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Reading the Shape of Nature vividly recounts the turbulent early history of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard and the contrasting careers of its founder Louis Agassiz and his son Alexander. Through the story of this institution and the individuals who formed it, Mary P. Winsor explores the conflicting forces that shaped systematics in the second half of the nineteenth century. Debates over the philosophical foundations of classification, details of taxonomic research, the young institutions financial struggles, and the personalities of the men most deeply involved are all brought to life.In 1859, Louis Agassiz established the Museum of Comparative Zoology to house research on the ideal types that he believed were embodied in all living forms. Agassizs vision arose from his insistence that the order inherent in the diversity of life reflected divine creation, not organic evolution. But the mortar of the new museum had scarcely dried when Darwins Origin was published. By Louis Agassizs death in 1873, even his former students, including his son Alexander, had defected to the evolutionist camp. Alexander, a selfmade millionaire, succeeded his father as director and introduced a significantly different agenda for the museum.To trace Louis and Alexanders arguments and the style of science they established at the museum, Winsor uses many fascinating examples that even zoologists may find unfamiliar. The locus of all this activity, the museum building itself, tells its own story through a wonderful series of archival photographs.
Reading the Shape of Nature Science and Its Conceptual Foundations DAVID L HULL, EDITOR Reading the Shape of Nature COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY AT THE AGASSIZ MUSEUM MARY P WINSOR The University of Chicago Press CHICAGO AND LONDON Mary P Winsor is associate professor at the Institute for the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology at Victoria College, University of Toronto Title page illustration: Field sketch of Amazonian angelfish made by Louis Agassiz's artist Jacques Burkhardt in 1865, with notations by Agassiz (By permission of the Museum of Comparative Zoology Archives, Harvard University) The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637 The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London © 1991 by The University of Chicago All rights reserved Published 1991 Printed in the United States of America 0099989796 959493 929154321 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Winsor, Mary P Reading the shape of nature: comparative zoology at the Agassiz Museum / Mary P Winsor p cm.-(Science and its conceptual foundations} Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-226-90214-5 (cloth); ISBN 0-226-90215-3 (pbk.) Natural history-Classification Evolution-Philosophy Harvard University Museum of Comparative Zoology-History I Title II Series QH83.W56 1991 574'.012-dc20 91-8742 CIP @The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984 To Ruth Dixon Turner Comparative Zoologist par excellence Contents Illustrations IX Preface Xl Acknowledgments XVll "In the Prime of His Admirable Manhood" "I Have Been Disappointed in My Collaborators" 43 "Our Work Must Be Done with Much More Precision" 66 "An Object Worthy of a Life's Devotion" 81 "The Many Plans Started by My Father" 119 "Shall We Say 'Ignorabimus: or Chase a Phantom?" 147 "The Slender Thread Is Practically Severed" 164 "Results Unattainable by Museum Study Alone" 198 "Collections Never of Use to Anyone" 213 10 "Dependent on the Personal Feelings of the Authors" 232 11 "I Made Up My Mind That Very Day to Be Director" 245 Concluding Remarks 267 Notes 275 Bibliography 297 Index 317 VII Illustrations 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 On the steps of Louis Agassiz's Quincy Street home Louis Agassiz in 1859 Louis Agassiz lecturing on the "Radiates" Zoological Hall, drawn by James Henry Blake in 1868 Residents of Zoological Hall around 1870 Location of Zoological Hall during the M.C.Z.'s early years Notable students of Louis Agassiz Alexander Agassiz, Theodore Lyman, and Jacques Burkhardt Drawing of Amazonian angelfish by Jacques Burkhardt annotated by Louis Agassiz Letter of Louis Agassiz to P R Uhler, April 1864 Hermann Hagen Hagen's new crayfish character, lithographed by P Roetter Taxonomic relationships of crayfishes Plan of the museum of the Boston Society of Natural History Alexander Agassiz's family connections Louis Fran~ois de Pourtales and Louis Agassiz Alexander Agassiz Nathaniel Southgate Shaler M.C.Z from 1859 to 1872, from the Divinity Avenue side M.C.Z from 1859 to 1872, from the Oxford Street side, across the athletic field M C.Z from 1872 to 1878, from the Oxford Street side M.C.Z from 1872 to 1878, from the Divinity Avenue side Vision of the M.C.Z of the future, seen from Divinity Avenue M.C.Z from 1882 to 1886, from the Oxford Street side M.C.Z from 1882 to 1886, from across Oxford Street and the athletic field IX 13 22 31 32 33 36 48 69 85 87 97 112 130 136 141 149 166 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 BIBLIOGRAPHY - - - The World Expands: Recollections of a Zoologist Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1946 Pauly, Philip J "The appearance of academic biology in late nineteenth-century America." 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Ph.D diss., University of Wisconsin, 1978 Tharp, Louise Hall, Adventurous Alliance: The Story of the Agassiz Family of Boston Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1959 Todhunter, Isaac Algebra for the Use of Colleges and Schools with Numerous Examples London: MacMillan & Co., 1879 Tuckerman, Frederick "Henry James Clark: Teacher and investigator." Science 35 (1912): 725-30 van Cleave, Harley J "An index to the opinions rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature." American Midland Naturalist 80 (1943): 223-40 van Kampen, P N "The zoogeography of the East Indian Archipelago." Translated from the Dutch by T Barbour American Naturalist 45 (1911): 537-60 Verrill, Addison Emory "Revision of the polyps of the Eastern coast of the United States." Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History (1864): 1-45 Veysey, Laurence R The Emergence of the American University Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965 Vogt, Carl Aus meinem Leben: Erinnerungen und Ruckblicke Stuttgart, 1896 Volger, G H o Leben und Leistungen des Naturforschers Karl Schimper Frankfurt am Main, 1889 Waage, Jonathan K "Sperm competition and the evolution of odonate mating systems." In Sperm Competition and the Evolution of Animal Mating Systems, ed Robert L Smith, 251-90 Orlando, Fla.: Academic Press, 1984 Wallace, Alfred Russel "American museums: the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University." Fortnightly Review 42 (1887): 347-59 - - - The Geographical Distribution of Animals vols London, 1876 - - - Island Life: or, The Phenomena and Causes of Insular Faunas and Floras vols London, 1880 - - The Malay Archipelago vols London, 1869 Walsh, Benjamin Dann "On certain entomological speculations of the New England school of naturalists." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia (1864): 207-49 - - - "North American Neuroptera." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia (1863): 167-272 - - - "Notes and descriptions of about twenty new species." Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia (1863): 217 Ward, Roswell Henry Augustus Ward: Museum Builder to America Rochester, N.Y.: Rochester Historical Society Publications, 1948 Warren, Helen Ann "Survey of the life of Louis Agassiz: the centenary of the glacial theory, prepared under the direction of Dr Henry Fairfield Osborn." Scientific Monthly 27 (1928): 355-66 314 BIBLIOGRAPHY Wayman, Dorothy G Edward Sylvester Morse: A Biography Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1942 Wheeler, William Morton "The Bussey Institution." In The Development of Harvard University since the Inauguration of President Eliot: 1869-1929, edited by Samuel Eliot Morison, pp 508-17 Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1930 Whitehill, Walter Muir The East India Marine Society and the Peabody Museum of Salem: A Sesquicentennial History Salem, Mass.: Peabody Museum, 1949 Whitman, Charles Otis "A marine biological observatory." Popular Science Monthly 42 (1893): 459-71 - - "A marine observatory, the prime need of American biology." Atlantic Monthly 71 (1893): 808-15 Wilder, Burt "Louis Agassiz, teacher." Harvard Graduates' Magazine (1 une 1907): 605-6 - - "On morphology and teleology, especially in the limbs of Mammalia." Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History (1866): 46-80 Wiley, E O Phylogenetics: The Theory and Practice of Phylogenetic Systematics New York: J Wiley and Sons, 1981 Williams, T Fiji and the Fijians London, 1858 Winsor, Mary P "The development of Linnaean insect classification." 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American Journal of Science 17 , (1854): 258-61 315 Index Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 10,94,108 Affinity See Homology Agassiz, Alexander (son of Louis Agassiz) -Life: youth, 2, 6, 150; student of Louis Agassiz, 35; helps his father manage museum, 55-56, 71n83, 131-35, 139; as teacher, 134, 168; becomes millionaire, 135-39,213-14,221; becomes head of museum, 144; his laboratory in Newport, 200-202, 20412; resigns as head of museum, 220-24; temperament, 236-37; death, 221 -Museum policy: on collections, 197, 199-200; on exhibits, 122, 144-45, 197,213-16; re Harvard, 167-68, 173, 197,206-7 -Relationships: with Barbour, 247; with H L Clark, 234-35, 241; with Eliot, 167,206-7; with Fewkes, 207-10; with Eigenmann, 217-20; with Jaggar, 211; with Haeckel, 54n; with Lyman, 71, 131-39,142; with Mortensen, 235-41; with Whitman, 210-11 -Scientific work: biogeography, 252; echinoderms, 150, 152, 154,233-34, 238, 241n; evolution, 148, 150-51, 154-60,253 Agassiz, Anna (nee Russell, wife of Alexander Agassiz), 136, 142 Agassiz, Cecile (nee Braun, first wife of Louis Agassiz, 2, 136 (legend) Agassiz, Elizabeth (nee Cary, second wife of Louis Agassiz), 2, 68, 135-36 Agassiz, George Russell, 138, 150,221, 262 Agassiz, Ida (daughter of Cecile and Louis Agassiz) See Higginson, Ida Agassiz, Louis -Life: background, 1-2, 63; teaching style, 4,12-16,37; roles in Cambridge, 2,131-32; religion, 8-9, 11; science as capital, 62-64; illnesses, 139, 170; death, 140; influence on profession, 44, 196 -Museum policy: founding ideas, 3-12, 119-20; acquiring specimens, 89, 93; arrangement of specimens, 88, 120, 12324,126,214; fundraising, 9-11, 56, 6263; regulations for assistants, 59, 221 -Relationships: with Baird, 89, 91; with H J Clark, 47-60; with Desor, 52; with Girard, 91; with students (negative), 45, 56,59-61; with students (positive), 3-6, 12-15,20,27-42; with Vogt, 52-53 -Scientific work: on biogeography, 74-75, 249; category definitions, 19-21,26-27; Contributions to the Natural History of the U.S., 6, 49-51; on crayfish, 92,1078; on echinoderms, 233; "Essay on Classification," 6-9, 14-16, 18-19,40, 74,77-78,150-52; on evolution, 9, 2327,37-38,67,71-76,150-51;on natural classification, 23-26; thought experiment, 14-18; on taxonomy, 90; on variation, 77-78 Agassiz, Mabel (wife of George Russell Agassiz), 202n, 221 317 INDEX Agassiz, Maximilian (son of Alexander Agassiz), 138 Agassiz, Pauline (daughter of Cecile and Louis Agassiz) See Shaw, Pauline Agassiz Memorial Fund, 139 Agassiz Zoological Club, 38-40 Albatross (research vessel), 232-33, 235 Allen, Glover M., 247 Allen, Joel Asaph, assistant in M.C.Z., 214; on Thayer Expedition, 67, 76; on biogeography, 76-80; as student of Louis Agassiz, 14n, 32 (fig.), 35, 65; leaves M.C.Z., 216 Allen's Law, 79-80 Allis, Edward P., 211 Amateurs, 178, 195-96,214,268 See also Professionalization Amazon River, 66, 75, 214 Ameiva,257-60 American Museum of Natural History, 35, 128,216,272 Analogy,7,104-6 Anderson School of Natural History See Penikese Island Anthony, John Gould, 67, 124-25, 128, 214 Anthony, Miss, 200n Astacus See Crayfish Astyanax spp., 227 Atkinson, Miss, 200n Ayers, Howard, 179, 205-6 Bacon, Francis, 25, 82 Baird, Spencer Fullerton, 77, 89, 91; head of United States National Museum, 89, 117-18, 122, 128; head of Woods Hole laboratory, 200, 202-3; mentioned, 20, 90 Bangs, Outram, 268 Barbour, Rosamond (nee Pierce, wife of Thomas Barbour) 247 Barbour, Thomas, 186, 196,245-48,25354,266; on biogeography, 255-56, 25761,264-65; as head of M.C.Z., 262-63, 266 Barbour, William (father of Thomas Barbour),247 Barnes,202n Bates, Henry Walter, 246n, 271 Bateson, William, Bay, J Christian, 195-96 Bell, Francis Jeffrey, 238n Belt, Thomas, 246n Bermuda Biological Station, 193 (legend) Bickmore, Albert, 35, 60, 84,133 Bigelow, Henry Bryant, 266 Biogeography, 72-76, 78-79, 248-61 Biological Laboratories (Harvard), 263 Birge, Edward Asahel, 35,186,205 Blake, Clarence]., 187 Blake, James Henry, 31 (legend), 32 (fig and legend), 33 (legend), 86n, 214 Bliss, Richard,Jr., 32, (fig.), 86n, 214 Blum, Ann, 204n Bois-Reymond, Emil Du, 159 Boston Museum of Science, 266 Boston Society of Natural History, 10,94, 129-30, 164; museum of, 10, 129,216, 266; mentioned, 39, 40, 55, 79 Boyer, Emanuel Roth, 203n, 194 (fig 38) Bramble, 103 Braun, Maximilian, 135 Brewster, William, 187-88,216,268 British Museum, 121-24, 238n, 272 Brooks, William Keith, 32 (fig.), 35, 201, 202n, 205 Brues, Charles Thomas, 263 Bryant, Owen, 247n Buffon, Comte de, 16-17, 248, 267 Burgess, Edward, 168 Burkhardt, Jacques, 1, 6, 30n, 67, 140, 225 Bussey Institution, 263 "Butter-pat Insurrection," 45-46 318 Calumet See Mines Cambarus See Crayfish Cannon, Walter B., 202n Capital,62 Carnegie Institution, 244, 266 Carnegie Museum, 227 Carniola (Austria), caves of, 114-15 Carpenter, Frank Morton, 263 Carpenter, Philip Herbert, 209 Cary, Thomas G., Jr (brother of Elizabeth Cary Agassiz), 139-40, 142 Castle, William Ernest, 187, 202n, 203n, 205 INDEX Caves: Carniola, 114-15; Mammoth, 1078; Wyandotte, 110-11 Cephalization (Dana's principle of), 28 Cesalpino, 19 Challenger Expedition, 154 Chambers, Robert, Characins (fishes), 217-18, 226-31 Chiaje, Stefano delle, 233 Civil War, 46-47, 67 Claim for Scientific Property, 58-60 Clark, Austin Hobart, 238, 246n Clark, Elizabeth Hodges, 208n Clark, Henry James: training, 4, 29, 30n, 47; work on Louis Agassiz's Contributions, 49-51; work on Lucernaria, 51-55; break with Louis Agassiz, 56-58; on crayfish dimorphism, 92 Clark, Hubert Lyman, 232-44 Coelenterates, 105 Cold Spring Harbor, 225 Colorado (ship), 66 Cooke, Caleb, 108, 170,214 Cope, Edward Drinker, 108-12, 133, 155; on blind crayfish, 108-12; on phylogeny, 160-61,163 Copeland, Edward, 67 Coutinho, Major Joao Martinus da Silva, 68 Crayfish, 88-102, 104-15 -Genera: Astacus, 911, 93-98, lOIn, 109; Cambarus, 91, 93-98, 106, 10910,111,113-14; Orconectes, 109-11, 113-14 -Species: acutus, 101; af{inis, 106, 113; angustatus, 101; Bartoni, 106, 113; Blandingii, 101, 113; Gambelli, 91; Clark ii, 101; extraneus, 106; hamulatus, 111,113-14; inermis, 108-10, 113-14; pellucidus, 108-11, 113-14; placidus, 101; rusticus, 101; spiculifer, 101; troglodytes, 101 Crozat, Leon, 264-65 Crustacea, 39, 88, 113, 117 See also Crayfish; Lobster Cushman, Joseph A., 186 Cuvier, Georges, 1, 19, 124 Darwin, Charles Robert, 37, 94, 99,126, 265-66,268-69; and Alexander Agassiz, 161; on biogeography, 73, 75, 248-50,256-57; on blind cave animals, 109; on classification, xii, 23-24; publishes Origin of Species, 37; on species, 102-4 Darwinism See Evolution Davenport, Charles Benedict, 194 (fig.), 201,202n,203n, 205,211,225-26 Davis, William M., 197 Desor, Edouard, 52,140,239 De Vries, Hugo, 227 Dexter, Newton, 67 Dexter, Ralph, 41n Dimorphism, 92-93, 97-98 Disciplines (scientific), 3, 43-44 Doderlein, Ludwig, 239, 241 Dohrn, Anton, 200, 271 Dollinger, Ignatius, Domestic animals, 126 Du Bois-Reymond, Emil, 159 Duncan, Peter Martin, 238n Dana, James Dwight, 20, 26, 28, 39n, 134 Darlington, Philip, 264 319 Echinoderms, 20,105,239 See also Agassiz, Alexander; and Clark, Hubert Lyman Eigenmann, Carl H., in M.C.Z., 182,21618; interest in Thayer collection, 216-20, 224-26; letter on taxonomy, 225-26; analysis of Amazon fishes, 226-31; death of,231 Eigenmann, Rosa (nee Smith), 182,216-20 Eliot, Charles William, 133, 167-68,2067 Erichson, Wilhelm Ferdinand, 91 Evolution: cave animals, 107-15; and Clark, H L., 232, 242-43; and classification, 103-4; and Eigenmann, 219-20,225-31; and Hagen, 94-95, 98-100,107; and Huxley, 115-17; and Hyatt, 184; and M.C.Z., 81-82; and McCrady, 171; and students of Louis Agassiz, 37-38,41-42; and Walsh, 9495,99-100; as watershed, 147-48 See also Agassiz, Alexander (Scientific work); Agassiz, Louis (Scientific work); Analogy; Biogeography; Hyatt, Alpheus; Phylogeny INDEX Farlow, W G., 203 Faxon, Walter, assistant in charge of M.C.Z (1893-98), 187,221-22; background, 35, 203n, 205; on crayfish, 92n, 98, 98n, 113-15,117-18; as Harvard instructor, 172,174,178-79; at Newport, 201, 202n Fewkes, Jesse Walter, 35, 179,201, 202n, 203n,205,207-10 Field, Herbert Haviland, 194 (fig.) Fish: initiation of Louis Agassiz's students, 12-15 See also Characins; Thayer collection Fisheries Exhibition (London), 117 Flower, William H., 122 Garman, Samuel, 217, 231, 246-47; student of Louis Agassiz, 14n, 35; in charge of M.C.Z fish and reptiles, 117, 186,214,221,225; mentioned, 214, 252-54 Geographic distribution See Biogeography Gerould, Uohn Hiram], 202n Gersfeldt, Georg, 95 Ghiselin, Michael, 24n Girard, Charles, 91-92, 97,101,140 Glenn, Mrs William, 32 (fig.), 45n Glenn, William, 32 (fig.), 45 Goodale, George Lincoln, 221-22 Goode, George Brown, 35, 268 Goto; Seitaro, 202n Gray, Asa, 28, 46, 133-34,270 Gray, Francis Calley, 11 Gray, John Edward, 121-23 Guyot, Arnold, 140 Haeckel, Ernst, 54, 155,242 Haemulon, 15,39 Hagen, Hermann, 83-84; his crayfish work,88n, 89,92-102,106-7,109-10; as employee of M.C.Z., 86, 125-26; as Harvard professor, 168-69, 182-83; mentioned,214 Hamlin, Charles E., 173,214,216 Hansen, Christian, 46 Harlan, Richard, 101 Harris, Miss, 200n Harris, Thaddeus William, 10 Hartt, Charles Frederick, 35,65,67 Harvard University: and Alexander Agassiz, 206-7,213,220-22; and Barbour, 262363; and H J Clark, 58; Eliot becomes president, 167-68; and Mark, 224; and Massachusetts, 140; visiting committee, 187 See also Lawrence Scientific School; Agassiz, Alexander-museum policy re Harvard Hassler Expedition, 76, 127, 140 Hecla See Mines Hemigrammus,227 Henshaw, Samuel, 220 (fig.), 221, 224, 226, 233,261-62 Higginson, Henry Lee, 222 Higginson, Ida (nee Agassiz, wife of Henry Lee Higginson), 2,136,222,247 Higuchi, Horatio, 68n Hill, Robert T., 252 Hill, Thomas, 51,131 Hodge, Michael J S., 24n Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 58, 143, 176,222 (legend) Homarus,15 Homology, 7-8, 104-6 Hume, David, 75 Hunnewell, Walter, 67 Hunter, John, 11; museum of, 11 Huxley, Thomas Henry, 7, p, 23, 42; on crayfish, 115-18; possible head of M.C.Z., 133, 146; textbook, 174 Hyatt, Alpheus, student of Louis Agassiz, 35-37,41,60,65,108,170; career apart from Harvard, 126, 129, 133, 164,203; returns to M.C.Z., 184-85,216; views on evolution, 41, 184, 242 Idealism, 18 Insects, 20, 39, 56, 83-88, 123 Jackson, Robert Tracy, 184, 186, 196,242 Jaggar, Thomas A., Jr., 211 James, William, 36, 67, 70 Jenks, John Whipple Potter, 203 Jennings, Herbert Spencer, 202n Johnson, Herbert Parlin, 194 (fig 38) Jones, Lewis, 132, 134-354 Jones, Marie Prince, 204n, 208n 320 INDEX Jordan, David Starr, 35, 42, 182,216 Jussieu, A L de, 19 Kelly [biologist), 202n Kofoid, Charles Atwood, 201, 202n Lamarck, Jean Baptiste de Monet de, 25, 107 Lawrence, Abbott, 128 Lawrence Scientific School, 2, 28, 30n, 47, 51,58,132,134-35,197 LeConte, John Eatton (uncle of Joseph LeConte), 91,95, 101 LeConte, John Lawrence (son of John Eatton LeConte), 83, 91 LeConte, Joseph, 4, 14n, 35, 42 Lee, Thomas G., 202n Lesquereux, Leo, 86n, 140 Leuckart, Rudolf, 19,207 Linnaeus, Carl, xiv-xv, 19,20 Lizards See Ameiva Lobster, solitary (Louis Agassiz's thought experiment),14-18 Lockwood, Samuel, Jr., 32, (fig.), 214 Lowell Lectures, 1,2,50 Lucas, [Frederic A.), 202n Lucernaria, 53-55 Lurie, Edward, In, 3, 14n, 64-65 Lyceum of Natural History (New York), 108 Lyman, Charles P (son of Henry Lyman), 142n Lyman, Cora (daughter of Theodore Lyman),142 Lyman, Cora (sister of Theodore Lyman) See Shaw, Cora Lyman, Elizabeth (nee Russell, wife of Theodore Lyman), 136 Lyman, Henry (son of Theodore Lyman), 142n Lyman, Theodore, 133, 142; as administrator of M.C.Z., 50, 86, 142; and Alexander Agassiz, 71, 131-39, 142; describes M.C.Z., 143-44; arid Eliot, 167-68; and Louis Agassiz, 6, 71,13132; as zoologist, 55, 202-3 Lyman, Theodore (son of Theodore Lyman),142n 321 Maack, George Augustus, 32 (fig.) McCrady, John, 140, 171-72 MacLeay, William Sharp, 104 Mallis, Arnold, American Entomologists, 183n Mammals, 77, 268 Mammoth Cave (Kentucky), 10i-8 Marcou, Jules, 140 Marine laboratories, 200 See also Bermuda Biological Station; Newport Marine Laboratory; Nahant; Woods Hole Mark, Edward Laurens: background, 174; assistant in museum, 172, 183-84; teaching style, 174, 181-82, 194 (legend); as head of zoological laboratory, 197,2035,224; re Newport, 202n, 207-8 Martin, H Newell, 174 Martin, Stephen C., 32 (fig.) Massachusetts, Commonwealth of, 120, 143,173 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 129, 164 Matthew, William Diller, 256-61, 264-65 Mayer, Alfred Goldsborough, 185, 202n, 206,221 Mayr, Ernst, xiii, 18-19,264,270-71 Mendelsohn, Everett, 196 Metaphor (for museums), 143, 145, 198 Merriam, C Hart, 188-90, 192, 195, 196 Microscope, 4,168-69,174,176-77,190 Microtome, 174, 177 Mills, James, 30n, 49 Mines, Calumet and Hecla, 137-39,221 Minot, Charles Sedgwick, 35, 205 Morgan, Thomas Hunt; Morse, Edward Sylvester, 37, 40-42, 55, 60, 80, 126, 133 Mortensen, Theodor, 235-41 Miiller, Fritz, 271 Museums See Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; American Museum of Natural History; British Museum; Hunter; Museum d'Histoire Naturelle; Museum of Comparative Anatomy; Museum of Comparative Zoology; Peabody Academy of Science; Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology; Tring; United States National Museum INDEX Museum of Comparative Anatomy, 9, 11 Museum of Comparative Zoology: arrangement of specimens, 123-28, 144; and evolution, 81-82; finances, 29,120, 143-44, 213-15; founding ideas, 4, 911; growth of building, 175, 213, 26263; and Massachusetts government, 120, 127-28, 143, 165, 173; name, 11,143; opening, 37n, 46, 49; publications, 89, 197,211,226; regulations, 59, 221n; space problems, 71, 260 -collections: birds, 77, 214, 247n; crustacea, 39, 98, 113n, 115; echinoderms, 139,214; fish, 29, 214; fossils, 216; insects, 39, 83-84, 125; mammals, 77, 214; mollusks, 115, 124-25,214; reptiles, 214; worms, 172 -See also Agassiz, Alexander; Agassiz, Louis; Barbour, Thomas Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, 272 Myers, George S., 231 Nahant (laboratory), 4, 6, 202 Naples (Stazione Zoological, 200 National Academy of Science, 91 National Museum of Natural History See United States National Museum Neal, Herbert Vincent, 202n Neuchatel, 1,29,53,63,140 Newport Marine Laboratory, 200-203, 206-7,210-11,222 Nickajack Cave, 110-11 Nickerson [biologist), 202n Niles, William H., 35, 38, 65 Noble, G Kingsley, 257-60 Nominalism, 18 Nunn, Emily A (wife of C O Whitman), 202n, 210 Olmsted, Miss, 200n Orconectes See Crayfish Ordway, Albert, 39, 45, 88n Ortmann, Arnold, 118 Osborn, Fairfield, 246 Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 246n Osten-Sacken, Baron von, 215 Owen, Richard, 104, 121-23 Packard, Alpheus Spring, Jr., as student of Louis Agassiz, 35, 37, 39, 56, 60,123; at Peabody museum, 126; on blind crayfish, 108,110-11 Parker, George Howard, 180-82, 187, 194 (fig.), 202n, 203n, 205, 224n Parkman, Francis, 136-37 Pauly, Philip J., 271 Peabody Academy of Science (Peabody Museum, Salem), 94,126,216,266 Peabody Museum See Peabody Academy of Science Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology (Harvard), 173,214 Pedicellariae, 233-34 Peirce, Benjamin, 133 Penikese Island (summer school): and Alexander Agassiz, 142,201; and Louis Agassiz, 140, 170; and Eigenmann, 182; and Jordan, 42; and Morse, 41n; and Packard, 41n; and Shaler, 170 Phillips, John, 266 Phylogeny: Alexander Agassiz on, 154-60; Cope on, 160-61, 163; Eigenmann on, 228-29,231 Pourtales, Count Louis Fran~ois de, 32 (fig.), 140, 142, 145,214 Powell, Baden, 9, 25 Powell, John Wesley, 217n Professionalization of science, 44,194-96, 167-93 passim Putnam, Frederic Ward, conflict with Louis Agassiz, 46n, 60; fish work, 29, 56, 60, 214; at Mammoth Cave, 108; at Peabody Academy, 126; at Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, 214; as student of Louis Agassiz, 29, 30n, 56; mentioned, 133 Realism, 18 Ridley, Mark, 25n Rieppel, Olivier, 25n Ritter, William, 194 (fig.), 201, 202n Roetter, Paul, 32 (fig.), 86n, 108 Rogers, William Barton, 10 Roosevelt, Theodore, 175-78, 187-94 Rothschild, Walter, 267, 273 Rubus, 103 322 INDEX Russell, Elizabeth (daughter of George Russell) See Lyman, Elizabeth Russell, George R., 136 Russell, Sarah (nee Shaw, wife of George Russell), 136 St John, Orestes, 35, 65, 67 Sceva, George, 67 Scharff, Robert Francis, 253-55 Schimper, Carl, 52 Science, professionalization of, 196 Schmitt, George Adam,S (legend) Scudder, Samuel: initiation as student, 14n, 15, 17-18; zoological work in M.C.Z., 39,56,123; rebellion, 60; later career, 133, 164; mentioned, 35-37 Shaler, Nathaniel Southgate, as student of Louis Agassiz, 12-14,37,40-41,53, 108; summer school idea, 170; leaves M.C.Z., In, 184; professor, 140, 16471,197 Shaw, Cora (nee Lyman, wife of Gardner Howland Shaw), 136, 138-39 Shaw, Gardner Howland (brother of Quincy Adams Shaw), 136, 138 Shaw, Pauline (nee Agassiz, wife of Quincy Adams Shaw), 2,136 Shaw, Quincy Adams, 136-38 Shaw, Sarah Parkman (sister of Quincy Adams Shaw) See Russell, Sarah Simpson, George Gaylord, 264 Slack, Frances M., 200n, 224 Smith, [Frank?], 202n Smith, Rosa See Eigenmann, Rosa Smith Smithsonian Institution, 20, 89, 91, 128, 216 Sonrel, Auguste, 140 Species, 19-21,26,100-104 Staehli, Francis R., 32 (fig.), 86n Stazione Zoologica, 200 Steindachner, Franz, 32 (fig.), 76 Stephens, Lester D., 172n Stimpson, William, 35, 39, 88n Storer, Humphreys, 10 Strickland, Hugh, 8,21,23 Synoptic collection, 124 Synthetic types, 39 Systematics, xii Taxonomy, xii, 100-101, 235, 244 Tellkampf, Theodor G., 108 Thayer, A V R., 67 Thayer collection, 86, 216-17, 226-27, 231 Thayer Expedition, 67-68, 70-71, 76n, 214 Thayer, John E., 225 Thayer, Miss, 200n Thayer, Nathaniel, 67, 86n, 128,214,224 Tring (England), 267, 273 Tucker, Benjamin Ricketson, 80 Tuttle, Albert Henry, 168, 202n Uhler, Philip Reese, 61, 84,275 United States National Museum, 89, 115, 117,272 Verrill, Addison Emory, 35, 39-40, 55, 60, 133,170 Vicariance, 256 Vogt, Carl, 29n, 52 Walcott, Henry Pickering, 222 Wallace, Alfred Russel, 270; on biogeography, 246, 248, 250-52; on museums, 122, 191 (fig.) "Wallace's Line," 251 Walsh, Benjamin Dann, 94-95, 99-100, 271 Ward, Henry Augustus, 29, 35,126,14445,203n Ward, Henry Baldwin, 202 Ward, Thomas, 67 Ward's Natural Science Establishment, 144 Wayman, Dorothy, 36-37, 41n Weinland, David, SIn, 53 Weysee, [Arthur Wisswold], 202n Wheat, Alfred W., 32 (fig.) Wheeler, William Morton, 263 Whitman, Charles Otis, 35,179,201, 202n, 210 Whitman, Mrs C O See Nunn, Emily A Whituey, Josiah Dwight, 10 Whitney, W., 202n Wilcox, [Earley Vernon], 202n Wilder, Burt Green, 32 (fig.), 35 323 INDEX Wilson, Edmund Beecher, 201, 202n Women in the M.C.Z., 199-201, 220 (fig.) See also Eigenmann, Rosa Smith; Slack, FrancesM Woods Hole: Marine Biological Laboratory, 206; Oceanographic Institution, 266; U.S Fish Commission Laboratory, 200, 202-3 Woodworth, William McMichael, 194 (fig.), 201, 202n, 221-22, 224, 245 Wyandotte Cave, 110-11 Wyman, Jeffries, 7-11, 28, 81; advises Henry James Clark, 51, 58; on cave animals, 108; in Boston Society of Natural History, 10, 129; mentioned, 133-34 Yerkes, Robert M., 193 (legend) Zoological Hall, 12, 30, 37, 45 Zoological Laboratory (Harvard), 178-81, 194-95 (legends), 204-5, 224, 262-63 324 ... is the wing of the bird identical in its structure with the arm of man, or the fore leg of a quadruped, it agrees quite as closely with the fin of the whale, or the pectoral fin of the fish The. . .Reading the Shape of Nature Science and Its Conceptual Foundations DAVID L HULL, EDITOR Reading the Shape of Nature COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY AT THE AGASSIZ MUSEUM MARY P WINSOR The University of. .. including the American Philosophical Society, the University of Rochester, the American Museum of Natural History, the Boston Museum of Science, the Academy of Natural Scie~ces of Philadelphia, the