testing, 272, 272t optical spectroscopic imaging diffuse optical tomography, 133 near infrared spectroscopy, 133 neurovascular coupling, 131–32 optical recording of intrinsic signal, 132–33, 132f physiological characteristics, 131 optical spectroscopic imaging architecture auditory cortex, 135 language cortex, 137, 139 somatosensory cortex, 135–37, 136f visual cortex, 134–35 optical spectroscopic imaging pathology epilepsy, 139–40 intracranial hematomas, 143–45 stroke, 141–43 traumatic brain injury, 143–45 INDEX pediatric brain mapping single photon emission tomography, 176 sensorimotor cortex motor cortical stimulation, 199 Rolandic cortex, 198–99 visual cortex direct cortical stimulation, 235 event-related scalp visual evoked potential, 233–34 functional MRI, 232–33 local field potential recordings, 235 magnetoencephalography, 233 positron emission tomography, 233 transcranial magnetic stimulation, 234–35 Clinical indications language-related brain magnetic fields, 124 pediatric brain mapping, 167 Cognitive speed, 60–61 Collateral sulcus, 25 Concordance across methods hearing, 255, 257 visual cortex, 231 Cortical plasticity, 170 Cortical stimulation, 271 Cortical stimulation mapping (CSM), 209 Cortical substrate, 204–7 Craniotomy, 104, 113, 180 Cuneus, 25 Current intensity, 95 D DCS See Direct cortical stimulation Design fluency, 66–67 Dexmedetomidine, 112 Diffuse optical tomography (DOT), 133, 137f Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), 171, 251 tractography, 211 Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI), 170–71 Direct cortical stimulation (DCS), 257 hearing, 251–53 sensorimotor cortex, 192–94 visual cortex, 230, 235 Domain specificity hypothesis, 57 Dorsal stream, 223 DOT See Diffuse optical tomography Double dissociation, 58 DTI See Diffusion tensor imaging DWI See Diffusion-weighted imaging E Echo-planar imaging (EPI), 33 eCSM See Extraoperative CSM EEG See Electroencephalography Electrical interference See Direct cortical stimulation (DCS) Electrical stimulation, 69 Electrocortical stimulation mapping (ESM), 151, 154f, 158 Electrocorticographic (EcoG) spectral analysis advantages and pitfalls, 161–62 applications auditory function localization, 157 language cortex mapping, 157–58 mapping sensorimotor function, 155–56 memory function mapping, 158–59 visual function localization, 156–57 in clinical practice, 160–61 historical perspectives, 151 mapping functional connectivity, 159 methodology instrumentation, 153 recording techniques and data acquisition, 154–55 signal analysis, 155 subject inclusion and preparation, 153 principles, 152–53 strengths and weaknesses, 159–60 Electrocorticography brain mapping, 105 invasive pediatric brain mapping, 180 Electroencephalography (EEG) dose responses, 110f vs magnetoencephalography, 119 Wada testing, 82f–83f Encoding, 269 Epidural stimulation, 98 Epilepsy executive functions, 68f functional MRI, 48, 50 imaging pathology in animals and humans, 139–40 pediatric brain mapping functional MRI, 170 magnetoencephalography, 173–74 positron emission tomography, 174–75 single photon emission tomography, 175–76 Episodic memory definition, 269 nonverbal, 63–64, 64t verbal, 62–63, 63f ERS See Event-related synchronization ESM See Electrocortical stimulation mapping Etomidate, 88, 111 Event-related potentials, 152 Event-related scalp visual evoked potential, 233–34 Event-related synchronization (ERS), 152 Evoked-related potentials, 152 Executive functioning epilepsy, 68f frontal lobe localization, 67 neuropsychological testing tool, 61 Expressive language-specific cortex, 125–26 Extraoperative cortical stimulation, 178–80, 207 Extraoperative CSM (eCSM), 207 Extraoperative functional cortical mapping cortical stimulation, 96, 96f electronic principles, 95 historical perspectives, 93–94 instrumentation, 95 vs intraoperative functional mapping, 98–99 language task, 96 methodology, 94 saftey and adverse effects, 97–98 279 starting parameters, 95t subject preparation, 94 video-EEG, 96, 98t F Face sensory function, 5, 7f Fixed battery approach, 58 Flexible battery approach, 58 Fluorine-18 2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG), 228 PET, 233 uptake, 174 fMRI See Functional magnetic resonance imaging Frontal lobe cerebral hemisphere, 15f, 17–18, 17f neuropsychological testing attention, 66 design and verbal fluency, 66–67 executive functioning, 67, 68f working memory, 66 Frontomarginal sulcus, 17 Full scale IQ, 59 Functional brain regions anterior speech area, 17f, 20–21 calcarine sulcus, 23 central sulcus, 15, 15f cingulate sulcus, 22, 22f frontal lobe, 15f, 17–18, 17f gyri and anterior basal orbitofrontal sulci, 24f, 25 and posterior basal temporal sulci, 24f, 25 gyri of mesial surface cingulate gyrus, 22f, 24 cuneus, 22f, 25 gyrus rectus, 23, 24f lingual gyrus, 22f, 25 medial frontal gyrus, 24 paracentral lobule, 24 precuneus, 22f, 24 supplementary motor area, 24 inferior and mesial surface, 24f, 25 inferior frontal sulcus, 15–16 inferior precentral sulcus, 15 insula of Reil, 19 intraparietal sulcus, 16, 16f lateral sulcus, 13–15, 14f lateral surface, 13 gyri, 15f, 17 limbic lobe region, 25–28, 26f mesial surface, 22, 22f mesial temporal region, 25–28, 26f occipital lobe, 18f, 19 parietal lobe, 18, 18f parieto-occipital sulcus, 22–23 posterior speech area, 18f, 21–22 precentral sulcus, 14f, 16 premotor cortex, 20 rostral sulci, 22, 22f sensorimotor cortex postcentral gyrus, 20 precentral gyrus, 19–20 striate visual cortex, 23 superior frontal sulcus, 16, 16f superior temporal sulcus, 16–17 280 INDEX Functional brain regions (Cont.) sylvian opercula, 13–15, 14f temporal lobe, 15f, 18–19 Functional imaging methods hearing frequency, 246 sound level, 247 sound localization, 249 temporal aspects of sound, 248–49 language vs cortical stimulation mapping, 210–11 modalities, 210 memory assessment technique, 270 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) cerebral localization activation map creation, 39, 40f clinical inferences, 41–44, 43f data analysis, 33–39, 36f, 38f MRI and MR scanners, 33, 34f MRI data collection, 33, 35f thumbnail sketch, 31–33, 32f visualization on cortical surface, 39–41, 40f, 42f future experiments, 50–52 memory, 272, 273t neurosurgical applications arteriovenous malformations, 48 brain tumors, 47–48, 47f, 49f epilepsy, 48, 50 stereotactic radiosurgery, 50, 50f surgical navigation, 46–47, 48f surgical planning, 46, 47f paradigms, 45–46, 46f pediatric brain mapping brain tumors, 170 cortical plasticity and reorganization, 170 epilepsy, 170 general considerations in pediatrics, 169–70 pitfalls, 50, 51f sensorimotor cortex, 195–96 techniques, 45 visual cortex, 227–28, 232–33 vs Wada testing, 272, 273t, 274 Functional mapping techniques extraoperative cortical stimulation, 96, 96f electronic principles, 95 historical perspectives, 93–94 instrumentation, 95 vs intraoperative, 98–99 language task, 96 methodology, 94 saftey and adverse effects, 97–98 starting parameters, 95t subject preparation, 94 video-EEG, 96, 98t intraoperative anesthesia, 104 in clinical practice, 106 craniotomy, 104 electrocorticography, 105 vs extraoperative, 98–99 language mapping, 105–6 positioning, 104 postoperative outcomes, 106 principles, 103 sensorimotor stimulation, 105 somatosensory evoked potential recording, 104 visual cortex advantages and pitfalls, 235–36 clinical applications, 232–35 concordance across methods, 231 direct cortical stimulation, 230 electrocorticographic spectral analysis, 156–57 historical perspectives, 219–20 local field potential recordings, 230–31 neuroanatomy, 220–23 neurophysiology, 220–23 noninvasive neuroimaging, 227–30 operative anatomy, 225–27 optical imaging in animals and humans, 134–35 organizational principles, 223–24 structural imaging, 225–27 G Gamma range oscillations, 251 General linear model, 35 General anesthesia, 115–16 See also Anesthesia Granger causality, 159 Gyri and anterior basal orbitofrontal sulci, 24f, 25 lateral surface, 15f, 17 of mesial surface cingulate gyrus, 22f, 24 cuneus, 22f, 25 gyrus rectus, 23, 24f lingual gyrus, 22f, 25 medial frontal gyrus, 24 paracentral lobule, 24 precuneus, 22f, 24 supplementary motor area, 24 and posterior basal temporal sulci, 24f, 25 H Hearing advantages and pitfalls, 262 clinical applications, 257–59 acoustic processing, 259 speech and language processing, 260–62 concordance across methods, 255, 257 direct cortical stimulation, 251–53 functional imaging methods frequency, 246 sound level, 247 sound localization, 249 temporal aspects of sound, 248–49 gross anatomy, 244 local field potential recordings, 253–55 localization of, 8–9, 9f neuroanatomy and neurophysiology, 241–44 noninvasive recordings gamma range oscillations, 251 surface electrical recordings, 249–51 structural imaging methods, 245–46 Hemifield stimulation, 123 Hemorrhage, 98 Heschl’s gyrus, 9, 9f Human language mapping clinical applications basal temporal language area, 213 multilingual patients, 212–13 notion of degeneracy, 213–14 young children, 212 cortical substrate, 204–7 direct cortical stimulation, 207–10 functional imaging mapping, 210–11 historical background, 203 intracranial electrodes, 211–12 intraoperative cortical mapping, 105–6 lateralization versus localization, 203–4 local field potential recordings, 211–12 localization, 5, 7–8, 7f neuropsychological testing, 60 structural imaging mapping Broca’s morphology, 211 DTI tractography, 211 subcortical substrate, 204–7 temporal lobe localization, 65 Wada test, 84–85 Human visual system advantages and pitfalls, 235–36 clinical applications direct cortical stimulation, 235 event-related scalp visual evoked potential, 233–34 functional MRI, 232–33 local field potential recordings, 235 magnetoencephalography, 233 positron emission tomography, 233 transcranial magnetic stimulation, 234–35 concordance across methods, 231 electrocorticographic spectral analysis, 156–57 historical perspectives, 219–20 local field potential recordings, 230–31 neuroanatomy, 220–23 neurophysiology, 220–23 noninvasive neuroimaging techniques functional MRI, 227–28 magnetoencephalography, 229 positron emission tomography, 228–29 transcranial magnetic stimulation, 229–30 visually evoked potentials, 229 operative anatomy, 225–27 optical imaging in animals and humans, 134–35 organizational principles, 223–24 structural imaging, 225–27 I ICP See Intracranial pressure iCSM See Intraoperative CSM Imaging pathology, animals and humans epilepsy, 139–40 intracranial hematomas, 143–45 INDEX stroke, 141–43 traumatic brain injury, 143–45 Implicit memory, 59, 64–65 Inferior frontal sulcus, 15–16 Inferior precentral sulcus, 15 Insula of Reil, 19 Intelligence, 59 Intelligence quotient (IQ) full scale, 59 performace, 59 verbal, 59 verbal vs performance, 62 Intracarotid amobarbital testing advantages and pitfalls, 87–88 applications, 86 in clinical practice, 87 data acquisition and data analysis language, 84–85 memory, 85–86 historical perspectives, 79–80 instrumentation methods, 81–83 invasive pediatric brain mapping, 177 principles, 79–80 recording techniques, 83–84 strengths and weakness, 87 subject preparation methods, 80–81 validation techniques, 86–87 Intracarotid Amytal test See Wada testing Intracranial hematomas, 143–45 Intracranial pressure (ICP), 143 Intracranial recordings, 271 Intraoperative cortical mapping, 103 in clinical practice, 106 vs extraoperative cortical mapping, 98–99 operating room methods anesthesia, 104 craniotomy, 104 electrocorticography, 105 language mapping, 105–6 positioning, 104 sensorimotor stimulation, 105 somatosensory evoked potential recording, 104 postoperative outcomes, 106 principles, 103 Intraoperative cortical stimulation, 177–78 Intraoperative CSM (iCSM), 207 Intraoperative monitoring, 114 Intraoperative seizures, 104 Intraparietal sulcus, 16, 16f Intrinsic brain tumors, 198–99 Invasive pediatric brain mapping techniques awake craniotomy, 180 electrocorticography, 180 extraoperative cortical stimulation, 178–79 intraoperative cortical stimulation, 177–78 vs noninvasive techniques, 176 Wada testing, 177 Investigation tools, neuropsychological testing attention, 60 cognitive speed, 60–61 executive functions, 61 intelligence, 59 language, 60 memory, 59–60, 60f visual perception, 60 working memory, 60 IQ See Intelligence quotient K Ketamine, 111 L Language clinical applications basal temporal language area, 213 multilingual patients, 212–13 notion of degeneracy, 213–14 young children, 212 cortical substrate, 204–7 direct cortical stimulation, 207–10 functional imaging mapping vs cortical stimulation mapping, 210–11 modalities, 210 historical background, 203 intracranial electrodes, 211–12 intraoperative cortical mapping, 105–6 lateralization versus localization, 203–4 local field potential recordings, 211–12 localization, 5, 7–8, 7f neuropsychological testing, 60 structural imaging mapping Broca’s morphology, 211 DTI tractography, 211 subcortical substrate, 204–7 temporal lobe localization, 65 Wada test, 84–85 Language cortex electrocorticographic spectral analysis, 157–58 optical imaging in animals and humans, 137, 139 Language-related brain magnetic fields (LRFs) clinical indications, 124 expressive language-specific cortex, 125–26 hemispheric dominance, 124–25 Lateral occipitotemporal sulcus, 25 Lateral sulcus, 13–15, 14f Lateralization versus localization, 203–4 Lesion neurological testing method, 57–58 LFPs See Local field potentials Lingual gyrus, 22f, 25 Local anesthetics, 110 Local field potentials (LFPs) hearing, 253–55 language, 211–12 visual cortex, 230–31, 235 Localization auditory function, 8–9, 9f cerebral, using fMRI activation map creation, 39, 40f clinical inferences, 41–44, 43f data analysis, 33–39, 36f, 38f MRI and MR scanners, 33, 34f MRI data collection, 33, 35f thumbnail sketch, 31–33, 32f visualization on cortical surface, 39–41, 40f, 42f 281 cortical structural anatomy, language function, 5, 7–8, 7f vs lateralization in language, 203–4 motor and sensory functions, 4–5, 7f visual function, 8, 9f LRFs See Language-related brain magnetic fields M Magnetic source imaging, 229 Magnetoencephalography (MEG), 119 auditory evoked magnetic fields, 123 vs electroencephalography, 119 evoked magnetic activity, 122 language-related brain magnetic fields clinical indications, 124 expressive language-specific cortex, 125–26 hemispheric dominance, 124–25 movement-related magnetic fields, 123 pediatric brain mapping epilepsy, 173–74 functional mapping, 172–73 general considerations in pediatrics, 171–72 sensorimotor cortex, 196–97 somatosensory evoked magnetic fields, 123 spontaneous magnetic activity, 120–22 visual cortex, 223, 229 visual evoked magnetic fields, 123 Mapping functional connectivity, 159 Matching pursuit (MP) algorithm, 155 Material specificity hypothesis, 57 Medial frontal gyrus, 24 Medial occipitotemporal sulcus, 25 MEG See Magnetoencephalography Memory anatomy, 270 assessment techniques cerebral amobarbital, 271 cortical stimulation, 271 functional imaging, 270 intracranial recordings, 271 noninvasive assessments, 270–71 clinical applications functional MRI, 272, 273t functional MRI vs Wada testing, 272, 273t, 274 Wada testing, 272, 272t definition, 269 electrocorticographic spectral analysis, 156–57 episodic, 269 definition, 269 nonverbal, 63–64, 64t verbal, 62–63, 63f implicit, 64–65 neuropsychological testing, 59–60, 60f procedural, 269 Wada test, 85–86 working, 60, 66, 269 Mesial temporal sclerosis (MTS), 62 Methohexital, 88 MNI See Montreal Neurological Institute Monopolar stimulation, 95 Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI), 79 282 INDEX Motor and sensory functions anatomical localization, 4–5, 7f central cortex, 20 Motor cortical stimulation, 199 Motor hand function, 5, 7f Movement-related magnetic fields (MRFs), 123 Moyamoya disease, 176 MRFs See Movement-related magnetic fields MRI scanners, 33 MTS See Mesial temporal sclerosis Multilingual patients, 212–13 Multivariate generalized linear hypothesis, 35 N Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), 133, 144f Neurologic specificity, 56 Neuropathic pain, 199 Neuropharmacology, volatile anesthetic, 113 Neuropsychological testing data analysis, 61 data interpretation, 61–62 evaluation methods, 58–59 historical perspective, 55–56 investigation tools attention, 60 cognitive speed, 60–61 executive functions, 61 intelligence, 59 language, 60 memory, 59–60, 60f visual perception, 60 working memory, 60 principles clinical mapping, 56–57 lesion method, 57–58 subject preparation methods, 59 Neuropsychological testing applications case study, 70–71 frontal lobe localization attention, 66 design and verbal fluency, 66–67 executive functioning, 67, 68f working memory, 66 left versus right hemisphere global versus local processing of information, 62 verbal versus performance IQ, 62 parietal and occipital lobes localization, 67, 69 strengths and weaknesses, 69–70 temporal lobe localization episodic nonverbal memory, 63–64, 64t episodic verbal memory, 62–63, 63f face processing, 65 implicit memory, 64–65 language, 65 olfaction, 65, 66t Neuropsychology, 55 Neurosurgical applications functional MRI arteriovenous malformations, 48 brain tumors, 47–48, 47f, 49f epilepsy, 48, 50 stereotactic radiosurgery, 50, 50f surgical navigation, 46–47, 48f surgical planning, 46, 47f magnetoencephalography auditory evoked magnetic fields, 123 vs electroencephalography, 119 evoked magnetic activity, 122 language-related brain magnetic fields, 124–26 movement-related magnetic fields, 123 pediatric brain mapping, 172–74 sensorimotor cortex, 196–97 somatosensory evoked magnetic fields, 123 spontaneous magnetic activity, 120–22 visual cortex, 223 visual evoked magnetic fields, 123 Neurovascular coupling, 131–32 NIRS See Near infrared spectroscopy Nitrous oxide, 112–13 Noninvasive imaging techniques pediatric brain mapping diffusion tensor imaging, 171 diffusion-weighted imaging, 170–71 functional MRI, 169–70 vs invasive mapping, 168–69 magnetoencephalography, 172–74 perfusion-weighted imaging, 171 positron emission tomography, 174–75 single photon emission tomography, 175–76 visual cortex functional MRI, 227–28 magnetoencephalography, 229 positron emission tomography, 228–29 transcranial magnetic stimulation, 229–30 visually evoked potentials, 229 Noninvasive recordings gamma range oscillations, 251 surface electrical recordings, 249–51 Nonverbal memory, 63–64, 64t Notion of degeneracy, 213–14 Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem, 154 O Occipital lobe cerebral hemisphere, 18f, 19 neuropsychological testing, 67, 69 Ocular dominance, 224 Ohm’s law, 95 Olfaction, 65, 66t Operating room methods, intraoperative mapping craniotomy, 104 electrocorticography, 105 language mapping, 105–6 positioning, 104 sensorimotor stimulation, 105 somatosensory evoked potential recording, 104 Opiates, 111 Optical recording of intrinsic signal (ORIS), 132–33, 132f, 138f, 140f Optical spectroscopic imaging method diffuse optical tomography, 133 imaging architecture in animals and humans, 133–34 auditory cortex, 135 language cortex, 137, 139 somatosensory cortex, 135–37, 136f visual cortex, 134–35 near infrared spectroscopy, 133 neurovascular coupling, 131–32 optical recording of intrinsic signal, 132–33, 132f pathology in animals and humans epilepsy, 139–40 intracranial hematomas, 143–45 stroke, 141–43 traumatic brain injury, 143–45 physiological characteristics, 131 Orientation preference, 224 ORIS See Optical recording of intrinsic signal Oxygen-15 (O-15), 228 P Paracentral lobule, 24 Parallel processing technique, 223f, 224 Parallel sulcus, 16 Parietal lobe cerebral hemisphere, 18, 18f neuropsychological testing, 67, 69 Parieto-occipital sulcus, 22–23 Pediatric brain mapping clinical indications, 167 diffusion tensor imaging, 171 diffusion-weighted imaging, 170–71 functional MRI brain tumors, 170 cortical plasticity and reorganization, 170 epilepsy, 170 general considerations in pediatrics, 169–70 invasive techniques awake craniotomy, 180 electrocorticography, 180 extraoperative cortical stimulation, 178–79 intraoperative cortical stimulation, 177–78 vs noninvasive techniques, 176 Wada testing, 177 magnetoencephalography epilepsy, 173–74 functional mapping, 172–73 general considerations in pediatrics, 172 perfusion-weighted imaging, 171 positron emission tomography brain tumors, 174 epilepsy, 174–75 functional mapping, 174 general considerations in pediatrics, 174 single photon emission tomography additional clinical applications, 176 brain tumors, 175 INDEX epilepsy, 175–76 general considerations in pediatrics, 175 specific techniques, 167–68, 168f Performance IQ (PIQ), 62 Perfusion-weighted imaging (PWI), 171 Peripheral vision, PET See Positron emission tomography Pfeifer’s norm, 244 Phase encoding procedure, 227 Phonological loop, 158 PIQ See Performance IQ Positron emission tomography (PET) noninvasive pediatric brain mapping brain tumors, 174 epilepsy, 174–75 functional mapping, 174 general considerations in pediatrics, 174 sensorimotor cortex, 196 visual cortex, 228–29, 233 Posterior basal temporal sulci, 24f, 25 Precentral sulcus, 14f, 16 Precuneus, 24 Premotor cortex, 20 Primary brain sulci, 13, 14t Primary visual cortex, 8, 9f, 221f, 224 Procedural memory, 269 Propofol, 112 PWI See Perfusion-weighted imaging R Radiosurgery, stereotactic, 50, 50f Retinotopic mapping techniques, 223 Retrieval, 269 RFFT See Ruff figural fluency test Rolandic cortex, 198–99 Rostral sulci, 22, 22f Ruff figural fluency test (RFFT), 61 S SDEs See Subdural electrodes SDTF See Short-time directed transfer function Secondary brain sulci, 13, 14t Sedatives, 109 SEFs See Somatosensory evoked magnetic fields Semantic memory, 269 Sensorimotor cortex cerebral hemisphere postcentral gyrus, 20 precentral gyrus, 19–20 clinical applications motor cortical stimulation, 199 Rolandic cortex, 198–99 direct cortical stimulation, 192–94 electrocorticographic spectral analysis, 156–57 functional MRI, 195–96 historical perspectives, 189–90 localization, 191–92 magnetoencephalography, 196–97 positron emission tomography, 196 primary motor cortex, 190–91 somatosensory-evoked potentials, 194–95 transcranial magnetic stimulation, 197 Sensorimotor functional unit, 19 Sensorimotor stimulation, 105 Short-time directed transfer function (SDTF), 159 Single dissociation, 57–58 Single photon emission tomography (SPECT) noninvasive pediatric brain mapping additional clinical applications, 176 brain tumors, 175 epilepsy, 175–76 general considerations in pediatrics, 175 Single quadrant stimulation, 123 Somatosensory cortex optical imaging in animals and humans, 134–35 Somatosensory evoked magnetic fields (SEFs), 123 Somatosensory evoked potential recording, 104 Somatosensory-evoked potentials (SSEPs), 194–95 Sound level, 247 localization, 249 temporal aspects of, 248–49 SPECT See Single photon emission tomography Speech localization of, 7–8, 8f processing applications, 260–62 SSEPs See Somatosensory-evoked potentials Stereotactic radiosurgery, 50, 50f Stereotactically implanted depth electrodes, 153 Stimulation auditory, 43f, 137, 250 bipolar, 95 cortical, 271 electrical, 69 epidural, 98 Hemifield, 123 monopolar, 95 motor cortical, 199 sensorimotor, 105 single quadrant, 123 tactile, 123 visual, 37, 43f Storage, 269 Striate visual cortex, 23 Stroke, 141–43 Structural brain imaging regions anterior speech area, 17f, 20–21 calcarine sulcus, 23 central sulcus, 15, 15f cingulate sulcus, 22, 22f gyri and anterior basal orbitofrontal sulci, 24f, 25 and posterior basal temporal sulci, 24f, 25 gyri of mesial surface cingulate gyrus, 22f, 24 cuneus, 22f, 25 gyrus rectus, 23, 24f lingual gyrus, 22f, 25 medial frontal gyrus, 24 283 paracentral lobule, 24 precuneus, 22f, 24 supplementary motor area, 24 inferior and mesial surface, 24f, 25 inferior frontal sulcus, 15–16 inferior precentral sulcus, 15 insula of Reil, 19 intraparietal sulcus, 16, 16f lateral sulcus, 13–15, 14f lateral surface, 13 gyri, 15f, 17 limbic lobe region, 25–28, 26f mesial surface, 22, 22f mesial temporal region, 25–28, 26f occipital lobe, 18f, 19 parietal lobe, 18, 18f parieto-occipital sulcus, 22–23 posterior speech area, 18f, 21–22 precentral sulcus, 14f, 16 premotor cortex, 20 rostral sulci, 22, 22f sensorimotor cortex postcentral gyrus, 20 precentral gyrus, 19–20 striate visual cortex, 23 superior frontal sulcus, 16, 16f superior temporal sulcus, 16–17 sylvian opercula, 13–15, 14f temporal lobe, 15f, 18–19 Subcortical substrate, 204–7 Subdural electrodes (SDEs), 94, 212 Subdural grids, 94 Subdural strips, 94 Subject preparation methods extraoperative functional cortical mapping, 94 neuropsychological testing, 59 Wada testing, 80–81 Subparietal sulcus, 24 Superior frontal sulcus, 16, 16f Superior temporal sulcus, 16–17 Supplementary motor area, 24 Surface electrical recordings, 249–51 Surgical navigation, 46–47, 48f Surgical planning, 46, 47f Sylvian fissure, Sylvian opercula, 13–15, 14f T Tactile stimulation, 123 Taylor–Haughton lines, 4, 4f TBI See Traumatic brain injury Temporal lobe cerebral hemisphere, 15f, 18–19 neuropsychological testing episodic nonverbal memory, 63–64, 64t episodic verbal memory, 62–63, 63f face processing, 65 implicit memory, 64–65 language, 65 olfaction, 65, 66t Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), 79 Tertiary brain sulci, 13, 14t TLE See Temporal lobe epilepsy TMS See Transcranial magnetic stimulation Tongue sensory function, 5, 7f 284 INDEX Tonotopic organization, 241 Tractography, 227f, 234f Traditional connectionists, 56 Traditional generalists, 56 Traditional localizationists, 56 Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) sensorimotor cortex, 197 visual cortex, 229–30, 234–35 Traumatic brain injury (TBI), 143–45 V VEFs See Visual evoked magnetic fields VEPs See Visually evoked potentials Verbal fluency, 66–67 Verbal IQ (VIQ), 59, 62 Verbal memory, 62–63, 63f Vertical ramus, 15 Video-EEG, 96, 98t VIQ See Verbal IQ Vision definition, 219 localization, 8, 9f Visual adaptation, 231 Visual cortex advantages and pitfalls, 235–36 clinical applications direct cortical stimulation, 235 event-related scalp visual evoked potential, 233–34 functional MRI, 232–33 local field potential recordings, 235 magnetoencephalography, 233 positron emission tomography, 233 transcranial magnetic stimulation, 234–35 concordance across methods, 231 direct cortical stimulation, 230 electrocorticographic spectral analysis, 156–57 historical perspectives, 219–20 local field potential recordings, 230–31 neuroanatomy, 220–23 neurophysiology, 220–23 noninvasive neuroimaging techniques functional MRI, 227–28 magnetoencephalography, 229 positron emission tomography, 228–29 transcranial magnetic stimulation, 229–30 visually evoked potentials, 229 operative anatomy, 225–27 optical imaging in animals and humans, 134–35 organizational principles, 223–24 structural imaging, 225–27 Visual evoked magnetic fields (VEFs), 123 Visual perception, 60 Visual stimulation, 37, 43f Visually evoked potentials (VEPs), 229, 233–34 Volatile anesthetic neuropharmacology, 113, 113t W Wada testing advantages and pitfalls, 87–88 applications, 86 in clinical practice, 87 data acquisition and data analysis language, 84–85 memory, 85–86 historical perspectives, 79–80 instrumentation methods, 81–83 invasive pediatric brain mapping, 177 principles, 79–80 recording techniques, 83–84 strengths and weakness, 87 subject preparation methods, 80–81 validation techniques, 86–87 Warrington’s recognition memory test, 59 Wechsler adult intelligence scale, 59 Wernicke’s area, 8, 8f Wisconsin card sorting test, 61 Working memory, 60, 66, 269 Y Young children, language mapping, 212 ... intentionally left blank Acknowledgments Brain mapping is typically a collaborative effort in both the clinical and research settings The development of Clinical Brain Mapping has also been collaborative... the context of epilepsy surgery, Clinical Brain Mapping addresses a wide range of clinical concerns It addresses the techniques and functional bases for all clinical situations that may require... testing, special intraoperative mapping techniques, extraoperative brain mapping with implanted electrodes, electrocorticographic spectral analysis, special brain mapping techniques for pediatric