C OR POR AT E AC C OU N TA BI L I T Y I N I N T E R N AT ION A L E N V I RON M E N TA L L AW Morgera.indb i 12/15/2008 9:11:09 PM Morgera.indb ii 12/15/2008 9:11:10 PM Corporate Accountability in International Environmental Law E L IS A MORGE R A Morgera.indb iii 12/15/2008 9:11:10 PM Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Th ailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Elisa Morgera, 2009 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Crown copyright material is reproduced under Class Licence Number C01P0000148 with the permission of OPSI and the Queen’s Printer for Scotland Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2009 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by Biddles Ltd, King’s Lynn, Norfolk ISBN 978–0–19–955801–8 10 Morgera.indb iv 12/15/2008 9:11:10 PM To my family Morgera.indb v 12/15/2008 9:11:10 PM Morgera.indb vi 12/15/2008 9:11:10 PM Foreword The following book originates from a doctoral thesis accomplished at the European University Institute in Florence, where the law department places a great emphasis on exploring the increasing reach as well as the limits of everevolving international law Now, the specific topic of this remarkable work by Elisa Morgera serves to illustrate both the expansion and the limits of international law In a classical perspective, to which many scholars still remain faithfully attached, public international law does not deal with private corporations, neither does it deal with accountability Classically, it remains only interested in States and in their responsibility Some venture even to challenge the place of ‘standards’ as real norms of international law, which are not referred to in any respect at Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) For such classically-oriented scholars, standards are seen at best as empiric tools for the almost exclusive use by international judges and arbitrators in their efforts to accommodate the flexibility and vagueness of rules of conduct or guidelines, the legal status of which is often problematic Last but not least, focusing part of the research on the impact of international organizations on the development of such a moving picture could probably worry some good minds traditionally oriented towards a vision of International Intergovernmental Organizations (IIOs) (not even to speak of International Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs)) as mere collective emanations of States rather as actual—and at least sometimes hyperactive—subjects of international law Seen from such a classical, if not necessarily archaic, perspective, a book dealing with ‘corporate accountability in international environmental law’ and exploring ‘emerging standards’ as well as the ‘contribution of international organizations’ to their creation would hardly be considered as legitimate, at least as far as public international law is concerned Indeed, the difficulties exist from a theoretical as well as from a methodological point of view; but one of the credits of this book is precisely to remain guided not by an idealistic approach, where authors take their wishful thinking as if they were a faithful description of the true reality On the contrary, Elisa Morgera has been able to realistically construct in the most reliable way her patient review of current efforts: those made within and around international organizations for establishing a normative framework to orient the action of multinational corporations as well as for monitoring actual corporate conduct in order to make it more compatible with a sustainable management of the human environment In the interim, an increasing number of people understand the present limits of traditional inter-State solutions with respect to the negative environmental Morgera.indb vii 12/15/2008 9:11:10 PM viii Foreword impact of multilateral corporations Against this background, the empirical elaboration of standards of conduct based on the growing expectations of the international community, identified with the help of international organizations, provides a useful model against which to judge the compatibility of the conduct of business with the promotion of sustainable development In this context, the study undertaken by Elisa Morgera provides us also with a highly valuable contribution to evaluating the true meaning of prevention and precaution in terms of the efficient protection of the environment against some destructive activities by private international investors The author remains also realistic as she acknowledges the rather limited impact—until now—of international case law to the definition of sound and reasonable corporate behaviour Morgera reviews the tools at the disposal of States and private economic actors for promoting the actual respect of the environmental standards defined at the national and international levels She underlines in particular that the screening and monitoring of international financial institutions working with the private sector (like the International Finance Corporation (IFC)) are still not used as much as could be realistically expected The same can be said for the potential direct or indirect monitoring role of a number of human rights bodies Whatever the case may be, the author also recognizes the interest and concrete limits of UN–business partnerships Much remains indeed to be done by most multinational corporations, in particular in terms of transparency of environmental management practices In a straightforward but substantial way, Elisa Morgera demonstrates that the inherent limits of the international public order to accommodate the concrete socio-economic necessity of sustainable development not inevitably draw obstacles to enrich the concepts as well as the operational instruments of international law The author has found an elegant and reliable way to reconcile the positive analysis of legal reality with the inspired vision of the goals and perspectives to be reached by States as well as by private investors, the former having as their duty to control that the latter not operate only in terms of immediate profit Professor Pierre-Marie Dupuy University of Paris (Panthéon-Assas) European University Institute, Florence Graduate Institute of International and Developments Studies, Geneva Morgera.indb viii 12/15/2008 9:11:10 PM Preface This book aims to define the legal contours of the concept of corporate accountability in international environmental law (IEL).¹ It explores the current and future role of IEL in directing and controlling the conduct of business enterprises, in particular multinational corporations, through the identification of corporate accountability standards and their implementation by international organizations The concept of corporate accountability is often related to the insistent calls by international Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)² and academics³ to ensure some sort of international oversight over private companies, particularly multinationals, to avoid the most serious environmental harm caused by them Corporate accountability is also equally relevant when considering the growing practice of international organizations to increasingly engage the private sector in attaining global goals for the protection of the environment Corporate accountability became a buzzword in early 2002, when the international community was gearing up to the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) At the time NGOs called for a binding convention on corporate accountability and liability.⁴ This proposal was based on the continuing damage to the environment caused by private companies, the limits of national courts to provide redress to victims and recoup clean-up costs from polluters, and the perceived shortcomings of international law in addressing this issue,⁵ while providing vigorous protection to foreign investment ¹ The difficulty in ascertaining precisely what ‘binds together’ the disparate developments on global corporate accountability is affirmed by P Muchlinski, ‘Human Rights, Social Responsibility and the Regulation of International Business: The Development of International Standards by Intergovernmental Organizations’ (2003) Non-State Actors and International Law 23, 130 ² Friends of the Earth (FOE), ‘Towards Binding Corporate Accountability’ (Position paper for the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), January 2002) ³ P Hansen and V Aranda, ‘An Emerging International Framework for Transnational Corporations’ (1990) 14 Fordham International Law Journal 881; J Bendell and D Murphy, ‘Towards Civil Regulation: NGOs and the Politics of Corporate Environmentalism’, in P Utting (ed), The Greening of Business in Developing Countries (London: Zed Books in association with UNRISD, 2002) 244, 264; The International Council on Human Rights Policy, Beyond Voluntarism: Human Rights and the Developing International Legal Obligations for Companies (Versoix: International Council on Human Rights Policy, 2002) 8; M Mason, The New Accountability: Environmental Responsibility Across Borders (London: Earthscan, 2005) 15 ⁴ FOE, ‘Towards Binding Corporate Accountability’ op cit ⁵ As well as other results of increased transnationalism, which are ‘testing the limits of the adequacy and effectiveness of international law’, as described by C Tomuschat, ‘International Law: Ensuring the Survival of Mankind on the Eve of a New Century’ (1999) 281 Recueil des cours 9, 42 On globalization and the competition between States and private subjects that more and more are free from State control, see also the reflections by P-M Dupuy, L’unité de l’ordre juridique international (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003) 41 Morgera.indb ix 12/15/2008 9:11:10 PM x Preface While the NGO proposal did not succeed in gathering intergovernmental support, the WSSD enshrined the idea of corporate accountability in the international agenda on sustainable development,⁶ leaving several questions unanswered as to its legal significance and expected impacts on the way in which States traditionally ensure an environmentally sound corporate conduct In the aftermath, a growing interest of various international organizations in cooperating with the private sector and engaging business in the implementation of multilateral environmental agreements soon became standard practice Many of these attempts mushroomed without coordination, with little reflection on how to structure and maximize them to achieve global environmental objectives A few, however, also attempted to draw some basic principles or benchmarks to guide business towards an environmentally sound and acceptable performance The latter types of initiatives are analysed in this book Since 2000, the UN Secretary-General and the UN Sub-Commission on Human Rights have developed specific initiatives to better define the minimum requirements that business must fulfil in order satisfactorily to respond to the expectations of the international community Following the WSSD, a renewed interest in the Guidelines for Multinational Corporations of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) also marked NGOs’ work on corporate accountability In 2006, the IFC reshaped its policies with a clear definition of performance standards for private companies based on IEL principles and objectives In the face of such multi-faceted—yet largely convergent—international practice, this book examines ‘the tensions and tendency to change of law, and the repercussions of social change on legal changes’.⁷ It provides a legal–political analysis focusing on the creation and evolution of law, the social forces and tensions that make law emerge and develop, and the reasons why law is such, at a certain point in time.⁸ The progressive integration, or attempted integration, of the private sector in the implementation of IEL through the concept of corporate accountability has come to represent one of the aspects of the continuous and constant process of evolution of international law in general, and of IEL in particular The continuous calls for increased corporate environmental accountability demonstrate that this can indeed be identified as one of the social values that are progressively emerging and becoming so important in the social conscience that they are increasingly expected to be formally sanctioned and protected by law.⁹ As a result of these tensions and widespread expectations, the fine line between positive law and law in fieri may not be clearly defined.¹⁰ This 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108, 113, 126, 136, 158–71, 173–7, 180–1, 184, 188, 190, 193–201, 218, 259, 262–4, 269–70 civil liability 11–12, 14–15, 17, 39–42, 108, 126, 145, 266 climate change 156–7, 167, 183, 186, 250, 253, 269 compliance 70, 114, 168, 170–1, 191, 201, 205–8, 211–12, 216–18, 222–3, 228, 238, 240, 244, 265, 271–5 corporate governance 21–2, 107 corporate responsibility (definition) 11–23, 266 criminal liability 42–4 cultural heritage 135, 149, 184, 194, 198, 264, 269 customary international law 73, 94, 124–33, 141, 185, 268 due diligence 72, 95, 100–1, 117, 151, 182–5, 200, 219, 266, 268 environmental impact assessment 107–11, 115, 147–54, 159, 161–5, 179–80, 187–8, 192–3, 197, 200, 210–14, 217–21, 238, 263–4, 268–9 environmental information 104–6, 109–15, 137, 142–3, 150–4, 167, 180–2, 188–93, 196, 200, 210–11, 214, 218, 220, 223, 233, 237, 239, 261–3, 268–71 environmental managements systems 110–11, 115, 150–5, 181–4, 188, 193–6, 211, 215, 253, 268 foreign direct investment 25–33, 51–7 foreign direct liability 31–3, 120 Global Compact 83, 87–95, 97, 104–7, 113–17, 168, 171, 184, 187–8, 190–3, 200, 243–5, 249, 258, 267, 269, 271 Home State 25–37, 59–61, 78, 109, 119–22, 180, 237, 246, 266, 271, 273 Host State 25–35, 51–6, 80–1, 103–6, 109–10, 127, 133, 140–3, 166, 180, 225–8, 232, 234, 245–6, 266, 268, 272–3 Morgera.indb 295 human rights 49–51, 88–108, 115–17, 130–43, 168, 175, 185, 190, 268, 270–1 based approach 83, 91–2, 95, 101, 115–17, 168, 180 monitoring bodies 96, 134–40, 225–8, 268, 271 implementation 61, 96–7, 205–8, 250–65, 271–2 indigenous and local communities 6–7, 28, 50, 126–30, 138–42, 155, 167–8, 174, 177, 180–1, 184–5, 192–4, 228–9, 260, 262, 264 integration 45–6, 115, 167, 178–81, 190, 196, 200–1, 243, 268–9 International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes 52–5 International Finance Corporation 145–71, 179–86, 190–5, 198–9, 209–22, 246, 264, 269, 271, 275 Compliance Advisor/Ombudsman 147, 149, 164, 216–22, 246 international organizations 46–9, 75–6, 93, 113, 205–7, 224–45, 261, 269, 270–5 intra-pollution 124, 130–3, 141, 185–6, 268 Millennium Development Goals 88, 248 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 8–9, 265 MNCs (definition) 56–60 Multilateral Environmental Agreements 8, 145, 149, 156, 160, 168, 170, 180, 247, 250–4, 259–65, 269, 271–2 national case law 121–32, 268 Alien Tort Claim Act 120, 124–33, 136, 142 non-governmental organizations 14, 21, 46–8, 85–6, 89–90, 93, 98, 103–4, 117, 119–20, 130–1, 137, 141, 146, 149, 157, 162, 168, 178, 185, 187, 200, 205, 207, 212, 214–15, 219–20, 223, 231–9, 242–3, 257, 260–4, 267–8, 272, 274–5 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development 101–18, 162, 168, 171, 174, 179, 181–3, 185–8, 190–4, 200, 230–45, 267–9, 271 National contact points 230–43, 271 Committee on International Investment and Multilateral Enterprises 241–2 12/15/2008 9:11:41 PM 296 Index partnership 16, 60, 85–7, 116–17, 145, 151, 162, 164, 168, 171, 174–6, 247–65, 272 precaution 44–5, 90, 107–9, 112–15, 129, 184, 186–8, 192, 200, 228, 235, 238, 243, 263, 268–70 prevention 36, 44–5, 61, 109–11, 115, 142, 148–9, 156–7, 167, 182–91, 196, 200, 211, 215, 243, 268–70 principles of international environmental law 44–5, 70–5, 77, 90–4, 97, 125–6, 128–33, 172, 175, 185, 189, 192–3, 196, 199, 206, 238, 256, 268–9 prior informed consent 155, 165–69, 174, 194, 200 Rio Conference 11–14, 124–5, 194, 252 self-regulation 22, 275 stakeholder involvement 89–90, 110, 139, 147–8, 150, 155, 166, 175, 181, 190, 193, 196, 200, 211, 214, 218–19, 222, 237, 256, 262, 264, 269–70 standards 18–22, 82, 84, 94, 98–118, 125, 126, 129, 139, 142–3, 172–203 concept of 66–76, 266–7 standard-setting 75–6, 87, 100, 169–71, 252, 261, 263, 268–72 State liability 35–8 State responsibility 34–8 Stockholm Conference 11, 250 sustainable development 13–15, 45, 60–1, 84–5, 104, 109–10, 114, 129–30, 134, 139, 145, 148, 158, 161–2, 171, 178, 189, 194–6, 209, 235, 238, 248, 250–1, 255, 261, 265–6, 268, 270 sustainable use 107, 142, 145, 151, 162–3, 167, 173, 177–8, 184, 193–6, 250, 263, 268–70, 275 Morgera.indb 296 transboundary environmental harm 35–8, 124–8, 131–2, 141, 152, 185–6, 189–90, 219, 268 transparency 16–17, 20–3, 45, 61, 89, 154, 248–9, 257–9, 262–3, 265–6, 268 United Nations 77–100, 106–18, 240–4, 247–50, 259–61 Commission on Human Rights 81–100, 227, 267 Commission on Sustainable Development 250–1, 257 Commission on Transnational Corporations 79–82 Conference on Trade and Development 82–3, 231 Economic and Social Council 78 Education, Scientific and Culture Organization 197–8, 228–9, 271 Food and Agriculture Organization 158, 164, 168 General Assembly 12, 14, 22, 16 n.40, 249, 259 Human Rights Council 92, 101 Secretary-General 86–8, 90–1, 104, 116–17, 243, 248–9, 255, 258, 265, 267 Security Council 240–3, 245, 271 Special Representative 91–101, 115–17, 149, 175, 179, 183, 211, 231, 239, 268 World Bank 85, 144, 146–8, 152, 155, 167–8, 211–12, 214, 216–17 World Heritage 169, 197–8, 228–9 Committee 165, 228–9, 271 sites 160–1, 165, 197–8, 200, 228–9 World Summit on Sustainable Development 14–15, 17, 90, 249–50, 266 World Trade Organization 55–6, 83, 85 12/15/2008 9:11:42 PM ... of international law Seen from such a classical, if not necessarily archaic, perspective, a book dealing with corporate accountability in international environmental law and exploring ‘emerging... Developing Countries Human Rights Council International Court of Justice International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes Inter-American Development Bank International environmental law International. .. perceived shortcomings of international law in addressing this issue,⁵ while providing vigorous protection to foreign investment ¹ The difficulty in ascertaining precisely what ‘binds together’ the