FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH CITRUS FRUITS PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH BENEFITS No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH Additional books in this series can be found on Nova‟s website under the Series tab Additional e-books in this series can be found on Nova‟s website under the e-book tab FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH CITRUS FRUITS PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH BENEFITS DAPHNE SIMMONS EDITOR New York Copyright © 2016 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher We have partnered with Copyright Clearance Center to make it easy for you to obtain permissions to reuse content from this publication Simply navigate to this publication‟s page on Nova‟s website and locate the “Get Permission” button below the title description This button is linked directly to the title‟s permission page on copyright.com Alternatively, you can visit copyright.com and search by title, ISBN, or ISSN For further questions about using the service on copyright.com, please contact: Copyright Clearance Center Phone: +1-(978) 750-8400 Fax: +1-(978) 750-4470 E-mail: info@copyright.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers‟ use of, or reliance upon, this material Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Library of Congress Control Number: 2015955200 ISBN:  (eBook) Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc † New York CONTENTS Preface vii Chapter Citrus Based Biorefineries Jonathan Moncada, Valentina Hernández, Yessica Chacón, Ramiro Betancourt and Carlos A Cardona Chapter Exploring Bioactivity of Hesperidin, Naturally Occurring Flavanone Glycoside, Isolated from Oranges Ljubica Tasic, Boris Mandic, Caio H N Barros, Daniela Z Cypriano, Danijela Stanisic, Lilian G Schultz, Lucimara L da Silva, Mayra A M Mariño and Verônica L Queiroz Chapter Chapter Physiological Properties of Narirutin and Hesperidin Isolated from Citrus unshiu Ho-Young Park and Inwook Choi Citrus Residues As Raw Materials for Biomolecules and Energy: The Orange Peel Case Valentina Hernández, Laura V Daza and Carlos A Cardona Chapter Citrus Residues As Super-Adsorbents Ioannis Anastopoulos and George Z Kyzas Chapter Citrus Genetic Improvement: New Citrus Hybrids from Breeding Procedures and Evaluation of Their Genetic and Phytochemical Aspects Edoardo Napoli, Giuseppe Ruberto, Loredana Abbate, Francesco Mercati and Sergio Fatta Del Bosco Index 27 71 87 119 135 177 PREFACE Citrus is the most widely produced fruit in the world and it is grown in more than 80 countries Due to its varied and wide chemical composition as a consequence of its nature, citrus is an exceptional feedstock to the designing and assessing of biorefineries A wide spectrum of products are obtained from citrus, which nowadays are extracted and purified into essential oils, antioxidants and other compounds This book provides research on the production, consumption and health benefits of citrus fruits The first chapter begins with an overview of citrus based refineries Chapters two and three discuss hesperidin and narirutin, which are citrus flavonoids Chapter four studies the use of citrus residues as raw materials for biomolecules and energy Chapter five collects information from published works about the alternative use of citrus residues as efficient and promising adsorbents in clean water technology The final chapter examines citrus genetic improvement Chapter - Citrus is the most widely produced fruit in the world and it is cultivated in more than 80 countries Brazil leads in citrus production, with more than 18.90 million metric tons of fruit produced during 2004–05, followed by the United States and China Brazilian citrus production is oriented toward processing, while USA citrus production is focused toward processing and the fresh fruit market Nowadays Colombia is a smallholder producer compared to Brazil and USA, nevertheless many expansion possibilities appear in the west zones of the country Citrus production in Colombia was around 187 million tons for 2010 Nowadays citrus agroindustry in Colombia is not a well-established chain and many opportunities appear On the other hand, citrus is one of the most exceptional feedstock to design and assess biorefineries due to its varied and wide chemical composition as a consequence of its nature From citrus are obtained a wide spectrum of products, which nowadays are extracted and purified such as essential oils, antioxidants and other value-added compounds as pectin It is also important to obtain products for human consumption to guarantee food security, such as concentrated juices factories which has the major producers in Brazil and USA Therefore, the aim of this chapter is to evaluate a citrus-based biorefinery for the integrated production of essential oil, concentrated juice, antioxidant, citrus seed oil, pectin, xylitol, PHB, ethanol, citric acid, lactic acid and electricity The evaluation consists in the influence of energy and mass integration on the economical feasibility, environmental impact and possible social aspects that contribute in some way in rural development and food security preservation Chapter - Hesperidin is the principal bioflavonoid found in citrus fruits, with very interesting bioactivity properties that still are the object of intensive research Hesperidin and viii Daphne Simmons its aglycon form, hesperetin, are present in large quantities in oranges (Citrus sinensis) in particular In young, immature oranges, these flavones can account for up to 14% of the fruit weight Hesperetin is the 3‟,5,7-trihydroxy-4‟-methoxy flavanone, and hesperidin contains not only the flavanone moiety, but also a rutinose disaccharide that has one D-rhamnose united with glycoside bond to the D-glucose unit This paper presents and discusses chemical and physical properties of the orange bioflavones, as well as the most common methods of isolating and purifying these compounds As a secondary plant metabolite, hesperidin is produced as a protective agent in citrus, and its defense role and biosynthesis will also be briefly discussed here Many interesting bioactive properties of these phytochemicals have been reported, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hypolipidemic, vasoprotective and anticarcinogenic properties, and an extensive review of these properties will be presented Last but not least, the authors will present the most up-to-date developments in the research field that account for the mechanisms of action of these compounds Chapter - Citrus unshiu is one of the most important varieties of citrus grown in Northeast Asia Its peel is known as „Chinpi,‟ a non-toxic edible ethnopharmaceutical herb in China and Korea, and has been clinically used as a traditional medicine to treat common cold, dyspepsia, cough and phlegm Modern therapeutic studies have proven that citrus flavonoids have anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic activities In this chapter, an efficient way to isolate citrus flavonoids, narirutin and hesperidin, from Citrus unshiu was introduced Physiological properties such as anti-inflammatory activities and anti-alcoholic liver disease were also reviewed with suggestions on improving their bioavailability in a body through enzymatic modifications Chapter - The replacement of the fossil-based raw materials either fully or partially is an objective in many countries, being of special interest the use of local biomass such as agricultural, forest, agro-industrial and industrial wastes, due to its low cost and large availability According to FAOSTAT, by 2011 approximately 120 million tons of citrus were produced worldwide, with oranges accounting approximately 63.1 million tons Approximately 60% of the total citrus production is market for fresh consumption, while the other 40% is used in the agroindustry to extract no more than the 50% of the fruit weight as juice Residues from agroindustrial processing are composed by peel, seeds and remaining pulp and, in most of the cases, are used to spread soils, to produce animal feed, or to be burned However, these conventional disposal methods can cause negative effects on the soil and superficial waters Moreover, several value-added products, such as phytochemicals, pharmaceuticals, food products, essential oils, seed oil, pectin and dietary fibers, can be obtained from orange residues In this chapter, simulation results of the production of biofertilizers, gibberellic acid and electricity from orange peel as stand-alone products are presented Moreover, the experimental characterization was assessed Results from the characterization procedures have been used to feed the simulations to obtain the mass and energy balances that were subsequently used to perform the economic and environmental analysis of the above mentioned processes Moreover, comparisons from the technoeconomic and environmental points of view of the stand-alone processes were performed Besides, and based on the experimental results of the physicochemical characterization, two biorefinery schemes were techno-economic and environmentally evaluated Chapter - Water pollution is still a serious problem for the entire world Adsorption technology is a promising process which based on fabrication of novel, cheap, non dangerous and highly sorptive materials for application in wastewater purification processes Citrus 178 Index anti-inflammatory, viii, 27, 28, 38, 39, 51, 57, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 79, 81, 83, 84, 85 anti-inflammatory agents, 73 anti-inflammatory drugs, 51 antimicrobial, 28, 38, 57, 58 antineoplastic activity, 47 antioxidant, vii, viii, 1, 10, 15, 23, 24, 27, 28, 38, 39, 47, 55, 57, 64, 65, 66, 72, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 83, 85, 114, 131 antiproliferative effects over cancer cells, 47 antiviral properties, 28, 38 ANVISA, 56 apoptosis, 48, 67, 77 apoptotic mechanisms, 48 appetite, 146 aqueous solutions, 118, 120, 127, 131, 132, 133 Arabidopsis, 143, 171 Arabidopsis thaliana, 171 Aristotle, 119 aromatic, 24, 28, 32, 35, 37, 44, 138, 147, 157 aromatic compounds, 32, 37, 138 aromatics, 90 arsenic, 132 arthritis, 67 ascorbic acid, 56, 58 assessment, 15, 16, 25, 88, 98, 104, 108, 109, 113 astrocytes, 77 atherosclerosis, 38, 49 atoms, 45, 46 atopic dermatitis, 59, 72 ATP, 16, 48, 52, 62, 67, 98, 141 attachment, 126 augmenting cellular antioxidant defense, 39 availability of NO, 49 azeotropic point, 12 B BAC, 169 backcross, 149, 167 bacteria, 58, 61, 81 bacterium, 62 barley, 143, 144, 169 barriers, ix, 136 base, 39, 100, 107, 108, 142 base pair, 142 beneficial effect, ix, 49, 59, 135 beneficial microbiota, 47 benefits, vii, 28, 79, 81, 131 benzene, 28, 31, 146 benzo(a)pyrene, 75, 84 beverages, 68 bile, 53 bilirubin, 39, 52 biliverdin, 52 bioactivity, v, vii, 27 bioavailability, viii, 47, 49, 51, 52, 55, 56, 57, 64, 65, 68, 69, 71, 73, 79, 81, 85, 86 biocatalysts, 60 biochemical processes, 89 biochemistry, 82 bioconversion, 3, 79, 80 biodegradation, biodiesel, 4, 113 biodiversity, 93, 147, 174 bioenergy, 6, 89, 91, 95, 97, 110 bioflavonoids, 28, 29, 32, 38, 58, 60, 63 biofuel, 2, 60, 114 biogas, 6, 89, 95, 96, 97, 102, 110, 118 biological activities, 85, 147 biological activity, 58, 85 biological systems, 66, 77 biologically active compounds, 74, 81 biomarkers, 82 biomass, viii, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 13, 21, 22, 25, 26, 33, 63, 70, 87, 89, 90, 91, 93, 97, 114, 115, 116, 117, 120, 121, 124, 125, 128, 130, 132 biomaterials, 6, 89, 91 biomolecular pathways, 147 biomolecules, vii, 2, 6, 57, 91, 141 biopolymer, 13 biopolymers, 9, 89, 113 biosynthesis, viii, 27, 37, 44, 65, 131, 138, 166, 173, 174 biosynthetic pathways, 138 biotechnological applications, 85 biotechnological approaches, 136 biotechnology, 24, 25, 69, 70, 113, 114, 116, 118, 132, 142, 165, 166 biotic, ix, 135, 137, 148 births, 56 bleeding, 50, 56, 58 blood, 38, 47, 50, 51, 52, 55, 56, 58, 144 blood plasma, 38, 52, 56 blood pressure, 50 bloodstream, 50, 52, 53 body weight, 78 boilers, 14, 97 bonding, 57 bonds, 36, 55, 79 bone, 72, 82 brain, 66 Brazil, vii, 1, 6, 27, 30, 56, 82, 88 breakdown, 59 breast cancer, 47, 67 Index breeding, v, ix, 135, 136, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 164, 165, 166, 167, 171 bromine, 39 building blocks, by-products, 28, 120, 131 C C6-C3-C6 compounds, 28 Ca2+, 48, 58 cadmium, 132 caffeic, 8, 149, 151 calcium, 11, 12, 38, 67, 94, 95, 99, 102, 128 calcium carbonate, 94 calcium channel blocker, 38 calyx, 29 cancer, 38, 47, 48, 51, 67, 71, 72, 82, 120, 144, 174 cancer cells, 47, 48 candidates, 49 capillary, 38, 50, 58, 59 carbohydrate, 114 carbohydrates, 3, 28, 75, 90, 128, 141 carbon, 5, 6, 10, 12, 21, 24, 35, 39, 62, 72, 90, 91, 92, 94, 99, 125, 128, 129, 133 carbon atoms, 35 carbon dioxide, 10, 21, 24, 62, 91, 92 carbon monoxide, 39 carboxyl, 120, 121, 128 carboxylic acid, 127, 129 carboxylic acids, 127 carcinogenesis, 48, 67, 84 carcinoma, 47, 48 cardiovascular disease, 49, 51, 67, 71, 72, 82 cardiovascular diseases, 49, 67 cardiovascular disorders, 49 cardiovascular function, 58 cardiovascular risk, 49 cardiovascular system, 49 carotenoid, 30, 138, 141, 143, 166, 172, 173 carotenoids, 72, 75, 143, 147, 172, 173 carrier systems, 59 cascades, 84 case study, 115 catechol, 38, 39 cell death, 77, 78 cell differentiation, 48 cell division, 30 cell fusion, 167 cell line, 48, 67, 76 cell signaling, 84 cell size, 137 cellulases, 62, 69 cellulose, 30, 60, 63, 70, 89, 90, 94, 99, 128, 144 179 cerium, 132 Chaetoceros, Chalcones, 37 challenges, 4, 69, 114 chaperones, 70 chelating of metal compounds, 57 chemical, vii, viii, ix, 1, 2, 3, 7, 13, 16, 24, 27, 28, 29, 35, 36, 47, 50, 57, 60, 63, 66, 81, 89, 91, 93, 98, 120, 121, 135, 138, 149, 153, 154, 159, 161 chemical and physical properties, viii, 27, 31 chemical characteristics, 24 chemical properties, 57 chemical reactions, 89, 93 chemical reactivity, 57 chemical stability, 60 chemicals, 2, 3, 5, 6, 25, 39, 89, 90, 91, 92, 114, 115, 117 chemokines, 50 chemotaxis, 50 China, vii, viii, 1, 71, 88, 120 chitosan, 131 chloroform, 31 chlorophyll, 30 chloroplast, 137, 142, 143, 169, 170, 171 cholesterol, 38, 72 chromatography, 149, 153 chromium, 133 chromophore, 57 chromosome, 140, 144 chronic diseases, 51, 72 chronic venous insufficiency, 56 circulation, 56, 58 citral, 157 citrus, 1, iii, v, vii, viii, ix, 1, 6, 8, 9, 10, 17, 19, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 38, 47, 58, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 113, 117, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130,鲤131, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 157, 159, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175 Citrus limon L Burm, 149, 169 citrus peel waste, 10, 32 citrus peels, 65, 73, 75, 76, 84, 119, 123 Citrus sinensis, viii, 24, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 64, 65, 123, 124, 125, 126, 132, 133, 138, 149, 159, 165, 166, 167, 170, 174, 175 Citrus sinensis L Osbeck, 132, 149, 159, 174 Claisen reaction, 37 classes, 72, 149, 153, 157, 159 classification, 4, 5, 6, 89, 92 cleavage, 79 180 Index climate, 30 climates, 30, 93 clinical trials, 72 clone, 169 cloning, 142 clusters, 143 CO2, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 21, 22, 24, 26, 32, 33, 99, 102, 109, 114, 166 coal, 13, 21, 22, 102 cobalt, 132 coding, 142 codominant, 144 coenzyme, 38 coffee, 116 cogeneration, 6, 7, 10, 13, 14, 16, 19, 21, 22, 25, 99 cognitive impairment, 77, 84 coke, 13 colitis, 85 collagen, 72 Colombia, vii, 1, 9, 12, 19, 87, 88, 93, 94, 97, 99, 101, 112, 113, 114, 115, 117, 120 colon, 47, 48, 53, 67, 81, 173 colon cancer, 47, 48, 173 colon carcinogenesis, 67 color, 31, 46, 47, 149 combustion, 16, 89, 91 commercial, 13, 37, 60, 62, 63, 82, 91, 97, 100, 102, 136, 138, 139 commodity, 32 communication, 141 communities, 104 comparative analysis, 25, 107 compatibility, 136 competition, 91 complex interactions, 138 complexity, 164 compliance, composition, vii, ix, 1, 7, 8, 9, 13, 16, 22, 24, 59, 61, 72, 89, 94, 95, 102, 128, 135, 137, 138, 149, 153, 154, 159, 161, 175 compost, 89 compounds, vii, viii, 1, 10, 14, 24, 27, 28, 30, 32, 33, 37, 47, 49, 52, 57, 66, 68, 72, 73, 75, 77, 81, 83, 90, 99, 114, 120, 138, 141, 146, 147, 153, 159, 166, 168, 173, 174 conceptual model, conditioning, 19 configuration, 6, 14, 18, 19, 22 conflict, 63 conflict of interest, 63 Congress, 113, 166 connective tissue, 57, 59 consensus, 141 conservation, 15, 137 constituents, 3, 28, 32, 90, 175 construction, 142, 143 consumption, vii, viii, ix, 1, 14, 16, 19, 33, 38, 47, 54, 71, 72, 78, 81, 87, 97, 101, 103, 119, 120, 131 contact time, 121, 126, 128, 130 contaminated water, 133 contamination, 127 cooking, 4, 96, 103, 110 cooling, 16, 18, 19, 34 coordination, 46 copper, 132 correlations, 14 corrosion, 60 cortex, 28 Corylus avellana, 143, 170 cosmetic, 28, 32, 59, 73 cosmetics, 3, 28, 57, 58, 89 Cosmetics, 5, 57, 58 cost, viii, 13, 19, 20, 21, 32, 37, 60, 61, 63, 70, 79, 87, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 111, 112, 130, 131 cost saving, 61 cough, viii, 71, 73 coumaric, 8, 149, 151 coumarins, 37, 57, 146, 147 covering, 159 crop, 6, 91, 93, 113, 120, 136, 138, 140, 142, 143, 164, 167, 171, 172, 173 crop residue, 91, 93 crops, 2, 4, 6, 91, 93, 131, 136, 143 crude oil, 2, 3, 89 crystalline, 63 crystallization, 9, 11, 25, 34, 75, 96 crystals, 31, 34 Cuba, 25 cultivar improvement, 136, 138, 139, 141, 167 cultivars, ix, 82, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143, 165, 166, 168, 171, 172, 174, 175 cultivation, 30, 143 cultural practices, 30 culture, 12, 25, 70, 102, 137, 165, 174 cure, 63 cutaneous inflammation, 59 cuticle, 30 cybrids, ix, 136, 137, 140, 141, 159, 160, 161, 168, 169 cycles, 128, 129 cyclodextrins, 55, 56, 79 cyclooxygenase, 50, 51, 59, 75 cytochrome, 48 cytokines, 50, 51, 75 cytometry, 169 181 Index cytoplasm, 140, 141, 143, 165 D Dactil-ob, 56 Daflon, 47, 50, 56 damages, 69, 72 database, 82, 97 decontamination, 120, 131 defibrillation, 63 deficit, 137, 166 degradation, 32, 33, 51, 52, 57, 58, 61, 76 dehydration, 12, 32 denaturation, 61 Department of Agriculture, 164 Department of Energy, 2, 115, 116 deposition, 77 depreciation, 14, 98, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 110 derivatives, 37, 49, 51, 52, 58, 68, 147, 173 dermatology, 57 dermis, 58 desorption, ix, 25, 119, 128, 129 detectable, 142 detection, 142, 172, 175 detoxification, 14 diabetes, 72, 84 diapedesis, 50 diastolic blood pressure, 77 didymin, 32 diet, 38, 51, 55, 63, 72, 81, 147 dietary fiber, viii, 71, 72, 87 diffusion, 32, 52, 58, 127 digestion, 13, 64, 81, 92, 95, 116 diosmetin 6,8-di-C-glucoside, 149 diosmin, 47, 50, 56, 57, 58, 67, 149, 151, 152 diploid, 138, 139, 141, 166, 168, 169 dipole-dipole, 57 disability, 77 discriminant analysis, 82, 152, 157, 160, 175 discrimination, 147 diseases, 66, 71, 72, 77, 79, 120, 138 disposition, 23 distillation, 12, 96, 110 distilled water, 34, 75, 120 distribution, 6, 7, 16, 19, 53, 102, 104, 106, 110, 169, 170, 174, 175 diversity, 142, 157, 169, 170, 172, 173 DNA, 48, 85, 137, 141, 142, 143, 169, 170, 171 DNA damage, 85 DNA repair, 85 dominance, 138, 141, 160 dosage, ix, 81, 119, 138 double bonds, 57 draft, 63 drainage, 56 Drosophila, 172 drug, 47, 50, 56, 57, 59, 68, 81, 84, 86 drug discovery, 81 drugs, 28, 55, 56 drying, 13, 32 dyes, 120, 131 dyspepsia, viii, 71, 73 E ecology, 47, 174 economic evaluation, 19, 97, 98 economic performance, 21 economics, 117 editors, 165 education, 69 efficacy, 47, 69 effluent, 12, 21 effluents, 16, 21, 98, 130 elaboration, 158, 160 electric field, 51, 66 electricity, vii, viii, 1, 7, 13, 16, 19, 87, 88, 91, 96, 97, 100, 101, 107, 109 electrolyte, 72 electron, 31, 39, 46, 57, 58, 62 elucidation, 39 e-mail, 135 embryogenesis, 136, 165 emission, 16, 21, 99 emulsion, 59, 96 enantiomers, 57 encapsulation, 55 endocarp, 28, 29, 30 endothelial cells, 49, 50 endothelium, 49, 50, 52 endothermic, 130 energy, vii, viii, 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 33, 57, 60, 74, 87, 88, 89, 91, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99, 102, 105, 109, 110, 114, 115, 118 energy consumption, 14, 22, 23 energy efficiency, energy supply, 25 engineering, 142 entropy, ix, 119, 121, 127 environment, 15, 74, 92, 98, 109, 132 environmental conditions, 142 environmental effects, 32 environmental factors, 38 environmental impact, vii, 1, 15, 16, 19, 21, 23, 74, 98, 109 environmental management, 91 182 Index Environmental Protection Agency, 15, 98 environments, 91 enzymatic hydrolysis, 36, 60, 62, 81, 83, 117 enzyme, 32, 33, 36, 37, 51, 53, 55, 58, 60, 69, 77, 83, 142 enzymes, 37, 39, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 70, 75, 79, 89, 93 EPA, 15, 98 epicotyl, 137 epidermis, 58 epinephrine, 50 epithelial cells, 52, 56 epithelium, 52, 56 equilibrium, 121, 123, 126, 127, 128, 129, 131 equipment, 2, 3, 40, 41, 60, 97 eriocitrin, 32, 149, 151, 152, 175 erosion, 94 erythrocytes, 50 essential oils, vii, viii, 1, 7, 8, 10, 19, 24, 28, 33, 34, 75, 83, 87, 88, 96, 120, 131, 138, 140, 141, 144, 147, 148, 149, 153, 154, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 167, 173, 174 EST, 144 ester, 129, 172 estrogen, 49, 67 ethanol, vii, 1, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 24, 25, 31, 32, 33, 60, 61, 70, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 89, 94, 96, 97, 112, 113, 114, 117 ethyl acetate, 75 ethylene, 30 evaporation, 10, 11, 13 evidence, 50, 53, 56, 81, 82, 168, 170 evolution, 3, 26, 143, 171 exocarp, 28, 29 exploitation, 4, 137 exports, 93 exposure, 38, 55, 57, 59, 77, 79 expressed sequence tag, 142 extraction, 8, 9, 10, 24, 25, 32, 33, 34, 36, 63, 64, 65, 73, 74, 75, 83, 89, 93, 95, 96, 110, 114 extracts, 33, 51, 52, 64, 65, 74, 75, 84 F fabrication, viii, 119, 130 factories, vii, Fagus sylvatica, 143, 170 families, 6, 146 farmers, 110 fat, 68, 75, 144 fatty acids, 59 FDA, 56 feces, 53 feedstock, vii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 10, 13, 21, 91, 96, 99 feedstocks, 2, 4, 6, 7, 90, 91, 113 Femminello, 140, 141, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 167, 169 fermentable carbohydrates, 89 fermentation, 7, 11, 12, 14, 25, 62, 69, 70, 89, 92, 95, 96, 105, 116, 117, 118 ferric chloride test, 31 fertility, 138 fertilizers, 96 ferulic, 8, 149, 151 fetus, 56 fiber, 7, 10, 72, 132 fibers, 63, 70 fibrin, 58 fibrinogen, 50, 58 fibrosis, 50, 77, 84, 85 field crops, 164 field trials, 136 films, filters, 57 filtration, 11, 12 financial, 63 financial support, 63 fingerprints, 174 first generation, 5, 6, 91, 143 flame, 149, 153 flame ionization detector, 149, 153 flavanone(s), v, viii, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, 35, 37, 49, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 65, 67, 68, 72, 73, 82, 83, 86, 144, 149, 151, 152, 173, 175 flavedo, 25, 29, 30, 147, 149 flavones, viii, 27, 29, 52, 54, 64, 72, 82, 144, 149, 151, 152, 175 flavonoid(s), vii, viii, 8, 28, 30, 32, 33, 37, 38, 39, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 120, 131, 143, 144, 149, 151, 152, 174, 175 flavonoids, vii, viii, 8, 28, 30, 32, 33, 37, 38, 39, 45, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 120, 131, 143, 144, 149, 152, 174 flavonols, 72, 144 flavor, 28, 51 flora, 53 flour, 24 flowers, 24, 28 fluid, 10, 24, 32, 56 fluid extract, 10, 24, 32 food, vii, viii, ix, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 23, 28, 33, 37, 52, 60, 64, 73, 74, 83, 86, 87, 89, 91, 113, 116, 119, 120, 173, 174 183 Index Food and Drug Administration, 56 food chain, 120 food industry, 37, 60, 89 food products, viii, 6, 87, 91, 174 food security, vii, 1, 5, 23 formaldehyde, 124, 125, 126 formation, 37, 45, 52, 58, 59, 77, 79, 121, 126, 138, 141, 165 formula, 29, 31 fragility, 58 fragments, 137 France, v, 135 free energy, ix, 119, 121, 126 free radicals, 38, 48, 57, 58, 72 fructose, 60, 144 fruit flavors, 37 fruits, vii, ix, 8, 19, 24, 27, 28, 32, 64, 65, 71, 72, 73, 74, 81, 82, 83, 91, 93, 114, 131, 135, 138, 144, 145, 146, 147, 157, 160, 166, 174 FTIR, 35, 42, 121, 127, 128, 129 functional food, ix, 32, 79, 135 functional foods, ix, 79, 135 fungi, 58, 61 fusion, ix, 136, 137, 138, 140, 141, 143, 159, 165, 166, 167, 168 G gallbladder, 53 gamma rays, 140 gas chromatography, 149, 153 gasification, 13, 16, 26, 89, 91, 95, 97, 99, 100, 101, 107, 108, 109, 112 gastrointestinal tract, 73, 82 GC-FID, 159 GC-FID-MS, 159 GDP, 93 gel, 69 gene expression, 48, 84, 138, 166, 168 gene pool, ix, 136, 137 gene regulation, 142 gene transfer, 167 genes, 77, 78, 136, 137, 138, 141, 142, 144, 168 genetic, v, vii, ix, 61, 131, 135, 136, 137, 138, 141, 142, 143, 144, 164, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 173, 174 genetic diversity, ix, 136, 137, 142, 143, 168, 169, 170 genetic engineering, 61 Genetic engineering, 142 genetic factors, 144 genetic improvement, vii, ix, 131, 135, 138, 164, 166, 167 genetic information, 137, 141 genetic linkage, 144, 169 genetics, 136, 165, 166, 170, 174 genome, 137, 138, 141, 142, 143, 144, 164, 171, 172, 173 genomics, 164, 171, 174 genotype, 164, 172, 174 genotyping, 143, 144, 171, 172, 173 genus, 24, 120, 143, 144, 164, 168, 169 geographical origin, 174 geranial, 157, 160 geraniol, 157, 160 Germany, 94, 173 gestation, 56 GHG, 16, 21, 22, 98, 99, 109, 111, 112 Gibbs energy, 121 global scale, 120 global warming, 91 glucose, viii, 8, 9, 11, 12, 27, 31, 35, 52, 53, 55, 56, 60, 73, 77, 79, 83, 86, 94, 99, 114, 130, 144 glucosidases, 86 glucoside, 36, 37, 43, 52, 53, 55, 68, 79, 80, 81, 86, 149, 152 glucuronidation, 53 glutathione, 77, 172 glycans, 81, 83 glycerin, 59 glycerol, 59, 113 glycol, 59 glycosidazed, 28 glycoside, viii, 27, 31, 53, 66, 72, 82 glycosylation, 39, 79, 81, 82, 85 graph, 152, 157 GRAS, 74 Greece, 119 greenhouse, 21, 98, 108 greenhouse gas, 21, 98, 108 greenhouse gas (GHG), 108 greenhouse gases, 21, 98 Gross Domestic Product, 93 growth, 30, 38, 47, 116, 137, 166 growth rate, 137 guest-host complex, 55 guidelines, 21 H half maximal inhibitory concentration, 47 haploid, 143, 144, 165 harvesting, 4, 5, 93 health, vii, 28, 71, 79, 81, 120, 143, 173 health care, 120 health promotion, 120 184 Index heart disease, 72 heart failure, 49 heavy metals, 119, 120, 127, 131, 132 heme, 66 heme oxygenase, 66 hemicellulose, 30, 60, 89, 90, 94, 99, 128, 144 hemorrhoids, 56, 72 hepatitis, 77 hepatocellular carcinoma, 48, 67, 84 hepatocytes, 77, 78, 79 hesperetin, viii, 27, 28, 31, 36, 37, 38, 39, 43, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 58, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, 72, 80, 81 hesperidin, v, vii, viii, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 149, 151, 152 heterokaryon, 137 hexamethoxyflavone, 32 hexane, 75 high pressure extraction, 33 High Value-Added, 60 high-value commodities, 60, 61, 63 histamine, 50 history, 143, 173 HO-1, 39, 77, 84 host, 55, 56, 75 House, 16, 109 housing, 93 HP-β-CD, 56 human, vii, ix, 1, 3, 16, 28, 36, 38, 47, 48, 53, 56, 59, 63, 66, 67, 68, 69, 72, 73, 81, 82, 84, 86, 98, 120, 131, 135 human body, 53, 73 human health, ix, 36, 38, 63, 81, 98, 131, 135 human health problems, 63 human skin, 59, 69 humidity, 30, 94 hyaluronidase, 58, 59 hybrid, ix, 3, 60, 136, 138, 139, 140, 149, 152, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 166, 167, 174, 175 hybridization, ix, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 147, 165, 166, 167, 170 hybrids, v, ix, 120, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 141, 143, 147, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 157, 158, 159, 166, 167, 168, 174, 175 hydrocarbons, 90, 147, 149, 153, 156, 157, 158, 159, 163 hydrodistillation, 149, 153, 159 hydrogel, 59 hydrogen, 11, 57, 66, 75, 94, 95, 126 hydrogen bonding, 57 hydrogen bonds, 57 hydrogen peroxide, 66, 75, 94, 95 hydrogenation, 37 hydrolysis, 7, 8, 11, 12, 14, 24, 36, 43, 52, 55, 60, 62, 63, 65, 81, 83, 93, 96, 114, 117 hydroxide, 11, 12, 46, 96, 116, 126, 127 hydroxycinnamic acids, 149, 152 hydroxyl, 35, 38, 52, 79, 121, 127, 128 hydroxyl groups, 38 hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD), 56 hyperplasia, 59 hypertension, 38, 49, 72 hypoglycemia, 49 I ICAM, 75, 84 ideal, 55 identification, 64, 83, 142, 143, 144, 167, 169, 171, 172 identity, 144 illumination, 81 image, 48 immune system, 72 immunoglobulin, 82 improvements, ix, 135 impurities, 10, 12, 13, 57 in vitro, 28, 39, 48, 52, 55, 56, 69, 75, 83, 137, 165 in vitro assays, 48 in vivo, 47, 48, 49, 55, 56, 58, 67, 69, 75 incidence, 47 income, 14, 97 income tax, 14, 97 incompatibility, ix, 136 increasing the speed of blood-flow, 56 India, 30, 88 induction, 48, 50, 82, 168 industrial sectors, 89 industrial wastes, viii, 87, 91 industries, 8, 25, 28, 91 industry, 2, 28, 37, 60, 63, 120, 130, 167 infection, 37, 50, 58 inferences, 169 inflammation, 50, 51, 59, 68, 75, 76, 77, 78, 82, 84, 172 inflammatory cells, 50 inflammatory disease, 75, 76, 84 inflammatory mediators, 75, 76 infrared (IR) spectroscopy, 35 ingestion, 16, 64, 68, 86, 98 ingredients, 30, 57, 58, 63, 73, 81, 86 inheritance, 136, 138, 141, 143, 164, 166, 168 185 Index inhibition, 47, 48, 50, 57, 59, 60, 76, 77, 83, 84 inhibitor, 175 inhibitory action, 58 initiation, 49 injuries, 37 injury, 50, 57 inoculation, 96 insects, 30 insulin, 69, 82 insulin resistance, 82 integration, vii, 1, 3, 6, 7, 9, 10, 14, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 99 integrity, 49, 56 intercellular adhesion molecule, 75 intermolecular, 48, 57 interploid hybridization, 140 intestinal microflora, 52, 81 intestine, 52, 53, 81 intramolecular, 57 investment, 108, 112, 143 ion adsorption, 133 ionization, 149, 153 ionizing radiation, 38, 48 ions, 45, 58, 60, 126, 127, 128, 132 Iran, 115 iron, 126 ischemia, 49, 50 Islam, 84 isolation, 32, 35, 74, 79, 143, 169 isomerization, 37 isomers, 147 isotherms, 119, 121, 122, 123, 130, 131 issues, 14, 167 Italy, 135, 174 J Japan, 165, 172, 173 K kaempferol, 58, 72, 81, 85 KBr, 42 Kenya, 64 ketones, 30 kidney, 52 kidneys, 52, 53 kinetic equations, 121 kinetic model, 14, 95, 121, 126, 130 kinetic studies, 121, 127, 132 kinetics, 51, 68, 95, 119, 121, 122, 123, 130 KOH, 95, 98, 105 Korea, viii, 71 L lactase, 86 lactic acid, vii, 1, 7, 9, 12, 13, 14, 19, 25 Lactobacillus, 12, 82 large intestine, 47 larvae, 173 Latin America, 68 LC-UV-DAD-MS, 149 LDA, 157, 160 LDL, 38, 77, 83 lead, 32, 33, 37, 49, 77, 93, 126, 127, 132, 133 lecithin, 58 legs, 50, 56 lemon, 24, 28, 72, 125, 128, 132, 140, 141, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 166, 167, 169, 174, 175 lentigo, 59 lesions, 47, 78 leukotrienes, 50 lifetime, 104 lignans, 37, 57 lignin, 7, 10, 24, 60, 89, 90, 94, 99, 109, 117, 128 limonene, 8, 58, 88, 95, 96, 110, 111, 113, 154, 157, 159, 162 limonoids, 72, 143, 146, 147, 172, 173 linalool, 157, 161 linear discriminant analysis (LDA), 157, 160 lipid metabolism, 66, 83 lipid peroxidation, 48, 78, 85 lipids, 38, 77, 89, 90 lipophilicity, 52, 58 liposomes, 58, 59 liquid chromatography, 64, 82, 83, 175 liquid fuels, liquid phase, 14, 95, 102, 123 liver, 52, 53, 54, 77, 78, 79, 81, 83, 84, 85 liver cirrhosis, 77 liver damage, 78, 81 liver disease, 77, 84 livestock, 91, 93 loci, 143, 144, 170, 172 locus, 136, 142 low temperatures, 10, 37 lumen, 52 lymphocytes, 78, 79 lysis, 13 186 Index M macromolecules, 51 macrophages, 50, 51, 76, 83 magnesium, 31, 95, 99 majority, 12, 33, 130, 141 MALDI, 83 management, 82, 118 Mandarin, 7, 8, 15, 24, 114, 125, 127 manipulation, 136, 138, 141 manufacturing, 57, 91 mapping, 14, 142, 143, 169, 171, 172, 173 marketing, 47 MAS, 142, 144 mass, vii, viii, 1, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 23, 32, 72, 83, 87, 88, 96, 97, 98, 99, 102, 105, 110, 112, 121, 149, 153 mass spectrometry, 83, 149, 153 materials, viii, 2, 3, 5, 13, 24, 32, 63, 73, 74, 75, 85, 89, 90, 91, 93, 101, 103, 105, 110, 114, 117, 118, 119, 120, 130, 132 maternal inheritance, 141 matrix, 57, 77, 84, 95 matrix metalloproteinase, 57, 77, 84 media, 121, 126, 127, 128, 131 medical, 28 medicinal, 3, 24, 28, 56, 65, 131 medicine, viii, ix, 56, 66, 71, 73, 83, 119 Mediterranean, 30, 147, 167 melanin, 59 melanoma, 47, 59, 67 melting, 31 mesocarp, 29, 123, 125, 126, 132 mesophyll, 138, 141, 167 metabolic disorder, 51 metabolic disorders, 51 metabolic syndrome, 83 metabolism, 51, 52, 58, 65, 66, 68, 83, 86, 114, 141 metabolites, ix, 5, 28, 37, 47, 52, 53, 54, 55, 68, 72, 86, 89, 135, 138, 143, 144, 145, 146, 164 metabolized, 52, 73, 81 metabolomic, 164 metal ion, 58, 59, 126, 130 metal ions, 58, 59, 130 metalloproteinase, 58 metals, 59, 120, 123, 127, 130 meter, 102 methanol, 13, 26, 31, 32, 33, 34, 46, 126 methodology, 14, 97 methyl group, 37, 52 methyl groups, 37 methylene blue, 118 Mexico, 88 mice, 48, 66, 77, 78, 79, 83, 84, 85, 172 micellar system, 59 microbiota, 47, 66 microcirculation, 56, 57 micro-ecology, 47 microemulsion, 59, 69 microfibrils, 63 microorganism, 11, 12 microorganisms, 37, 52, 53, 61, 89, 93 microsatellites, 142, 143, 169, 170 microspheres, 55 microwave-assisted extraction, 33 missions, 108 mitochondria, 143, 168 mitochondrial DNA, 141 mitochondrial genomes, 137, 142, 143, 168 mitogen, 75 MMP, 77, 84 MMP-2, 84 MMP-9, 77, 84 modeling, 119, 121, 130 modelling, 24 models, 14, 47, 66, 68, 84, 97, 121, 123, 124, 131 modifications, viii, 37, 59, 71, 79, 128, 131 moisture, 33, 94, 95, 96, 99, 112 moisture content, 33, 95, 96, 99, 112 moisturizing substances, 59 molasses, 11 mole, 123, 129 molecular biology, 142, 164 molecular genetics, 136 Molecular markers, 142 molecular structure, 147 molecular weight, 31 molecules, 3, 33, 37, 38, 55, 56, 57, 60, 72, 75, 97, 120, 121 mono, 11, 79, 81, 102, 116, 147 monolayer, 56, 121 monomers, 60 monoterpene hydrocarbons, 149, 153, 156, 157, 158, 159, 163 morbidity, 77 morphology, 24, 30, 137, 141 mortality, 82 mRNA, 48, 49, 83 mtDNA, 141, 143 multivariate analysis, 152, 157, 160, 175 municipal solid waste, 89, 95 muscle spasms, 56 mutation, 142, 170 mutation rate, 142, 170 mutations, 142 myocardial infarction, 49, 77, 84 187 Index N NAD, 49 nanocellulose, 28, 60, 61, 62, 63, 70 nanoclusters, 45 nanocomposites, 70 nanofibers, 63 nanometers, 45 nanoparticles, 45, 46, 55, 63, 66 naringin, 8, 32, 33, 37, 51, 53, 68, 72, 73, 79, 81, 82, 83, 85, 151 narirutin, v, vii, viii, 32, 38, 64, 65, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 86, 149, 151 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2, 94, 115, 116, 117 National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 2, 94 natural compound, 32, 47, 79 natural food, 85 natural gas, 13, 92, 102 necrosis, 78, 79 negative effects, viii, 87 nematode, 169 neohesperidin, 32, 33, 151 Nepal, 133 nephrotoxicity, 55, 77, 84 neral, 157, 160 nerve, 50 Netherlands, 165 neurodegenerative diseases, 82 neurodegenerative disorders, 72 neuroinflammation, 84 neurological disease, 51 neutrophils, 50 nickel, 130, 133 nicotinamide, 77 Nigeria, 117, 120 nitric oxide, 49, 51, 57, 75, 78 nitric oxide synthase, 49, 51, 75, 78 nitrogen, 46, 94, 102 Nitzschia, NMR, 35, 36, 40, 41, 68 nobiletin, 32, 51, 83, 172 non-enzymatic antioxidants, 77 non-polar, 33, 52, 55 non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, 51 Northeast Asia, viii, 71, 73, 83 NREL, 115, 116, 117 Nrf2, 39, 66, 77, 84 nucellar polyembryony, ix, 136 nuclear genome, 137, 142, 170 nucleation, 45 nucleic acid, 58 nucleotide sequence, 142 nucleus, 76, 140, 141 null, 137 nutraceutic, 147 nutraceutical, ix, 135, 147 nutraceutical components, ix, 135, 147 nutrient, 30, 91, 95, 102, 144 nutrients, 94, 95, 103 nutrition, 84 O obesity, 72 obstacles, 61 oil, vii, viii, 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 10, 13, 15, 19, 24, 26, 28, 33, 34, 59, 87, 89, 91, 92, 96, 110, 113, 115, 131, 138, 140, 141, 149, 154, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 167, 174 oil production, 131, 159 Olea europaea, 143, 170 olive oil, 120 one-electron reduction, 39 operating costs, 14 operations, 3, 90, 92 opportunities, vii, 1, 25, 69, 114, 142 optimization, 25, 115, 165 organelle, 140, 168, 171 organic acids, 89, 93, 118, 144 organic matter, 94 organism, 28, 38, 39, 51, 52 organize, 121 organs, 78, 137 originality, 147 ornithine, 47 Oryza sativa, 144 osteoarthritis, 72 osteoporosis, 72 overproduction, 75 ovule, ix, 136 ox, 10, 141, 147, 149, 153, 157, 158, 159, 160 oxidation, 16, 28, 39, 89, 98, 120 oxidative damage, 78 oxidative stress, 39, 49, 57, 77, 84, 85, 172 oxygen, 11, 12, 13, 38, 58, 91, 94, 99 oxygenated monoterpenes, 141, 149, 153, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 163 P Pacific, 67, 132 Pakistan, 24, 132 parentage, 142, 143 188 Index parentage analysis, 143 parents, 137, 138, 139, 141, 149, 152, 153, 157, 158, 160, 163, 166, 167 partition, 58 passive diffusion, 52 pathogenesis, 84 pathway, 37, 44, 48, 67, 76, 84, 166 pathways, 38, 39, 81, 138, 147, 165 payback period, 107 PCR, 48, 138, 170, 171 pectin, vii, viii, 1, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 19, 23, 25, 30, 51, 60, 61, 63, 69, 87, 88, 95, 96, 98, 110, 111, 112, 113, 128, 144 pectinases, 62 peel essential oils, ix, 135, 147, 149, 158, 159 penetration capacity, 59 permeability, 38, 47, 48, 50, 57, 58, 59, 69 permeation, 69 permission, 62 peroxidation, 58, 78 peroxynitrite, 38 petroleum, 2, 13, 33 pH, ix, 10, 25, 36, 39, 43, 75, 85, 91, 119, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130 phagocytosis, 50 pharmaceutical, 8, 28, 32, 37, 56, 57, 120, 174 pharmaceuticals, viii, 79, 87, 130 pharmacokinetics, 82 pharmacological agents, 73 pharmacology, 66 phase II metabolism reactions, 52 PHB, vii, 1, 7, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 25, 113 phenol, 33, 37, 57 phenolic compounds, 32, 33, 58, 64, 74, 146 phenotype, 172 phenotypes, 164 phenylalanine, 37, 44 phosphate, 37, 102 phosphatidylcholine, 58 phosphorous, 95 phosphorus, 12 phosphorylation, 48, 49, 50, 76 photosynthesis, 90, 141 physical properties, viii, 14, 27 physiology, 24 phytochemical(s), v, ix, 56, 117, 135, 136, 138, 144, 147, 149 pigmentation, 59, 144 pine, 144, 173 plant defense, 28, 38 plant genomics, 164 plant growth, 141 plant molecular biology, 164 plants, ix, 7, 9, 10, 13, 19, 24, 28, 29, 33, 37, 44, 63, 70, 72, 82, 90, 104, 135, 137, 138, 139, 141, 143, 144, 146, 148, 165, 166, 167, 168, 171, 174 plastics, 2, plastidial genome, 143 platelet aggregation, 49, 50, 58 platelets, 50, 58 platform, 2, 7, 8, 143, 172 platinum, 131 ploidy, 138 polar, 33, 34, 55, 83 polarity, 59, 75 pollen, ix, 136, 137, 139 pollutants, 120, 121, 131 pollution, viii, 119, 120, 132 polyamine, 47, 67 polyhydroxyalkanoates, polyhydroxybutyrate, 113 polymer, 3, 60, 69, 70 polymer composites, 70 polymers, polymethoxy flavones, 144 polymorphism, 142, 143, 169, 170, 173 polymorphisms, 142, 170, 173 polyphenol(s), ix, 28, 47, 51, 52, 55, 56, 57, 65, 66, 67, 69, 82, 135, 144, 147, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 157, 160, 173, 174 polyphenols, ix, 28, 47, 51, 55, 56, 57, 65, 66, 67, 82, 135, 144, 153, 173 polysaccharide, 55, 60 polysaccharides, 8, 60, 74, 83 population, 47, 82, 91, 120, 140, 142, 143, 169, 170 population structure, 143, 169 porosity, 32 portal vein, 53, 78 portfolio, 23 Portugal, 166 potassium, 96, 99, 116, 144 potato, 167 precipitation, 33, 126 preparation, 32, 65, 68, 73, 83, 85 preservation, vii, 1, 23, 58 preserving the juice quality, 51 prevention, 28, 48, 67, 72, 77, 82, 120, 174 prodrugs, 174 producers, vii, production costs, 3, 14, 97, 104, 112 products, 4, 24, 60, 64, 65, 90, 93, 98, 102, 110, 113, 115, 117 profit, 21, 98 profit margin, 21, 98 profitability, 3, 104, 107, 112, 117 pro-inflammatory, 50, 51, 75 189 Index project, 13, 14, 147 proliferation, 47, 48, 59, 67 promoter, 172 propane, 37 propylene, 59 prostaglandin, 76 prostaglandins, 50, 51, 75 prostate cancer, 48, 67 protection, 82 protein kinases, 75 proteins, 51, 52, 57, 59, 70, 83, 89, 90, 128, 141 proteolytic enzyme, 58 proteomics, 164 prothrombin, 58 protons, 35 protoplast fusion, ix, 136, 137, 140, 143, 159, 165, 166, 167, 168 Protoplasts, 137 prototype, 144 pulp, viii, 7, 8, 10, 24, 28, 29, 60, 63, 82, 87, 88, 114, 117, 166 pumps, 14, 97 purification, viii, 25, 28, 32, 35, 65, 74, 119, 132 purity, 8, 64, 75, 76 pyrolysis, 89, 91 Q quantification, 86 quercetin, 50, 51, 55, 57, 58, 59, 67, 72, 86 R radiation, 48, 57, 165 radical scavenging property, 38 radicals, 38, 39, 57, 78 rainfall, 30 raw materials, vii, viii, 2, 3, 4, 6, 13, 14, 15, 16, 87, 89, 91, 93, 95, 97, 98, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106, 110, 112, 115 RCP, 129 reaction center, 59 reaction mechanism, 26 reaction medium, 60 reactions, 36, 37, 52, 75 reactive oxygen, 37, 38, 39, 48, 49, 67, 84 reactive oxygen species, 37, 38, 39, 48, 49, 67, 84 reactivity, 38 reception, receptor, 49, 67, 83 receptors, 120 reciprocating engine, 13 recombination, 138 reconstruction, 59, 142 recovery, 10, 13, 19, 64, 89, 102, 164 recrystallization, 34 rectification, 12 recycling, 74 red blood cells, 72 reducing sugars, 3, 89 reduction potential, 39, 45 regenerate, 137 regeneration, ix, 119, 137, 141, 165, 167, 168 regression, 171 relatives, 165 relativity, 94 remediation, 132 renal cell carcinoma, 83 reparation, 115 requirement, 168 requirements, 3, 9, 10, 13, 16, 18, 19, 86, 98, 105, 109, 110, 112, 121 research institutions, 61 residue, 6, 13, 75, 89, 94 residues, vii, viii, ix, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 13, 63, 64, 87, 88, 91, 93, 109, 112, 113, 115, 119, 120, 121, 123, 128, 130, 131, 132 resins, 89 resistance, ix, 56, 59, 135, 140, 141, 148, 169 resolution, 56, 172 resources, 2, 4, 73, 91, 93, 141, 173 response, 37, 48, 77, 84 rice, 82, 143, 144, 171, 172 rings, 57, 146 risk, 38, 56, 60, 72, 75, 77, 82 risk factors, 75, 77 rodents, 47 room temperature, 34 root, 137, 165 roots, 93, 166 routes, 6, 25, 90 rural areas, 13 rural development, vii, Rutaceae, 28, 120, 133, 146, 168, 169 rutinose, viii, 27, 28, 31, 37, 39 S safety, 47, 81 saturation, 12, 13 savings, 13, 16, 19 sawdust, 132 science, 130 scientific understanding, 28 second generation, 5, 6, 91 190 Index secondary metabolism, 164 secondary plant metabolite, viii, 27, 28 second-generation (2G) bioethanol, 60, 63 secrete, 62 secretion, 50, 59, 70 security, vii, 1, sedative, 66 sediment, 51 seed, vii, viii, 1, 7, 9, 10, 19, 24, 28, 30, 85, 87, 93, 125, 128, 129, 133, 167 seedlessness, 136, 139, 165 segregation, 137 selectivity, 10, 74, 79 senile dementia, 38 sensitivity, 97, 106 sequencing, 142, 143, 172 Serbia, 27 serine, 75 serotonin, 50 serum, 75, 85 sesquiterpenes, 147, 149, 153, 156, 157, 158, 159, 163 sesquiterpenoid, 166 sewage, 116, 118 sexual hybrids, 149, 152, 153, 157, 158, 174 shape, 93, 149 shelf life, 51 shikimate pathway, 37, 44 shoot, 165 showing, 30, 45, 46, 140, 146, 152 side chain, 60 side effects, 47, 77 signal transduction, 75 signaling pathway, 39, 50, 75 signals, 35 signs, 49 silver, 45, 46, 47, 66 silver nanoparticles, 45, 46, 66 simulation, viii, 10, 13, 14, 87, 88, 97, 110, 113, 117 simulations, viii, 87, 88, 97 sinapic, 149, 151 sinensetin, 32 single-nucleotide polymorphism, 171 skeleton, 35, 37 skin, 57, 58, 59, 67, 69, 125, 127, 128, 133, 172 skin care, 57 skin microcirculation, 57 skin pigmentation, 59 skin whitening, 59 sludge, 92, 95, 102, 116, 118 small intestine, 52, 53, 81, 86 SNP, 142, 143, 144, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173 society, 64 sodium, 13, 52, 53, 55, 86, 95, 99, 124, 127, 128, 144 sodium hydroxide, 124, 127, 128 software, 14, 15, 98, 100, 102, 108 soil type, 30 solid state, 95, 118 solid waste, 7, 10 solubility, 10, 11, 12, 36, 38, 46, 51, 55, 56, 68, 69, 75, 79, 81 soluble, 8, 31, 51, 60, 72, 75, 81, 83, 99 solution, 10, 11, 12, 13, 31, 34, 36, 45, 46, 47, 95, 96, 121, 123, 126, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133 solvents, 32, 33, 59, 64 somatic hybridization, ix, 136, 137, 138, 140, 141, 165, 166, 167 somatic hybrids, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 159, 166, 167, 168, 170, 171, 174 sorption, 25, 121, 130, 132 sorption process, 130 Soxhlet extractions, 32 Soxhlet extractor, 33, 34 soybean, 4, 143, 144, 170, 171, 173 soybeans, 170 Spain, 69, 94, 113, 165 species, ix, 5, 28, 29, 37, 38, 39, 45, 48, 49, 62, 67, 84, 85, 93, 119, 120, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140, 142, 143, 144, 150, 152, 164, 165, 169, 170, 171, 175 spectroscopy, 35, 45 spontaneity, 121 sporogenesis, 139 spruce, 144, 173 stability, 57, 61, 81, 127 standard deviation, 151 standardization, 67 starch, 79, 90, 144 starch polysaccharides, 144 state, 14, 28, 64, 116, 117, 131 statistics, 170 sterile, 138, 139, 168 steroids, 28 stigma, 137 stimulation, 50 stock, stomach, 52, 53, 172 stomata, 137 stratum corneum, 58 stress, 48, 77, 78, 136, 137, 141 stretching, 35 stroke, 38, 72 structure, 25, 29, 31, 35, 38, 39, 47, 55, 58, 63, 66, 72, 79, 85, 96, 169, 173 Structure, 31, 65 Index style, 137 subacute, 50 subcutaneous injection, 55 subgroups, 28, 29 subsistence, 101 substitutes, substitution, 39, 143, 171 substrate, 43, 60, 79, 95, 105 substrates, 19, 93 sucrose, 60, 144 sugarcane, 25, 26, 91, 117 sugi, 144 sulfate, 38, 52, 53, 81, 102 sulfur, 94 sulfuric acid, 11, 12, 36, 94 Sun, 83 supercritical CO2 extraction, 33 supervision, 56 supplementation, 25, 77, 81 supply chain, 113 suppression, 51, 78 surface area, 32, 55, 120, 126, 127 surfactant, 59 surfactants, 5, 89 surplus, 13 Sweden, 115 sweet orange, 24, 28, 32, 72, 120, 133, 141, 149, 159, 165, 166, 167, 168, 170 sweetener, 37 swelling, 50, 56 switchgrass, Switzerland, 94 synergistic effect, 47 synthesis, 13, 37, 38, 45, 48, 56, 57, 58, 68, 72, 77, 114, 115, 141 T tandem repeats, 142 tangeretin, 32 tannins, 28, 55, 57, 120 target, 51, 53, 130 taxonomic implications, 147 taxonomy, 24, 143 technical assistance, 164 techniques, 25, 32, 33, 142, 143, 164 technologies, 3, 19, 23, 51, 89, 90, 107, 108, 115, 143, 144, 164 technology, vii, viii, 13, 24, 25, 26, 69, 70, 83, 108, 119, 130, 164 temperature, ix, 10, 11, 13, 30, 33, 74, 75, 91, 94, 119, 120, 121, 126, 127, 128, 130, 165 terpenes, 90 191 terpenoids, 147 testing, 47, 59 tetraploidy, 137 Thailand, 132 the treatment of heart failure, 49 therapeutic effect, 48, 72 therapeutic effects, 72 therapy, 84 thermal degradation, 10 thermal energy, 13, 14, 97 thermal treatment, 51 thermodynamic parameters, 121 thermodynamic properties, 117 thermodynamics, 119, 123, 124, 132 thickener, 60 threonine, 75 thrombin, 58 tissue, 30, 37, 38, 50, 51, 58, 59, 68, 77, 81, 137, 165 tissue swelling, 50 TNF, 75, 77, 78, 84 TNF-alpha, 84 TNF-α, 75, 77, 78 tobacco, 140 total costs, 104 total energy, 16 total product, 6, 19, 20, 21, 97 toxic effect, 120 toxicity, 16, 56, 85, 98 trace elements, 72, 118 traits, 136, 137, 138, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 164, 171 transcription, 75, 78 transcription factors, 75 transesterification, 93 transference, 39 transformation, ix, 7, 37, 93, 135, 136, 147 transformation processes, 93 transformation product, ix, 135 translocation, 76 transpiration, 137 transport, 52, 59, 67, 69, 112, 121 transportation, 92 treatment, 3, 5, 7, 10, 19, 48, 49, 51, 59, 65, 75, 77, 82, 113, 120, 137 trial, 68, 85, 127 triglycerides, 3, 90 triploid, 137, 139, 166, 167 tryptophan, 37 tumor, 83, 172 tumor growth, 83 tumors, 47 typicalness, 147 tyrosine, 37 192 Index U U.S Department of Agriculture, 82 ultrasound, 32, 33, 63, 64, 74, 83 ultrasound-assisted extraction, 33, 64, 65, 74, 83 Umbelliferae, 146 uniform, 45, 47, 137 United Nations, 116, 117, 131 United States, vii, 1, 56, 88, 164 urea, 59, 95, 102 uric acid, 57 uric acid levels, 57 urine, 38, 51, 52, 53 USA, vii, 1, 6, 13, 14, 25, 88, 116, 117, 172, 173 USDA, 82, 164 UV irradiation, 58 UV radiation, 37, 57 UV-irradiation, 58 V vacuum, 10, 96 Valencia, 15, 84, 94, 113, 141, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 167, 170 validation, 172, 173 Van der Waals forces, 57 vapor, 14, 97 variables, 157, 160 variations, 16 varicose veins, 50, 56 varieties, viii, ix, 5, 71, 135, 136, 139, 142, 144, 147, 159, 164, 170, 173 vascular cell adhesion molecule, 75 vasodilation, 50 vasoprotective action, 56 VCAM, 75 vegetables, 72, 147, 174 vein, 79 velocity, 30 vesicle, 30, 165 vessels, 49, 59 vicenin-2, 149, 151 violaxanthin, 147 viruses, 58 vitamin C, 28, 47, 51, 56, 72, 144 Vitamin C, 56, 72 vitamins, 71, 81, 90, 141 vitis, 144, 173 W waste, 3, 10, 23, 24, 32, 62, 63, 64, 70, 90, 109, 112, 116, 118, 124, 125, 131, 132, 133 waste water, 109, 132 wastewater, viii, 10, 119, 120, 127, 131, 132, 133 water, vii, ix, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 19, 21, 25, 30, 32, 34, 51, 59, 65, 72, 74, 75, 79, 81, 83, 90, 94, 95, 96, 97, 102, 112, 118, 119, 120, 126, 127, 128, 130, 137, 166 water resources, 19 weakness, 138 WHO, 127 wood, 2, 4, 91, 102, 132 wood waste, working hours, 101, 102 World Trade Organization, 93 worldwide, viii, 6, 63, 71, 87, 88, 138 X xenobiotics, 52 Y yield, 16, 24, 32, 33, 34, 36, 43, 75, 88, 108, 136, 141, 164 Z zeolites, 120 zinc, 130, 133 Β β-cyclodextrins, 56 ...FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH CITRUS FRUITS PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH BENEFITS No part of this digital document may be reproduced,... be found on Nova‟s website under the e-book tab FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH CITRUS FRUITS PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH BENEFITS DAPHNE SIMMONS EDITOR New York Copyright © 2016... oils, antioxidants and other compounds This book provides research on the production, consumption and health benefits of citrus fruits The first chapter begins with an overview of citrus based refineries