Published in 2011 by Britannica Educational Publishing (a trademark of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.) in association with Rosen Educational Services, LLC 29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010 Copyright © 2011 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, and the Thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc All rights reserved Rosen Educational Services materials copyright © 2011 Rosen Educational Services, LLC All rights reserved Distributed exclusively by Rosen Educational Services For a listing of additional Britannica Educational Publishing titles, call toll free (800) 237-9932 First Edition Britannica Educational Publishing Michael I Levy: Executive Editor J.E Luebering: Senior Manager Marilyn L Barton: Senior Coordinator, Production Control Steven Bosco: Director, Editorial Technologies Lisa S Braucher: Senior Producer and Data Editor Yvette Charboneau: Senior Copy Editor Rosen Educational Services Jeanne Nagle: Senior Editor Nelson Sá: Art Director Cindy Reiman: Photography Manager Matthew Cauli: Designer, Cover Design Introduction by Sean McCollum Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Native American history / edited by J.E Luebering — 1st ed p cm — (The Native American sourcebook) “In association with Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services.” Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-61530-265-9 (eBook) Indians of North America—History I Luebering, J E E77.N3513 2011 970.004'97—dc22 2010011741 On the cover: Representatives from various Native American tribes depicted in the 1800s Engraving after an illustration by R Huttula Hulton Archive/Getty Images On pages 17, 27, 46, 58, 70, 94, 109, 126, 143, 161, 193, Phil Schermeister/National Geographic Image Collection/Getty Images CONTENTS 36 Introduction 10 Chapter 1: Tracing Native American History 17 Ancestral Roots 17 Indigenous Peoples of North America 18 Early Cultural Development 18 Tribe and Band 23 Tribal Nomenclature 24 Chapter 2: Tribes of the Arctic and the Subarctic 27 The Arctic 28 Eskimo 32 Aleut 34 Native American Self-Names 35 The Subarctic 37 Innu 37 Cree 37 Ojibwa 38 Grand Medicine Society 39 Chipewyan 39 Beaver 41 Slave 41 Carrier 42 Gwich’in 43 Tanaina 43 Deg Xinag 44 Chapter 3: Northeast Native Americans 46 Algonquin 47 Iroquois 47 Huron 49 Wampanoag 50 Mohican 51 Mohegan 51 King Philip’s War 52 Ho-Chunk 53 Sauk 55 Fox 56 Illinois 57 40 54 79 Chapter 4: The Southeast 58 Cherokee 59 Choctaw 62 Chickasaw 63 Creek 63 Seminole 65 Natchez 66 Caddo 67 Apalachee 68 Timucua 69 Chapter 5: Peoples of the Plains 70 Mandan 71 Hidatsa 73 Omaha 74 Pawnee 75 Arikara 76 Crow 78 Sioux 80 The Sioux Way of Life 80 Precontact Sioux Culture 81 The Beginning of the Struggle for the West 81 The Battle of the Little Bighorn and the Cessation of War 84 Blackfoot 85 Cheyenne 85 Sitting Bull 86 Comanche 88 Arapaho 90 Kiowa 92 Chapter 6: The Southwest 94 Pueblo Indians 95 Zuni 97 Kachinas 98 Hopi 99 Yuman 100 Pima 101 Tohono O’odham 102 Navajo 104 Apache 105 Geronimo 107 91 99 112 Chapter 7: The Great Basin and Plateau 109 The Great Basin 111 Mono 111 Paiute 111 Bannock 113 Shoshone 114 Ute 116 Gosiute 116 The Plateau 116 Salish 117 Flathead 118 Nez Percé 120 Yakima 121 Kutenai 122 Modoc and Klamath 123 124 Chapter 8: The Northwest Coast and California 126 The Northwest Coast 126 Tlingit 127 Haida 128 Tsimshian 129 Kwakiutl 130 Bella Coola 132 Nuu-chah-nulth 133 Coast Salish 134 Chinook 134 California 135 Hupa 136 Yurok 136 Pomo 137 Yuki 139 Wintun 140 Maidu 140 Yana 141 Chapter 9: Prehistory 143 Paleo-Indian Cultures 143 The Clovis and Folsom Cultures 144 Pre-Clovis Cultures 146 128 153 Archaic Cultures 146 Pacific Coast Archaic Cultures 147 Domestication 148 Desert Archaic Cultures 148 Plains Archaic Cultures 148 Eastern Archaic Cultures 149 Tools of Archaic Cultures 150 Prehistoric Farmers 151 Southwestern Cultures: The Ancestral Pueblo, Mogollon, and Hohokam 152 Pueblo Architecture 155 Eastern Woodland Cultures 157 Mississippian Cultures 158 Plains Woodland and Plains Village Cultures 159 154 Chapter 10: From 1492 through the 18th Century 161 North America and Europe circa 1492 161 Culture Area 162 Native American Ethnic and Political Diversity 163 European Populations and Polities 164 Colonial Goals and Geographic Claims: The 16th and 17th Centuries 166 Spain 166 France 167 England 169 The Netherlands and Sweden 170 Native Americans and Colonization: The 16th and 17th Centuries 171 The Southwest Indians 171 Pueblo Rebellion 172 The Southeast Indians 172 The Northeast Indians 175 Blood Feud 179 The Subarctic Indians and the Arctic Peoples 179 The Chessboard of Empire: The late 17th to the Early 19th Century 181 Eastern North America and the Subarctic 181 The Southwest and the Southern Pacific 174 212 Coast 187 The Northern Pacific Coast 187 Tecumseh 188 The Plains and Plateau Culture Areas 190 Chapter 11: From the 19th to the 21st Century 193 Removal of the Eastern Nations 193 The Conquest of the Western United States 195 On Indian Removal 196 The Conquest of Western Canada 199 The Red River Crisis and the Creation of Manitoba 199 The Numbered Treaties and the Second Riel Rebellion 202 Assimilation Versus Sovereignty: The Late 19th to the Late 20th Century 204 Allotment 205 Indians and Whites 208 Boarding Schools 209 Reorganization 211 False Sentimentality About Indians 212 Termination 215 The Disillusioned Indian 216 Developments in the Late 20th and Early 21st Centuries 218 The Outplacement and Adoption of Indigenous Children 221 Religious Freedom 224 Repatriation and the Disposition of the Dead 226 Economic Development: Tourism, Tribal Industries, and Gaming 228 Indian Gaming 232 International Developments 234 Conclusion 234 Glossary 236 Bibliography 238 Index 240 225 230 Glossary | 237 affinity with the spirit world Shamans also are considered healers and are thought to be adept at divination sovereign lands A geographic area over which a group holds authority subsistence A way of behaving that ensures survival syllabary A system of writing in which each symbol represents a syllable syncretism When multiple traditions, beliefs, and practices are fused into one travois A mode of transport consisting of two joined poles and a platform attached to both and draped between them that is dragged, most often by a horse or dog tribe A group of people who are politically integrated and shared a language, religious beliefs, and other aspects of culture; consists of several bands umiak Large boats used by indigenous peoples of the Arctic and subarctic to hunt whales vision quest A supernatural experience in which an individual seeks to interact with a guardian spirit, usually an anthropomorphized animal, to obtain advice or protection wattle A building cover consisting of poles through which reeds or branches have been woven wickiup A dome-shaped form of lodging favoured by Northeastern Native American peoples, constructed by draping bent samplings with rushes or bark; also called a wigwam Bibliography There are many syntheses of the traditional cultures of Native America An excellent collection of photos and essays was commissioned to celebrate the opening of the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of the American Indian, Gerald McMaster and Clifford E Trafzer (eds.), Native Universe: Voices of Indian America (2004) An encyclopaedic summary of knowledge, literature, and research on the principal cultural regions north of Mexico is provided by the multivolume William C Sturtevant (ed.), Handbook of North American Indians (1978– ) Reference works include Carl Waldman and Molly Braun, Atlas of the North American Indian (1985), and Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes (1988); Barbara A Leitch and Kendall T LePoer (eds.), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Tribes of North America (1979); Barry T Klein (ed.), Reference Encyclopedia of the American Indian, 6th ed (1993); and Duane Champagne (ed.), The Native North American Almanac (1994), a combination of handbook, encyclopaedia, and directory Classic surveys of the native peoples of North America include Edward S Curtis, The North American Indian, 20 vol (1907–30, reissued 1978); Clark Wissler, The American Indian: An Introduction to the Anthropology of the New World (1917, reprinted 2005); A.L Kroeber, Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America (1939, reprinted 1976); John R Swanton, The Indian Tribes of North America (1952, reprinted 1984); and Fred Eggan (ed.), Social Anthropology of North American Tribes, 2nd enlarged ed (1955, reissued 1970) Indigenous religions of the Americas as a whole are explored in Denise Lardner Carmody and John Tully Carmody, Native American Religions: An Introduction (1993) Religious beliefs and ceremonies specific to North America are described in Arlene Hirschfelder and Paulette Molin, The Encyclopedia of Native American Religions (1992); Sam D Gill and Irene F Sullivan, Dictionary of Native American Mythology (1992); Connie Burland, North American Indian Mythology, new rev ed., revised by Marion Wood (1985); Omer C Stewart, Peyote Religion: A History (1987); Weston La Barre, The Peyote Cult, 5th ed., enlarged (1989); and Gregory E Smoak, Ghost Dances and Identity: Prophetic Religion and American Indian Ethnogenesis in the Nineteenth Century (2006) Broadly comparative works include Western Indians: Comparative Environments, Languages, and Cultures of 172 Western American Indian Tribes (1980), on Northwest Coast, Californian, North American Plateau, Great Basin, and Southwest peoples; Christopher Vecsey and Robert W Venables (eds.), American Indian Environments: Ecological Issues in Native American History (1980); Thomas E Ross and Tyrel Bibliography | 239 G Moore (eds.), A Cultural Geography of North American Indians (1987); Paul Stuart, Nations Within a Nation: Historical Statistics of American Indians (1987), with extensive tables and bibliography; North American Indians (1991), well illustrated; John Gattuso (ed.), Native America (1991), a description of people, places, history, and culture written and illustrated by Native Americans; Alice Beck Kehoe, North American Indians: A Comprehensive Account, 2nd ed (1992); William T Hagan, American Indians, 3rd ed (1993); Shepard Krech III, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History (1999); and Julian Granberry, The Americas That Might Have Been: Native American Social Systems Through Time (2005) Information on the United States alone includes Francis Paul Prucha, Atlas of American Indian Affairs (1990); and Arlene Hirschfelder and Martha Kreipe de Montaño, The Native American Almanac: A Portrait of Native America Today (1993) Synthetic studies of Canadian peoples are Harold Cardinal, The Rebirth of Canada’s Indians (1977), a study of government relations; Diamond Jenness, The Indians of Canada, 7th ed (1977), a classic work; Jacqueline Peterson and Jennifer S.H Brown (eds.), The New Peoples: Being and Becoming Métis in North America (1985); Bruce Alden Cox (ed.), Native People, Native Lands: Canadian Indians, Inuit, and Métis (1987), a study of economics with a bibliographic essay on Canadian native studies; J.R Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens: A History of Indian-White Relations in Canada, rev ed (1991); Olive Patricia Dickason, Canada’s First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples from Earliest Times (1992); and James S Frideres and Lilianne Ernestine Krosenbrink-Gelissen, Native Peoples in Canada: Contemporary Conflicts, 4th ed (1993) Index A Absaroka, 78 Acoma, 95, 157 Act to Encourage the Gradual Civilization of the Indian Tribes of the Canadas, 204 Adena, 20 adoption, 49, 221–223 AFN (Assembly of First Nations), 223 Agattu, 30 age-based systems, 71, 74, 90 AIM (American Indian Movement), 84, 218 AIRFA (American Indian Religious Freedom Act), 224–225 Alabama Creeks, 64 Alabama-Koasati language, 65 Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, 218 alcohol, 57 Aleuts, 27, 34–36 Algonquian, 46, 47, 57, 85, 168, 175–176 Algonquian languages, 28, 32, 37, 38, 46, 47, 50, 51, 55, 56, 57, 66, 70, 85, 90 alliances, 38, 41, 46, 60–64, 90, 92, 101 allotment, 205–209 Alutiit, 32 American Civil War, 82, 197 American Indian Movement, 84, 218 American Indian Religious Freedom Act, 224–225 American Revolution, 60, 184–185 Ancestral Pueblo (Anasazi), 20, 95, 99, 152–157 Ancient One, 228 animism, 33, 37, 44, 45, 123, 133–134 Anishinaabe, 38 Apache, 17, 88, 90, 92, 94, 101, 102, 104–108 Apachean languages, 104, 106 Apalachee, 58, 64, 65, 68–69 Apsarokee, 78 Arapaho, 71, 90, 92 Archaic peoples, 146–151 Archaic period, 19–20, 30 Arctic peoples, 27–36, 179–181 Arikara, 70, 72, 74, 76–78, 81, 87, 90, 160 Ashley, William H., 77 Assembly of First Nations, 223 assimilation, 21–23, 60–61, 96, 99, 100, 204–218 Assiniboin, 38 astronomy, 76 Athabaskan languages, 28, 37, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 70, 94, 104, 106, 126, 127, 135, 136 Attu, 30 Augusta, Treaty of, 60 Awatovi, 99 Awokanak, 41 Aztec culture, 68 B Bagot Commission, 199, 204 baidarkas, 34 Bannock, 111, 113–114 Bannock War, 114 Barren Grounds, 31 Bear people, 50 Beaver, 28, 41 Bella Coola, 128, 132–133, 134 Bering, Vitus, 34 Big Bear, 202–204 bird stones, 19 black drink, 59 Blackfoot, 38, 71, 80, 85, 114, 122 Black Hawk War, 53, 55 blades, 28, 29 Blood, 85 Blue Quills First Nations College, 211 boarding schools, 21, 209–211 Index | 241 Boas, Franz, 130, 226 Bodmer, Karl, 71 Boldt, George, 218 bone-gatherers, 62 Bonnichsen v United States, 228 Bosque Redondo, 105 Bow Creek, 75 Bozeman Trail, 81 British North American Act, 201 Brulé, 80 Buffalo Dance, 53 burial/funerary practices, 20, 42, 45, 62, 67, 129, 151, 157–159, 226–228 Busk ceremony, 59, 62, 63, 64, 66 C Cabot, John, 169 Caddo, 58, 67–68 Caddoan languages, 67, 70, 75, 76 Cahokia, 57 California Gold Rush, 81, 102, 140 California Indians, 126, 135–142, 187 California v Cabazon Band of Mission Indians, 233 Calvert, Cecilius, 169 Campbell, Col Arthur, 60 Canadian Parliament, 199, 201–202 Canby, Brig Gen Edward, 125 cannibalism, 68 Captain Jack (Kintpuash), 125 Carlisle Indian Industrial School, 210 Carrier, 28, 42–43 Carson, Col Christopher “Kit,” 89, 105 Cartier, Jacques, 49, 167 casinos, 74, 232–233 Catlin, George, 71 Cayuga, 47 Central Numic language, 114 Chaui, 75 Chemehuevi, 113 Cherokee, 47, 58, 59–62, 63, 65, 66, 67 Cherokee Nation v Georgia, 194 Cherokee Phoenix, 61 Cheyenne, 71, 84, 85, 87–88, 90, 92, 160 Chickasaw, 58, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67 chickees, 59, 65 chiefdom, 23 children, outplacement of, 221–223 Chimmesyan, 129 Chinook, 128, 134–135 Chinookan languages, 134 Chinook Jargon, 135 Chipewyan, 28, 39–41 Chippewa, 38, 87 Chiricahua Apache, 106, 108 Choctaw, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62–63, 65, 66, 67 Cibecue Apache, 106 civil rights movement, 23 Civil War, 82, 197 Clark, William, 71, 116, 120, 135 Clark Lake, 43 climate, 17–19, 28–29, 32, 33, 70, 94, 109, 126 Clovis peoples, 143, 144–146 Clovis point, 18, 145 coastal Tsimshian language, 129 Coast Salish, 128, 132, 134 Coast Yuki, 139, 140 Cochise, 105 Cocopa, 101 Coeur d’Alene, 117 Collier, John, 224 colonization, 17, 21–23, 49, 55, 59, 70, 164–192, 215 Columbia, 117 Columbus, Christopher, 165–166 Comanche, 71, 88–90, 92, 116 confederacies, 46, 47, 49, 50, 57, 59, 64–65, 92 Cooper, James Fenimore, 51 Cord people, 50 corn-based economy, 20 Coronado, Franscisco Vásquez de, 96, 98, 167 cotton trade, 62 242 | Native American History coups and coupsticks, 78, 80, 116, 119 Cowlitz, 117 Coyotero Apache, 106 Crazy Horse, 82, 84 Cree, 28, 37–38, 41 Creek, 26, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63–65, 66, 67, 68–69 Creek Confederacy, 64–65 Creek War, 60–61, 65 crime, forgiveness of, 64 Crow, 71, 78–80, 92, 160 Crow language, 74 Crown Lands Protection Act, 199, 204 Custer, Elizabeth, 198 Custer, Lt Col George A., 84, 88, 90, 198 D Dakelh, 42 Dakota language, 80 Dakota Sioux, 25, 38, 57, 75, 80, 87, 88 dart-based hunting, 19 Dawes General Allotment Act, 206–207 Deer people, 50 Deg Hit’an, 44 Deg Xinag, 28, 44–45 demographics, 161–163, 218–219 Desert Archaic peoples, 148 Devils Tower National Monument, 225 DeWitt’s Corner, Treaty of, 60 Dhegiha language, 74–75 Diegueño, 101 disenfranchisement, 21–23 Dobyns, Henry, 162–163 Dogrib, 41 Dog Soldiers, 88 Dominion of Canada, 199 Dorset culture, 31, 32 Douglas, Thomas (Earl of Selkirk), 199–202 Dragging Canoe, 60 drought, 102, 104 Dutch colonization, 47, 51, 170–171 E earth-berm dwellings, 59, 66, 70, 71, 73, 75, 76, 87, 141 Eastern Apache, 106 Eastern Archaic peoples, 149–151 Eastern Mono, 111 Eastern Sioux, 80 Eastern Woodlands Indians, 49, 157–158 Eaton’s Station, 60 education, 21, 209–211 Endangered Species Act, 225 English colonization, 21, 38, 41, 47, 50–51, 53, 56, 57, 60, 62, 63, 64, 68, 69, 85, 133, 165, 169–170, 201–202 epidemics, 38, 41, 51, 69, 72, 74, 77, 87, 140, 162–163 equestrian nomads, 88–89, 90, 92, 106 Erik the Red, 163 Eskimos, 27, 32–34, 43, 44 Etchareottine, 41 ethnic diversity, pre-Columbian, 163 F famine, 38, 82, 84, 85, 104 fauna, Pleistocene, 18–19 Ferdinand II of Aragon, 165 Fetterman, Capt William J., 82 firearms, 34, 38, 41, 74, 85, 87, 113 First Seminole War, 65 Five Civilized Tribes, 58, 62–63, 65, 66, 176–179 flash-flood farming, 102 Flathead, 117, 118–120 Folsom peoples, 143, 144–146 Folsom point, 145–146 Fort Berthold Reservation, 72, 74, 78 Fort Laramie, First Treaty of, 82, 87, 195 Fort Laramie, Second Treaty of, 82–84 Four Lakes, Battle of, 121 Fox, 46, 55, 56–57 Francis I of France, 167 Index | 243 French and Indian War, 50, 60, 62, 182–184 French colonization, 21, 38, 41, 47, 50, 51, 55, 56, 57, 60, 62, 63, 66, 67, 68, 85, 165, 167–168 French-Natchez wars, 67 fur trade, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 47, 50, 53, 77, 85, 120–121 G Gall, 84 gambling/gaming, 231–234 Garrison Dam, 72, 74, 78 Geronimo, 105, 108 Ghost Dance religion, 84, 198 Gitksan language, 129 gold, 36, 61, 82, 98, 108, 140 Gosiute, 111, 116 Gradual Civilization Act, 199 Grand Medicine Society, 39 Great Basin Indians, 109, 110–116 Green Corn Festival, 59, 62, 63, 64, 66 grinding tools, 19, 30 Grizzly Bear Lodge, 225 Gros Ventres of the Missouri, 73 Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of, 195 Guale, 58 Gwich’in, 28, 43 H Haida, 128–129 Haida language, 128 Haisla language, 130 Halchidhoma, 101 harpoons, 31, 33, 44, 133 Harrison, William Henry, 186 Havasupai, 101 Heiltsuq, 132 Heiltsuq language, 130 Henige, David, 162 Henry the Navigator, 165 Hidatsa, 70, 71, 72, 73–74, 77, 78, 81, 160 Hidatsa language, 73, 74 High Backbone, 82 Hill Patwin, 140 Hisatsinom, 99 Hitchiti Creeks, 64 Hitchiti language, 65 Ho-chunk (Winnebago), 46, 53–55 Hodenosaunee, 47 hogans, 95 Hohokam, 20, 101, 152–157 Hokan languages, 94, 100, 111, 137, 141 Hopewell, 20, 157–158 Hopi, 94, 95, 96, 99–100, 101, 104, 157 Hopi language, 96 horses, 38, 70–71, 74, 75, 76, 78, 80–81, 85, 87, 88, 90, 92, 113, 116, 118, 123, 191–192 Horseshoe Bend, Battle of, 60–61 Howard, Gen O O., 121 Hualapai, 101 Huchnom, 139 Hudson’s Bay Company, 41, 199–202 Hull, Gen William, 186 human sacrifice, 67, 68, 76 Hunkpapa, 80 hunting tools, 19 Hupa, 135, 136 Hupa language, 136 Huron, 46, 47, 49–50, 168, 176–179 I IAP (Indian Adoption Program), 223 ice age, 17–19, 28, 32 Illinois, 46, 57 Indian Act, 199, 224 Indian Adoption Program, 223 Indian Appropriation Act, 197–198 Indian Child Welfare Act, 223 Indian Civilization Act, 204 Indian Claims Commission, 214–215 Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, 233 244 | Native American History Indian Removal Act of 1830, 61, 194 Indian Reorganization Act, 211, 214 Indian schools, 21, 209–211 Indian Territory, 50, 55, 57, 63, 65, 66, 67, 89, 125 Ingalik, 28, 44 Innu, 28, 32, 37, 47 Interior Salish, 117 Inuit, 27, 32, 43 Inupiat, 32 Ipai, 101 Irinakhoiw, 47 Iroquoian languages, 46, 47, 49, 58, 59 Iroquois, 37, 46, 47–49, 50, 60, 176–179 Iroquois Confederacy, 46, 47, 49, 50, 176–179 irrigation, 20, 95, 96, 101, 102 Isabella I of Castille, 165 Ishi, 142 J Jackson, Andrew, 60, 61, 196–197 James I of England, 169 Jicarilla Apache, 106 Johnson v M’Intosh, 194 John II of Portugal, 165 Joseph, Chief, 121 Junaluska, 60 K kachina, 97, 100 kadohadacho, 67 Kai-i-gwu, 92 Kainah, 85 Kalispel, 117 Kamaiakan, 121 Kamia, 101 Kansa, 74 kashim, 45 Kaskaskia, 57 katsina, 97, 100 kayaks, 34 Keetoowah, 59 Kennewick Man, 228 Keresan language, 95 Kickapoo, 55, 57 Kicked-in-Their-Bellies (Crow), 78 King Philip’s War, 51–53 Kintpuash (Captain Jack), 125 Kiowa, 71, 88, 90, 92–93 Kiowa Apache, 92, 106 Kiowa-Tanoan languages, 70, 92, 94 Kitkehahki, 75 Kitksan language, 129 kivas, 96, 99, 100, 153 Klamath, 117, 123–125 Klamath language, 117 Knaiakhotana, 43 Kootenay, 122 Kristineaux, 38 Kroeber, A L., 142, 162 Kuksu, 136, 139, 140, 141 Kutenai, 117, 122–123 Kutenai language, 117 Kwakiutl, 128, 130, 133 Kwakwaka’wakw, 130 L Laguna, 95 Lake, 117 Lakota, 25, 84 Lakota language, 80 languages, 21, 25–26 Last of the Mohicans, The, 51 Lewis, Meriwether, 71, 116, 120, 135 Lillooet, 117, 118 Lincoln, Abraham, 82 Lipan Apache, 106 literacy, 61 Little Bighorn, Battle of, 84, 88, 90, 198 Little Crow, 82 Lone Wolf v Hitchcock, 207 longhouses, 47, 49, 50 Long Island of Holston, Treaty of, 60 Index | 245 Loups (Wolves), 51 Lower Brulé, 80 Lower Creeks, 64 M Macro-Algonquian languages, 66, 136 Maidu, 135, 140–141 Mandan, 70, 71–73, 74, 77, 81, 87, 90, 160 Mangas Coloradas, 105 Manitoba Act, 199–202 Maricopa, 101 marriage, colonization and, 21, 167, 168, 215, 219 Marshall, Chief Justice John, 194 Maskegon, 38 Massasoit, 50–51 Matthews, Washington, 71 Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied, 71 Mayan culture, 68 McDougall, William, 201–202 McJunkin, George, 144 Mdewkanton, 80 Medicine Dance Society, 53 Medicine Lodge, Treaty of, 88, 90 medicine societies (Midewiwin), 39, 47, 53, 55, 57 Mescalero Apache, 105, 106 Meshkwakihug, 56 Meskwaki, 56 Meskwaki Settlement, 209 Mesquakie, 56 Metacom/Metacomet, 51 Métis nation, 200–203 Miami, 57 Michif language, 70 Michigamea, 57 Micmac, 37 microblades, 28, 29 Midewiwin (medicine societies), 39, 47, 53, 55, 57 migration, 17–18 Miles, Gen Nelson A., 121 Mimbreño Apache, 106 Miniconjou, 80 Minitari, 73 missionaries, 38, 68, 69, 121 Mississippian culture, 20, 76, 158–159 Modoc, 117, 123–125 Modoc language, 117 Modoc War, 125 Mogollon, 20, 152–157 Mogollon Apache, 106 Mohawk, 47, 51 Mohegan, 46, 51, 53 Mohican, 46, 51 moieties, 49, 97, 127, 128 Mojave, 101 Moki, 99 Monachi, 111 Mono, 111, 113 Montagnais, 28, 32, 37 Mooney, James, 161–162 Moqui, 99 Mountain Crow, 78 Muh-he-con-neok, 51 Munsee band, 51 Muskogean languages, 58, 62, 63, 65, 68 Muskogee, 64 N Nadouessioux, 80 NAGPRA (Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act), 227 Nakota, 25 Nakota language, 80 Narragansett, 51 Narváez, Pánfilo de, 68 Naskapi, 28, 37 Natchez, 17, 58, 63, 66–67 Natchez language, 65 National Park Service, 225, 228 Native Alaskans, 27 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, 227 246 | Native American History Navajo, 94, 100, 104–105, 108 Nenenot, 37 Neolithic era, 30 Nespelem, 117 New Echota, Treaty of, 61 Nez Percé, 117, 120–121 Nez Percé War, 121 Nicolet, Jean, 53 Niska language, 129 Niza, Marcos de, 96 nomadic peoples, 39–40, 41, 63, 71, 74, 80–81, 87, 88, 90, 92, 106, 114 Nomlaki, 140 Nootka, 128 Northeast Indians, 20, 46–57 Northern Archaic peoples, 30 Northern Blackfoot, 85 Northern Cheyenne, 88 Northern Maritime culture, 31–32 Northern Paiute, 111, 113 Northern Tonto Apache, 106 Northwest Coast Indians, 42, 44, 118, 126–135, 136, 187–190 North West Company, 199–202 Northwest Ordinances, 193 Norton culture, 31 Numakiki, 71 Numbered Treaties, 202–204 Numic languages, 111, 114, 116 Nunavut, 34, 218 Nuu-chah-nulth, 128, 130, 133–134 O Ocean Bay tradition, 30 oceanside resource economy, 29 Oglala, 80, 82 oil, 78 Ojibwa, 25, 28, 38–39, 46, 47, 80, 81, 87 Okanagon, 117 Okipa, 71–72 Oliphant v Suquamish Indian Tribe, 221 Omaha, 70, 74–75 Oñate, Juan de, 167 Oneida, 47 Onondaga, 47 Oohenonpa, 80 Opechancanough, 176 Osage, 74 Osceola, 65–66 ossuaries, 62 Ottawa, 57 Overhill Cherokee, 60 Owens Valley Paiute, 111 P Pacific Coast Archaic peoples, 147–148 Padouca, 88 Paiute, 111–113 Paleo-Aleuts, 34 Paleo-Indians, 18–23, 28–30, 143–146 palisades, 49, 50 Papago, 94, 102 Patwin, 140 Paviotso, 113 Pawnee, 70, 75–76, 81, 90, 160 Penateka, 89 Pend d’Orielle, 117 Penn, William, 169 Penutian languages, 94, 96, 98, 123, 129, 135, 140 Peoria, 57 Pequot, 51, 53 peyotism, 92 Phil Kearny, Fort, 82 phratries, 44, 53, 100 Picuris, 96 Piedmont, 58 Piegan, 85 piercing, 72, 80 Pikuni, 85 Pilgrims, 50 Pima, 94, 101–102, 157 Piman language, 102 Index | 247 Pitahauerat, 75 Plains Apache, 106 Plains Archaic peoples, 148–149 Plains Cree, 38 Plains Indians, 47, 70–93, 190–192 Plains Village peoples, 159–160 Plains Wars, 80, 84, 88 Plains Woodland peoples, 159–160 Plateau Indians, 109–110, 116–125, 190–192 Pleistocene epoch, 18–19, 28 plummets, 19 Pomo, 135, 137–139, 140 Ponca, 74, 75, 160 Ponce de León, 69 Pontiac, 57, 182–184 Popé, 96 population, 161–163, 218–219 Potawatomi, 57 potlatches, 42, 44, 45, 128, 129, 130, 133, 134, 224 pottery, 31 Poundmaker, 203–204 Powhatan, 176 Pratt, Richard, 210 pre-Clovis peoples, 143, 146 pre-Columbian North America, 161–164 prehistoric agriculture, 20–21, 151–160 property ownership, 96, 134 Pueblo Indians, 94, 95–100, 104, 157 Pueblo Rebellion, 96, 98, 104 Q Quapaw, 75 Queen Anne’s War, 181–182 R ranching, 73, 74, 78, 85, 96, 100 Red Cloud, 82 Red River Settlement, 199–202 religion, 21, 23, 224–228 Reno, Maj Marcus, 198 reparations, 21 Riel, Louis, 201–204 River Crow, 78 River Indians, 51 River Patwin, 140 River Yuman, 101 Rock people, 50 Rocky Mountain Fur Company, 77 Rough Rock Demonstration School, 211 Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 211 Rupert’s Land, 201–202 Russian colonization, 21, 34, 36, 133, 189–190 S Sacagawea, 116 sachems, 51 Sahaptin, 117, 120, 121 Salish, 117–118, 128, 132 Salishan languages, 117, 118, 126, 132, 134 Sami, 33 Sand Creek Massacre, 88, 197 Sanpoil, 117, 118 Sans Arcs, 80 Santángel, Luis de, 166 Santee, 25, 80, 81, 82 Sapir, Edward, 135 Sassacus, 53 Sauk, 46, 55, 57 Saulteaux, 38 Scott, Duncan Campbell, 210 Scott, Gen Winfield, 61 Second Riel Rebellion, 202–204 Second Seminole War, 65 Selkirk, 199–202 Seminole, 25–26, 58, 61, 62, 63, 65–66, 69 Seneca, 47 Sequoyah, 61 Serra, Junípero, 187 Seven Cities of Cibola, 98 Sevier, Col John, 60 shamanism, 38, 44, 71, 76, 81, 88, 118, 120, 123, 133–134, 136, 137 248 | Native American History Shawnee language, 65 Shoshone, 78, 88, 90, 111, 113, 114–116 Shoshonean languages, 99 Shoshone-Bannock, 114 Shuswap, 117, 118 Sicangu, 25 sign language, 70 Sihasapa, 80 Siksika, 85 Sikyatki, 99 Sinkaietk, 117 Siouan languages, 53, 58, 70, 71, 73, 74–75, 78, 80 Sioux, 25, 38, 57, 71, 74, 75, 80–85, 87, 160 Sioux Uprising, 82, 197 Sisseton, 25, 80 Sitting Bull, 84, 198 Skidi, 75 Slave, 28, 41–42 slavery, 41, 49, 65, 67, 118, 123 smallpox, 38, 41, 72, 74, 87, 162–163 Small Tool people, 30–32 Snake Dance, 100 Snyder Act, 214 Soto, Hernando de, 63, 64, 167, 172–173 Southeast Indians, 20, 26, 58–69, 172–174 Southern Cheyenne, 88, 92 Southern Kwakiutl language, 130 Southern Okanagon, 117 Southern Paiute, 111 Southern Tonto Apache, 106 Southwest Indians, 20–21, 94–108, 152–157, 171–172, 187 sovereignty, 204–218 Spanish colonization, 21, 60, 64, 65, 68, 70, 76, 90, 92, 96, 98–99, 100, 102, 104, 105–106, 108, 140, 141, 164–167 spear points, 29 spear-throwers, 19, 44 Spokan, 117 sports, 45 Squash people, 97 St Catherine’s Milling & Lumber Company v The Queen, 207 Stockbridge band, 51 stone points, 30 stone tools, 18, 29, 59 Subarctic peoples, 28, 37–45, 179–181 subsistence economy, 19, 29, 30, 36, 114 Sugpiaq, 34 Summer people, 97 Sun Dance, 71, 74, 77, 81, 85, 88, 92, 224 Swampy Cree, 38 Swedish colonialism, 170–171 Sycamore Shoals, Treaty of, 60 syncretism, 96, 99, 100 T Takulli, 42 Tamaroa, 57 Tanaina, 28, 43–44 Tanoan, 97 Tanoan languages, 94, 95 Taos, 96 tattooing, 62, 64, 68 Tecumseh, 186 Teton, 80, 81 Tewa, 96 Tewa language, 95, 96 Thompson, 117 Thompson, David, 190 Three Affiliated Tribes, 72–73, 74, 78 Thule culture, 31–32 Tillamook, 134 Timucua, 58, 65, 69 Timucua language, 69 Tipai, 101 Tirawa, 76 Tlingit, 127–128 Tlingit language, 127 Tobacco Societies, 80 Tohono O’odham, 94, 102–104, 157 Index | 249 Toloache, 136 Tonto Apache, 106 tools, 18, 19, 28–32, 45, 59, 143–151 Torquemada, Tomás de, 165 totem poles, 43, 127, 129, 130 tourism, 231–234 trade, 19, 21 Trail of Tears, 61 transportation, 33, 34, 37, 39, 41, 43, 44, 80, 85, 106, 118, 120, 123 Transylvania Land Company, 60 treaties, 23, 49–55, 60, 61, 68, 76, 82–84, 87–90, 121, 125, 195–196, 202–204, 218 Tsades, 41 Tsalagi, 59 Tsimshian, 128, 129–130 Tsimshianic languages, 126, 129 Turquoise people, 97 Tuscarora, 47 Two-Kettle, 80 U Umatilla, 117 umiaks, 33, 44 Unangas, 34 Uncas, 53 United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations, 234 United States Congress, 61, 194, 195–199, 211, 214, 233 United States Supreme Court, 61, 193–194, 207, 221, 233 United States v Washington, 218 United States v Wheeler, 221 Upland Yuman, 101 Upper Brulé, 80 Upper Creeks, 64, 67 Urban Indian Relocation Program, 215 Ute, 88, 90, 111, 116 Ute language, 111 Uto-Aztecan languages, 70, 88, 94, 95, 96, 99, 101, 102, 111, 114, 135 V Verrazzano, Giovanni da, 167 Victorio, 105, 108 W Wahpekute, 80 Wahpeton, 80 Wakashan languages, 122, 130, 133 Walapai, 101 Wallawalla, 117 Wampanoag, 46, 50–51 Wappo, 139 War of 1812, 185–186 Washoe, 111 Watauga, Fort, 60 weaponry, 34, 38, 41, 44, 74, 85, 87, 113, 133 Wenatchee, 117 Wendat, 168 Wendat Confederacy, 50 Western Apache, 106 Western Mono, 111 Western Sioux, 80 whaling, 31, 32, 33, 133 Whiteman, Ridgley, 144 Wichita, 160 wickiups, 37, 47, 53, 59 wigwams, 37, 39, 47, 53, 59 Winnebago, 46, 53 Winter people, 97 Wintu language, 140 Wintun, 135, 137, 140 Wiyot, 136 Wolves (Loups), 51 Woodland Cree, 38 woodworking, 19, 43 Working Group on Indigenous Populations, 234 250 | Native American History World Renewal cycle, 137 Wounded Knee Massacre, 84, 198–199 Wounded Knee occupation, 218 Wovoka, 198 Wyandot/Wyandotte, 49 Y Yahi, 142 Yahi language, 141 Yakima, 117, 121–122 Yakima Indian Wars, 121 Yamasee War, 181–182 Yana, 135, 141–142 Yankton and Yanktonai, 25, 80, 81 Yavapai, 101 Yellowknife, 41 Yokutsan language, 135 Yuchi languages, 65 Yuki, 135, 139–140 Yuma, 101 Yuman, 94, 100–101 Yupik/Yupiit, 27, 32 Yurok, 135, 136–137 Z Zuni, 94, 95, 97–99, 157 Zuni language, 95–96 ... themselves into 24 | Native American History Tribal Nomenclature The past 500 years have seen myriad terms used as referents to indigenous Americans, including American Indian, Native American, First... 22 | Native American History Children outside the Indian boarding school at Cantonment, Okla., c 1909 Library of Congress, Washington, D.C (Neg no LC-USZ62-126134) Tracing Native American History. .. rare, those interested in the Native American past also draw information from traditional arts, folk literature, folklore, archaeology, and other sources Native American history is made additionally