Critical Analysis of Organizations Theory, Practice, Revitalization C AT H E R I N E C A S E Y SAGE Publications London • Thousand Oaks • New Delhi © Catherine Casey 2002 First published 2002 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Inquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers SAGE Publications Ltd Bonhill Street London EC2A 4PU SAGE Publications Inc 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd 32, M-Block Market Greater Kailash - I New Delhi 110 048 British Library Cataloguing in Publication data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 7619 5905 X ISBN 7619 5906 (pbk) Library of Congress Control Number available Typeset by SIVA Math Setters, Chennai, India Printed and bound in Great Britain by Athenaeum Press, Gateshead In Memoriam Christopher Lasch Vivit etiamnunc ingenii afflatus Contents Acknowledgements vi Introduction 1 Organizational Analysis Now The Modern Heritage: Philosophy and Sociology 27 Classical Traditions of Organizational Analysis 63 Counter-Movements: Criticism, Crisis, Dispersion 88 Postmodernism and Organizational Analysis 115 After Postmodernism 143 Revitalization 173 References 195 Index 212 Acknowledgements I extend my heartfelt thanks to Philip Wexler for his personal and intellectual inspiration and encouragement, and for his friendship The book is greatly indebted to his critical and generous discussion of ideas over the years I thank, with much love, Judy Robson for her support and understanding throughout the writing of this book, and much else My graduate students at the University of Auckland, especially Joe Beer and Tricia Alach, contributed much through their lively interest in discussing many of the ideas in this book I thank them and others I haven’t mentioned by name To Margaret Tibbles, librarian par excellence, I extend many thanks for her careful reading of the draft manuscript, and to Chris Rojek my thanks for his quiet support of the project My thanks to Brett Warburton, Nicola Gavey, Maeve Landman and Gill Denny, especially for their encouragement at timely moments I acknowledge my research grants from the University of Auckland which enabled the empirical part of this research, and I thank all the people who kindly shared their stories And I remember, with love, Christopher Lasch, critic of modernity, and my teacher at the University of Rochester Introduction As the crisis in modernity deepens, a network of markets ascends in the place of modern society and institutions Among the social fragments of a liberal marketization, two conflicting tendencies are clear – one of a heightened individualism of the rationally choosing consumer, and the other of a cultural current of identity and communalism Both are antithetical to the idea of society Now, in weakened confidence, after classical sociology, critical theory, and postmodernism, sociology turns, more than ever, to a profound reflexivity Amid the myriad uncertainties, there is little question that the privileged place given to rationality in classical social theory is rescinded It is also clear that social theorists are struggling with far more questions raised by their reflexivity, and by a fragmenting modernity, than they have answers for The grand project of modernity is now thoroughly epistemologically undone, and its social practices found gravely lacking, even as it delivers a measure of what people want Many theorists declare their ambivalence as though a final word on the matter Some sociologists, it appears, now shy away altogether from theorizing society and seeking its revitalization They avoid, too, many of the central problematics of modern sociology, including institutions and organizations But organizations, as social relationships, are immensely affected by, and constituent of, these vast changes in modernity For many, the cultural turn to the postmodern takes centre stage in intellectual debate and analysis in the West As social analysts discern patterns of technological, economic and political change manifesting a condition of late or postmodernity, many theorists welcome the disruption and affirmation of difference enabled by postmodern fracture and epistemological alternatives to modernist formalism and reified instrumental rationality Postmodern theories in their various ways express our experience of the decomposition of the world They have widened the negative space in which regenerative criticism might be sought But their alternatives to rationalizing modernity ultimately deliver little more than quietism or fetishized identity pursuits Indeed, postmodernism’s inability to pose a regenerative imagination for transformation of social practices which continue to produce social, and personal, Critical Analysis of Organizations consequences of disparate value or irrefutable repugnance bespeaks its failure as critical theory Even as the earlier popular, celebratory embrace of the postmodern has passed, so too have the critical possibilities portended by postmodern theorizing quite typically found accommodation with long-standing powerful interests in the utilization of knowledge products Now a preference for cultural theory shaped by prevalent notions of the postmodern as ironic, deconstructive and indeterminate displaces social theory Social theory as critical, socially transformative practice is relegated – as though it is ineluctably culpable with the imperatives and outcomes of a monological rationalizing modernity – to a relative isolation Postmodern problematics have generated important questions and challenges to conventional sociological and organizational theories and modes of analysis, as well as a plethora of interpretations of contemporary organization practices But a more serious concern with the limits of modern reason and the rationalized, economistic culture of commodity capitalism as the context of organizational practice scarcely appears in postmodern analyses of organizations Moreover, sober and serious engagement with its implications and the moral and practical dilemmas to which postmodernism has given rise are systematically ignored by most advocates of postmodern ideas in organization studies Indeed, these very notions are rejected by some postmodern analysts as modernist illusions which, in the words of one, ‘the postmodern analyst refuses to take seriously’ (Rouleau and Clegg 1992: 18) Many invoke postmodernism as affirmation and legitimation of quite diverse new organizational practices For the more pragmatic, postmodern ideas and approaches provide access to dimensions of organizational life not yet fully utilized by instrumentally rational approaches, and which are arearable to strategic managerial interventions In the everyday world of organizations, it is difficult to discern signs of structural and political alteration, beyond expected neorationalist restructurings and realignments of dominant power relations in changing social conditions, inspired by postmodern organizational analyses Discursive undecidability, as the abstract antidote to subjectification and governmentality, evidently has more appeal in the academy than it does among strategic rationalists in organizational practice who are quick to decide their preferences and to assert foundations where there are none Of course, many organizational analysts, especially economic and management science analysts, have disdainfully rejected or avoided postmodernism, as they did earlier forms of criticism But conventional organizational analysis barely conceals its deepening inadequacy to the Introduction task of socially analysing organizational practices in manifestly altering postindustrial conditions A heightened focus on micro, fragmented and socially abstracted issues of organization and economy, typical of positivist and functionalist social science, is an impoverished, ideological response The privileging of the most utilitarian forms of knowledge refuses reflection on the ends to which such knowledge is put The perdurability of functionalism and its many derivatives, despite considerable empirical sociological evidence since the mid-20th century disconfirming its practical operation, now aligns with the moral eclipse effected by a dominant instrumental reason Even though many critics endeavour to describe the limitations and immense risks posed in modern technical rationalities, the imperatives of instrumental rationality continue to feed an assumption of inexhaustible planetary resources fuelling economic production and growth in conventional terms Consequently, much modern organizational analysis provides little answer to the postmodern theoretical disruption, other than more of the same grossly distorted and unreflective rationalizing modernity Critical analysis of society and of organizations in contemporary conditions confronts complex, multilayered problems and dynamics Many social theorists feel isolated in their attempts to think about contemporary society They feel caught between those who reject modernity, and those who are completely immersed in it How might we move on from this weakened state ? Reflexivity, which has always been a great strength of sociological thought but which lately has aroused a stifling ambivalence and hesitancy, needs new inspiration Looking around at the signs of action and struggle going on in the world inspires new consideration of both our conventional notions of modernity and our current forms of criticism These myriad activities inspire a revitalized sociological imagination, as C Wright Mills once famously advocated A principal task now confronting analysts of organization, and practitioners, is one that refuses a salvage and repair enterprise – a renovation and restoration of the same modern agenda and criticism It refuses too, a routinized postmodern deconstruction which results only in observation, or denial, of the politically coercive response to extreme uncertainty and multiple contestation in neo-conservative restoration under the guise of liberal globalization On the contrary, the task upon us is, out of painstaking reflexivity, one of recomposition and revitalization of sociological organizational analysis It is one that requires the recognition of new signs of action – action which is endeavouring to generate a surpassing response to the intensified instrumentality of 204 Critical Analysis of Organizations Horkheimer, Max (1972) ‘Authority and the Family’, in Critical Theory: Selected Essays, New York: Continuum Horkheimer, Max (1972) ‘Traditional and Critical Theory’, in Critical Theory: Selected Essays (trans Matthew J O’Connell), New York: Herder and Herder Horkheimer, Max and Adorno, Theodor [1947] (1972) The Dialectic of Enlightenment, New York: Herder and Herder Horowitz, Irving (ed.) 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77, 95, 160, 171, 179, 180, 184 Althusser, L.A 66, 125, 134 and structuralism 87n, 103–105 Alvesson, M 19, 20, 55, 137 ambivalence 1, 3, 21, 37, 115, 139, 184 Anderson, P 113, 117, 123–124 passim, 142n anthropological traditions 49, 52, 74, 90 antiquity, Greek and Roman 125, 127, 182 anxiety 108, 143, 184 architecture 117, 118, 119, 156 Aron, R 34, 37, 61n Aronowitz, S 37, 87n, 95, 100, 114, 133 authority 31, 34, 65–72 passim, 87n, 102, 129, 138 traditional 21 Barnard, C 74, 82, 87n Baudrillard, J 119, 121, 128, 130, 135, 142n Bauman, Z 22, 117, 123 Beck, U 21, 23, 24, 28, 97, 167, 171, 115 and ‘risk society’ 122 Bell, D 21, 101, 119 Bendix, R 63, 64, 79, 102 Berger, P 46, 97–98 Blau P 63, 76 Blauner, R 77 ‘boundaryless organization’ 18 bounded rationality 15, 77, 80, 84, 180 Bourdieu, P 40, 61n, 88, 91, 113n Braverman, H 102, 106–107, 114n Briskin, A 147, 162, 166 Brown, J.A.C 72, 101 Brown, R.H 24, 133 Burawoy, M 72, 106–107 bureaucracy 14, 15, 52, 63–70, 80, 82, 84, 138, 174, 184 classical theories 64–70 Burrell, G 13, 19, 136, 140 and Morgan, G 64, 100–103 passim, 55, 87n, 93, 102, 105, 114n business and consciousness 151, 164, 166, 185, 194n business leaders 149, 166, 185, 192 business schools 14, 29, 70, 79, 96, 111, 163 Business Week 160, 163, 165 Butler, Judith 131 Calas, M and Smircich, L 92, 116 Calhoun, C 28, 117, 121, 134, 135 capitalism 2, 14, 26, 37–44 passim, 55, 59, 68, 103, 106, 107, 110, 118, 123, 132, 142n, 166, 171–179 passim, 189 ‘disorganized’ 121 globalizing 21–22 hyper 21, 133, 140, 148 informational 165 Caplow, T 85 careers 89, 140, 167–170 Castells, M 37, 122, 171 chaos in organizations 21 charisma 174, 175, 184, 186–188 passim Chicago School 53–54, 74 Chomsky, N 89 Christianity 61n, 125, 152, 182 class relations 3, 89, 100, 106, 118, 126, 139, 144, 147, 171 class conflict 8, 16, 40, 41, 46, 47, 64–71 passim, 103–106 passim class interests 25, 52, 65, 66, 89, 103, 111, 148 Clegg, S 2, 17, 64, 102, 105, 136 Collins, R 90 commodification 4, 21, 56, 137, 148, 179, 187 communalism 3, 23, 24, 26, 111, 124, 192, 193 and fundamentalism 175, 176, 188 and identity 149, 175, 179, 184 Index 213 complexity organizational 9, 15, 22, 69, 71, 155, 160 science 162, 163 systems 21, 30 compliance 19, 86 Comte, August 29–34 passim conscience collective 34, 35, 49 consciousness 40, 48, 52, 62, 64, 66, 104, 123–127 passim, 151, 164, 165, 166, 175–185 passim, 189, 191, 194n consumer choice 1, 25, 139, 143, 145, 146, 164, 173, 179, 184 consumption 4, 6, 21, 79, 96, 105, 120, 121, 139–148 passim, 177, 179, 186, 188 contingency theory 15, 84–85 control, in organizations 65, 68, 69, 70, 72, 78, 86 over labour 68, 103, 106, 107 corporate mystic 161, 178, 187 counter-modern 6, 7, 26, 28, 115, 146, 160 counter-Renaissance 27 counter-scientific 146, 165, 166 creativity 7, 12, 23, 38, 45, 115, 135–138 passim, 144, 154, 162, 168, 183, 184, 188, 191 crisis 47, 52 in sociology 88–94, 110, 133 critical theory 3, 55–58 passim, 94, 132, 143 Crozier, M 15, 76–77, 95 cultural analysis 3, 111, 119, 133, 138 culture 6, 17, 18, 20, 21, 44, 50, 55, 56, 57, 117, 131, 132, 145, 170, 181, 189 corporate 177 organizational 16, 21, 22, 73, 84, 138, 148, 149, 162, 164, 171n popular 56, 151, 166 postmodern 128, 129, 175 ‘culture of experts’ 91 Dahrendorf, R 79, 98 de Beauvoir, S 59 Deleuze and Guattari 128, 139 deinstitutionalization 178, 183 democracy 23, 96, 119, 192 industrial 75 depoliticization 13 Derrida, Jacques 19, 41, 119, 135–137 passim, 142n, 180, 181 on difference 128, 132 and poststructuralism 128–130 Descartes, R 27, 34, 58, 115 deskilling 106 determinism 55 economic 105 structural 108 technological 40 disenchantment 28, 45, 123, 147, 149, 163, 174, 186, 194n domination 13, 15, 16, 17, 24, 45, 56–58 passim, 61n, 63–69 passim, 116, 123, 126–130 passim, 144, 179, 180 Donaldson, L 11, 12, 84 downshifting 167, 168, 170, 178 Drucker, P 75, 79, 87n du Gay, P 61n, 137 Durkheim, E 9, 14, 19, 31, 33–37, 46–49 passim, 79, 94, 112, 148 and religion 174–175, 182–183, 187 and ’social facts’ 36–37 ecology 84, 139, 151, 168, 185, 189, 193 economic rationality 11, 13, 42, 43 economics, classical 30, 37, 41, 42 of the firm 8–11, 14, 18 and institutional analysis 9, 12, 14 economists 9, 29, 39, 48, 55, 56, 90, 103 Eisenstadt, S.N and Curelaru, M 89–90 Eldridge, J.E.T 64, 66, 79, 85–86 passim emancipation 6, 115, 118, 144, 175, 179, 182, 183, 188, 194 and feminism 119, 134, 142n and postmodernism 118, 123, 129, 134, 135 emotion 18, 44, 74, 99, 138, 158, 161, 166, 170–178 passim, 184 empiricism 3, 4, 6–9 passim, 49, 69–76 passim, 87, 94, 100–108 passim, 110, 113, 125, 194n anti-empiricism 103 employment relations 14, 25, 149 Enlightenment, project of 17, 37, 56–59 passim, 113n, 122, 125, 126, 134, 135, 181 entreprenurial models 18, 84 Erasmus 28, 194n ethics 24, 36, 41, 44, 98, 117, 127, 140, 151, 154, 168, 182, 188–193 passim business 112, 126 ethnic groups 26, 89, 91, 92, 124, 132, 138, 171, 172n, 176, 177, 188, 193 ethnomethodology 54, 99, 100 Etzioni, Amitai 18, 63, 85, 86, 100, 163 on the postmodern 119 Europe 47, 91, 111, 133, 150, 157, 163 exploitation 15, 16, 20, 39, 40, 95, 103, 143 expressivism 17, 21, 152, 154, 173, 176, 191 factory 39, 63, 68, 77, 98 family 16, 21, 47, 169 familial organizations 148, 166, 167, 177, 187 fascism 57, 58, 188 Fayol, H 70 214 Critical Analysis of Organizations feminism 18, 59–60, 90, 112, 191 and organizational analysis 110, 112, 134, 136, 137, 138 and postmodernism 12, 119, 131–133, 142n and work 109–110, 168, 169 Feng Shui 156 Ferguson, Kathy 138 finance 18, 120, 132, 148, 156, 158, 168, 170 financial workers 168 Fineman, S 20, 110 flexible production 120–121, 149 Fordism 106, 114n, 120–121 Foucault, M 6, 17, 19, 58, 118, 130, 131, 135–139 passim, 142n, 180, 181, 182, 190 and Marxism 126, 142n and power/knowledge 125–127 and the subject 120, 127, 131, 181 Frankfurt School 4, 24, 28, 45–52, 55–58, 62n, 66, 91, 103, 130, 136, 142n, 179, 181, 182, 190 and instrumental reason 55, 95, 123 Fraser, Nancy 60, 117, 131, 134, 142n, 191 French culture 113n, 114n French Revolution 30, 144 French theorists 3, 41, 58, 117, 119, 130, 134 Freud, S 46, 55–57 passim, 62n, 108, 135, 174, 183 Fromm, E 55, 102, 114n ‘functional prerequisites’ 51 functionalism 3, 9, 14, 15, 47, 49, 74, 75, 80, 98, 133, 141 fundamentalism 4, 26, 152, 158, 176, 184, 188 gender 59, 89, 92, 109–110, 118, 131, 135–138 passim Gergen, K 17, 20, 137, 139 Giddens, A 23, 34, 46, 48, 52, 61n, 94, 98, 100, 113, 131, 134 on structural-functionalism 98–100 passim globalization 3, 139, 148, 151, 178, 186 of capitalism 20, 21, 22, 24, 110, 121, 136, 140, 173 of corporations 120, 150 of markets 111, 120, 140, 165, 179 of modernity 29 Goffman, E 52, 53–54, 91, 114n, 134 Goldthorpe, J.H 79 Gorz, A 37, 167 Gouldner, A 46–51 passim, 61, 76–82 passim, 83, 88, 91, 95–100 passim and crisis in sociology 52, 88, 97 and ‘domain assumptions’ 77 governmentality 16, 17, 126, 127, 144, 184, 185 Gramsci, A 54, 103, 107, 114n Habermas, J 23, 27, 55, 62n, 100, 106, 115, 130 Handy, C 112, 163 Harvey, D 119–121 Hassard, J 6, 19, 64, 136 Hawthorne studies 73, 101 Heelas, P 146, 158, 171n, 175, 176 Held, D 55, 56 hermeneutic traditions 91, 95 historicity 22, 24, 25, 64, 141, 144, 193 Horkheimer, M 55–58 passim, 123, 125 Hughes, E 74, 134 human relations 19, 54, 73–75, 87n, 101, 114n human resource management 16, 72, 155, 178 term of 19 humanism 19, 28, 37, 40, 90, 97, 98, 127, 148 anti- 117, 139 Enlightenment 134 exclusive 145, 184, 181 modern 17, 91, 96, 136, 139 Renaissance 27, 115, 186, 194n Huyssen, A 117, 118, 133, 140 hyper-industrial 5, 143, 176 ‘ideal type’ 44, 61n, 62n, 80, 87n idealism 27, 31, 37, 38, 48–49 passim, 55, 76 identity 1–5 passim, 18, 19, 27, 111, 116, 132, 173–181 passim, 189–193 passim collective 131, 149, 173, 190 individual 124, 134, 173, 176, 181, 182, 189 movements 17, 59, 138, 146 religious 152, 159 self 137, 139, 147, 148, 149, 151, 165, 172n, 173, 179, 180 ideology 11, 20, 25, 29, 40, 41, 61, 64, 89, 102, 104, 129, 144, 173, 179, 181 critique of 52, 56, 97, 136 functionalism as 84, 102, 106, 191 ideological apparatus 104, 105 individualism 32, 35, 139, 143, 179, 184, 186, 190 heightened 1, 21, 124, 149, 173, 184, 192 methodological 22 neo-liberal 144, 175 and self-expressivism 21, 148, 160, 176 industrial democracy 75 industrial organizations 37, 39, 69–74 passim, 102, 105, 165, 174 industrial psychologists 72–75, 101, 106 industrial relations 11, 98, 119 Industrial Revolution 27, 28, 30 industrial sociologists 79, 95, 102–107 passim, 120 industrial workplace 63, 71 informal organization 72, 80, 82 Index 215 information technology 120–121 institutional analysis 14, 23, 100, 101 institutional crisis 91–92, 112 institutional structure 82–83, 100, 137 institutions, social 1, 5, 9, 11, 13, 18, 25–35 passim, 40, 68, 79, 90–111 passim, 114n, 125, 134, 142, 144, 171, 173, 191 cultural 92, 93, 130, 147 economic 14, 22, 23, 29, 65, 103, 131, 139, 150, 186 educational 68, 89, 92 religious 177, 178, 183, 186, 192 Internet 151, 152, 164, 166, 173, 175 intersubjectivity 52, 53, 192 Jameson, F 21, 119, 122, 132–133 Judaism 152, 158, 182 Kanter, Rosabeth 110 knowledge, ‘expert’ 5, 119, 123, 171n, 186 ‘systems’ 90, 120, 125, 126 workers 170 Kuhn, T 122 Kuhnian revolution 88 LaBier, D 99 labour markets 120 labour power 38, 39, 106 labour process 14, 102, 106, 107, 114n labour process theorists 106–107 Lacan, J 134, 142n Lash, S 22, 23, 26, 113 law 34, 41, 103 laws, 103 of history 41, 42, 58 of market 58, 121 ‘of oligarchy’ 69, 70 of science 30, 31, 32, 71, 72, 88 legitimation 2, 18, 19, 64, 76, 77, 82, 136, 138, 142n crisis of 21 Lemert C 22, 27, 47, 52, 61, 88, 96, 113 Lenin, V 65, 66, 87n Levine, S 33, 34, 47, 48, 61, 90, 113 Lewin R and Regine R 147, 162, 166 Littler, G 107 literary theory 118, 124, 128–129 Lukács, G 55, 65, 66, 101, 103 on organization 65 Luxemburg, Rosa 65, 66, 101 Lyotard, J.F 19, 119, 122–124, 142n, 180 Maccoby, Michael 99 magic 146, 152, 155, 158, 172n, 176, 181 management science 8–14 passim, 70–72, 93 management tradition 78–80 managerialism 6, 9, 13, 14, 19, 29, 80, 93, 101–103 passim, 111–113, 139, 180, 185, 191 manufacturing 120 March, J 15, 85, 86 and Simon H 76–77 passim Marcuse, H 55–58 market relations 42, 62, 132 markets 12, 17, 19, 21, 25, 90, 120, 140, 148, 166, 173, 179 deregulated 22 marketing 79, 153 marketization 112, 175, 186 Marx, K 15, 19, 33, 37–41, 44, 46, 48, 53, 55, 61n, 79, 94, 106, 110, 182 on alienation 38–39 on bureaucracy 64–65 on consciousness 40 and Engels 39, 61n and Hegel 37, 38, 64, 87n Marxism 15, 28, 47–48 passim, 57, 58, 59, 97–104 passim, 111, 123, 125, 133, 142n Hegelian 55, 64 and postmodernism 123–125 Western 54, 90, 91, 103, 105, 113n Mayo, E 73, 101 Mead, G H 53, 54, 34 meditation 155, 158, 159, 164 Merleau-Ponty, M 52, 113n Merton, R 15, 51, 78, 88, 63 and ‘middle range’ functionalism 51 Michels, R 69–70, 87n Mill, J.S 30, 31, 32 Mills, C Wright 311, 61, 79, 89, 96, 97, 100 on postmodernism 118–119 on sociological imagination 3, 117, 118 Mitroff, I and Denton, E 147, 161, 162 modernity 1, 3, 4, 9–13 passim, 23–28, 60, 63, 71, 125–136 passim, 142n, 173, 181–193, 194n crisis of 1, 13, 23, 25 and critique of 90, 115–117 rationalizing 2, 3, 9, 13, 15, 29, 63, 123, 143–146 passim, 171–182 passim, 185–187 reflexive 23, 25 ‘second’ 23, 115 unfinished 23, 115 modernization 8, 28, 29, 126, 130, 132, 174, 175, morality 2, 3, 10, 31–36 passim, 42, 43, 49, 54, 73, 78, 83, 95, 106, 109–113 passim, 154, 192 remoralization 163 216 Critical Analysis of Organizations Morgan, G 105, 133, 137 Mouzelis, N 6, 29, 46, 61n, 64, 87n, 95–96, 134 mysticism 145, 171, 172n, 180, 182, 187–192 passim corporate 187 and management 160, 161 mystification 18, 24, 103, 105, 107, 122, 179 narrative theory 123, 132, 137 and organizational analysis 17, 18, 19, 137 natural systems 81, 83, 84, 85, 99, 102 Nazism 28, 90, 123 New Age, literature 160–161 and business organizations 148, 150, 154, 165 explorations 146, 147, 152, 156, 157, 158, 166, 186 movements 5, 6, 7, 28, 147, 148, 171n, 175, 179, 185, 186 New Left 89 New Scientist 162, 172n, Nietzsche F 125, 174, 181 Nisbet, R 46, 47, 113n order, problem of 14, 15, 47–49, 69, 78–83 passim, 88, 89, 113n organizational 19, 83, 138, 148 social 11, 28, 30–35 passim, 89, 100, 174 organic organizations 77–81 passim ‘organic solidarity’ 35, 76 systems 14, 15, 18, 32–36 passim, 49, 51, 75, 77, 81–83 passim, 122 organization behaviour 15, 54, 72, 74, 75, 77, 80–85 passim, 101, 114n ‘organization man’ 61, 89 organization science 9, 18, 37, 52, 64, 75–80 passim, 83–86 passim, 96, 101, 103, 111, 136, 161 organization studies 8, 11, 14, 15, 16, 20, 23, 93–96, 109–113, passim, 140 and feminism 109–110, 134–135 organization theory 11, 16, 20, 70, 78–83, 176 tradition of 14, 15, 16 organizational psychology 72–77 passim, 80, 82, 86, 101–102, 106, 149, 169 organizational society 78–79 organizations, postmodernism and 133–138 organizations and spiritualty 161–164 Pareto, W 33, 46, 48, 49 paradigm incommensurability 11, 12, 13, 20, 93 paradox of institutions 67, 108 Parsons, Talcott 14, 15, 18, 36, 45–49, 52, 63, 85, 112, 118, 122 and ‘general theory’ of organizations 81–83 and organization science 69, 76 and structural-functionalism 49–52, 61n, 69, 84, 98 Perrow, C 80, 85, 87n ‘personality systems’ 50, 81–82 phenomenology 47, 52–55, 74, 91, 95, 98, 138 philosophy 17, 27, 30, 31, 97, 116–117, 125–129 passim, 175 ‘new philosophers’ 117, 122–124, 130 planetary environment 9, 115, 143, 182, 186, 193 ‘pleasure principle’ 57, 62n political economy 3, 105, 107, 121 population ecology 84 post-capitalism 121, 161 postcolonialism 92, 132 post-Fordism 120, 121, 122, 124, 132 postindustrial actors 5, 171, 193 postindustrial society 3, 5, 12, 18, 24, 111, 117–124 passim, 132, 145, 151, 167–179 passim, 189, 191 postmodernity 1, 13, 21, 117–121 passim, 123, 124, 151 poststructuralism 17, 18, 25, 98, 124, 125, 132, 134, 135 and literary theory 18, 119, 128–130 and organizational analysis 19, 98, 139–141 and postmodernism 17, 119, 133 ‘post-technological consciousness’ 178 productivism 110, 112, 148, 173, 185, 187, 189, 193 professions 64, 88, 89, 90–97 passim, 113, 147, 152, 154, 157–168 passim, 171n and identity 147, 165, 166, 178 professional interests 14 psychoanalysis 57, 99, 142n psychodynamic approaches 99, 110, 110, 149 psychopatholgies 99, 160 psychology 10, 52–54 passim, 57–58, 90, 97, 101, 134, 160 see also organizational psychology; social psychology rationality 1, 3, 14–15, 44 instrumental 9, 19, 25, 45, 60, 181 substantive 96, 146, 187 types of 44 rationalization 8, 9, 12, 15, 40, 71, 135, 174–181 passim, 186, 188, 190, 192, 194n and modernization 8, 17, 23, 25, 25, 45, 60, 122, 149 and production 27, 102, 112, 120 Index 217 Reed, Mike 6, 19, 29, 64, 80, 87n, 101, 102, 108, 136 re-enchantment 147, 151, 165, 167, 171, 173, 177, 180, 182, 184, 187, 191 reflexivity 7, 21, 94, 110, 113, 186 of modernity 23 of sociology 1, 3, 22, 23, 94, 96, 113, 186, 193 relations of production 10, 14, 15, 20, 25, 40, 63, 74, 104, 121 religion 68, 115, 135, 166, 188, 189, 192, 194n fundamentalist 26, 158, 171n, 193 New Age 145, 147, 158–161, 185 sociology of 31, 34, 36, 37, 42–47, 49, 74, 174–176 religious movements 28, 124, 145 religious texts 165 Renaissance 27, 28, 97, 115, 127, 186, 194n repression 15, 19, 20, 23, 57, 106, 126, 185, 188, 191 resistance 19, 62n, 97, 106, 108, 116, 126–131 passim, 135, 138, 144, 149, 152, 192 restructuring, organizational 21, 120, 148, 153, 160 Ricoeur, P 192 Rifkin, Jeremy 37, 167 risk 3, 9, 115, 121, 122, 186, 189 ‘risk society’ 21 Ritzer, G 46, 47 Roethlisberger, F.J and Dickson, W.J 73, 81 Rogers, C 90, 102, 114n romanticism 26, 87n, 115, 123, 179, 180 Saint Simon 29–30, 83 Schutz, A 52, 53 scientific management 71–72, 81, 106 secularization 29, 148, 149, 171n, 182–186 passim, 189 and modernization 174–178 passim self-creation 54, 127, 150, 171, 180, 181, 190, 191 selfhood 17, 127, 192, 193 Selznick, P 51, 63, 75, 76, 81, 82, 95, and organic structural-functionalism 82 sexuality 110, 125, 126, 127, 131–138 passim Silverman, D 63, 85, 99, 114n Simmel, G 33, 41, 46, 61n, 102, 194n Simon, H 15, 76–82 passim, 95 Smart, B 22, 26, 113, 117, 123, 142n social action, 5, 6, 7, 9, 24, 68, 127, 150, 165, 171 and Parsons 47–49, 82 and Weber 9, 44–45 social movement 5, 6, 15, 17, 20, 22, 24, 25, 77, 84, 173–186 passim, 189, 191–193, 194n social psychology 10, 56, 72–75, 80, 86, 87n, 95, 101, 102, 110, 114n, 134 social systems 9, 13, 17, 32, 34, 47–54 passim, 57, 61, 66, 74, 75, 76, 82, 101 socio-technical systems 16, 75 solidarity 34, 35, 50, 106, 191 Spencer, H 31, 32, 33, 34 spirituality at work 21, 146, 147, 150–157, 161, 164, 166, 171, 178, 192, 194n consultancies 163–164 literature 162–165 strategic management 9, 16, 149, 171, 173, 176, 185, 191 strategy, neo-rational 23, 77, 84, 95, 176–178 stress 143, 155, 169 structural-functionalism 14, 24, 31, 46–48, 49–52, 60, 63, 81, 89, 98–101 structuralism 15, 97, 98, 103–105, 108, 125, 129 linguistic 128–129, 142n subject 116, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131, 132, 134, 141, 190 ‘death of’ 139 subject-actor 7, 24, 52, 115, 135, 141, 144, 148, 171, 173, 176, 180, 181, 190–194 passim return of 148, 171, 173 subject-self 17, 127, 129, 182, 192 subjectification 127, 134, 139, 143, 171, 181, 188, 190 subjectivation 135, 190, 191, 192 subjectivity 129, 132, 137, 138, 145, 180, 181 women’s 142n, 191 symbolic interactionism 47, 98, 52–55 passim, 99, 134 systems theories 9, 15, 49, 51, 60, 77, 81–84 passim, 91, 92 open systems 77, 81–84 organic 14, 42, 49, 81, 84 subsystem needs 50–51, 84 Tavistock Institute 75 Taylor, Charles 181, 194n Taylor, F.W 70–71 passim, 73, 74, 81 Taylorism 70, 71, 74, 72, 106 team work 16, 75, 139, 148, 149, 166, 187 ad hoc 18 technology 28, 71, 72, 84, 115, 127, 128 automation 77 information 120, 165, 185, 194 technological change 1, 39, 42, 55, 79, 106, 115, 119, 132, 139, 147, 178 218 Critical Analysis of Organizations technological rationality 9, 13, 56, 58, 148, 188 total system 16, 17, 39, 56, 60, 62n, 68, 104, 106, 131, 136, 144, 149, 180 totalitarianism 23, 116, 123, 126, 188, 190 Toulmin, S 23, 27, 28, 30, 88, 92, 122, 194n Touraine, A 4, 7, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 47, 64, 142n, 92, 181, 182 on crisis 92, 113n and postindustrial society 114 and social movement 5, 25, 136, 144, 187 and the subject 115, 135, 190, 191 trade unions 56, 71, 73, 74, 75, 77, 106, 120 trade unionists 103 traditional society 21, 26, 34–37 passim, 44, 45, 69, 171n, 174–176 passim, 182, 185, 186 neo-traditionalism 124, 174–176 passim, 179, 191, 193 de-traditionalism 171, 176, 185 Trotsky, L 65, 66, 87n, 101 uncertainty, management of 15, 16, 77, 148, 180, 184 ‘unchurched spiritualities’ 151, 157, 176, 183, 185, 188, 192, 194n unemployment 25, 120, 150, 171 United Kingdom 96, 111, 150 United States of America 43, 44, 47, 54, 55, 79, 86, 87n, 91, 97, 107, 111, 114n, 163, 164 utilitarianism 29, 31–33 Weber, M 5, 9, 12, 14, 19, 41–45, 48–52 passim, 53, 94, 83, 123, 125, 142n, 147, 182, 185, 188, 189, 194n and bureaucracy 44, 45, 63, 67, 68, 79, 80 and capitalism 42, 43, 68 and domination 66–67, 69, 95 and ‘ideal type’ 61n, 70, 72, 80, 87n and mysticism 188–184 and Protestant Ethic 43, 44, 61n and rationality types 44 and social action 9, 44, 68 Wexler, P 28, 91, 123, 133, 135, 146, 175, 182–189 passim, 192 Whyte, W.F 74, 87n, 166 Wicca 152, 158, 159 Woolf, Virginia 59 work, changes in 25, 150, 167 flexible 16, 18, 167 intermittent 167, 171 non-work 150, 167, 168, 169, 170 and women 109–110 worker participation 75, 148 workers’ movements 8, 72, 116, 143, 171 workers’ needs 54, 72, 73, 80 workers’ struggles 66, 107, 120 working class 41, 57, 64, 91, 106, 171 working lives 5, 7, 145–155 passim, 156, 168, 193, 150 World War II 51, 52, 75, 79, 87n, 89, 90, 92, 96, 125 Wuthnow, R 146, 151, 158, 175, 176 Yoga 152–155 passim, 158, 159, 164, 165 Vietnam War 91 voluntarism 87n, 100, 103, 107, 108 Zeitin, I 34, 48, 61n, 53, 91 ... processes and outcomes of production and organization Critical Analysis of Organizations – Theory, Practice, Revitalization offers a new critical approach to contemporary organizational analysis It emerges... take this view of the social into my conception of organization and analysis of organizational practices A conception of social movement displaces classical notions of society and of organization. .. Most of this form of organizational analysis – its intent, agenda and methods – takes place with little sociological analysis of either the academic practice, or of the practitioner sites of analysis