Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Knowledge Management David J Pauleen Editor LIBRARIES UNLIMITED CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES ON KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Knowledge Management Edited by David J Pauleen Libraries Unlimited Knowledge Management Series Danny Wallace, Series Editor Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Cross-cultural perspectives on knowledge management / edited by David J Pauleen p cm — (Libraries Unlimited knowledge management series) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 1–59158–331–4 (alk paper) Knowledge management Corporate culture I Pauleen, David, 1957– HD30.2.C78 2007 658.4 ʹ 038—dc22 2006028274 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available Copyright © 2007 by Libraries Unlimited All rights reserved No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2006028274 ISBN: 1–59158–331–4 First published in 2007 Libraries Unlimited, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 A Member of the Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc www.lu.com Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48–1984) 10 Contents List of Figures vii List of Tables ix Foreword xi Acknowledgments Introduction SECTION 1: CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES TO CULTURE AND KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT Exploring the Relationship between National and Organizational Culture, and Knowledge Management xiii xv David J Pauleen, Ling-Ling Wu, and Sally Dexter Culture: An Overlooked Key to Unlocking Organizational Knowledge 21 Robert Mason The Art of Systems: The Cognitive-Aesthetic Culture of Portal Cities and the Development of Meta-Cultural Advanced Knowledge Economies 35 Peter Murphy SECTION 2: EFFECTS OF CULTURE ON KEY ASPECTS OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT Cultural Stretch: Knowledge Transfer and Disconcerting Resistance to Absorption and Application Gerhard Fink and Nigel Holden 65 67 vi Contents From Concept to Context: Toward Social-Cultural Awareness and Responsibility in the Organization of Knowledge 81 Chern Li Liew Managing Innovative Knowledge: Cultural Perspectives on Patenting 95 Chad Saunders and Mike Chiasson The Influence of National Culture on Knowledge Management in Virtual Teams 111 Doug Vogel, Anne-Francoise Rutkowski, and Michiel van Genuchten People’s Twist: The Cultural Standard of Loyalty and Performance in Former Socialist Economies 135 Gerhard Fink and Maren Lehmann SECTION 3: RESEARCH AND CASES ON CULTURE AND KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT Institutional and Cultural Influences on Knowledge Sharing in Russia and China 155 157 Kate Hutchings and Snejina Michailova 10 Asian Organizations Meet North American Management Theory: The Case of Singapore and Senge 175 Kala S Retna and Jane E Bryson 11 The Peruvian Asparagus Cluster: Realizing Profitability from Social Capital and Shared Knowledge Management in a Traditionally Low-Trust Environment 195 Luis S Chang 12 Research and Development Knowledge Transfer across National Cultures 219 Marjolyn S W Thiessen, Paul H J Hendriks, and Caroline Essers Afterword 245 Index 249 About the Editor and Contributors 255 List of Figures 1.1 Culture, values, attitudes, and behaviors (Adler 2002) 1.2 Extending Adler’s model to the level of organizations, groups, and teams 1.3 KM model emphasizing the development of knowledge sharing behavior 12 1.4 National culture, organizational culture, and KM 13 5.1 Klemke’s context typology 86 5.2 Structure of a cross-contextual knowledge organization system 90 7.1 Significant attitude change between the pre-test and post-test on the item “Any kind of relationship had to be structured hierarchically to obtain harmony” on a 5-point scale (From –2 = Strongly Disagree to +2 = Strongly Agree) 121 7.2 Convergence between the pre-test and post-test on the item “How much is the presence of a leader in the group required?” on a 10-point scale, from = not at all, to 10 = very much 122 11.1 The Road to Frío Aéreo 211 12.1 Knowledge transfer model 227 12.2 Indicators of the impact of national culture on knowledge transfer 228 12.3 National cultures of the Netherlands, the United States, and India 233 List of Tables 5.1 Selected definitions of knowledge 86 7.1 Synchronous versus asynchronous communication activities 115 7.2 Experience of HK and Dutch respondents 119 7.3 Expected and encountered problems 120 7.4 Pre- and post-test characterization rankings 124 7.5 Between and within nationality comparisons on the item “leadership” 126 11.1 Culture and progress 197 12.1 The knowledge transfer cultures at Akzo Nobel Car Refinishes R&D units 235 12.2 Assessment of cultural differences and their impact on cross-cultural R&D knowledge transfer at Akzo Nobel Car Refinishes 237 Afterword First of all, I would like to offer my congratulations to the authors for taking on such a difficult but valuable assignment It would be hard to imagine management research more abstract then investigating the relationship between knowledge and culture, to say nothing about then offering some help to these managers in actually doing something about these issues Yet it also would be hard to find work more needed by organizations As our work becomes more complex, more virtual, and more dependent on geographically distributed cognition, we are all assailed by what Toffler notably called “diseconomies of complexity.” However, neither he nor almost anyone else took on the greatest yet most subtle constraint of them all—culture Culture is a killer concept In the 1950s it was reckoned to have more than 160 distinct definitions, and Raymond Williams wrote in his classic Keywords (1975) that it was one of the two or three most complex words commonly used in English Even in common conversations, just a bit of reflection will indicate how elusive the varied meanings of the term can be Yet, just travel a bit to a different culture than your own and you can see, feel, apprehend, sense, and touch just how different everything is Even in cultures such as Japan’s that seemingly look like Western ones (or Anglo-based ones), the assumptions and underlying emotions, values, and beliefs are very different Yet when one takes apart, as best one can, the concept of culture and tries to see what influence it has on knowledge, there are three threads, or distinct and measurable parts of culture, that emerge from both theoretical and empirical research and from working with management The first one that is clear is beliefs One widely quoted definition of knowledge (originating in classical Greek thought) is “justified true belief.” Although one may pick at this definition, or any other definition of knowledge, it is generally thought of as legitimate and at least partially true Well, how much of culture is made up of beliefs? Surely, a great deal Some would say that culture is nothing else but beliefs In any case, it is impossible 246 Afterword to speak of knowledge without speaking of beliefs in some way, and it is equally impossible to speak of culture without speaking of beliefs Yet this easy syllogism is ignored over and over again in the day-to-day practice of management Firms continue to buy systems and develop processes to manage global activities with scarcely any reference to either concept (though knowledge gets its nose under the tent more often these days) It surely is easier to just buy a system or develop a process without reference to these concepts It is nearly impossible to actually measure knowledge or cultures in the whole, and as we all know, what cannot be measured does not get done in our efficiency-crazed world Yet at what cost we ignore these things? How we measure misunderstandings and false assumptions? Does any one person stand up and say, “This project was delayed or done poorly because we did not understand the cultural beliefs and assumptions of our varied global team members.” Just writing this sentence out illuminates how rare its utterance would be in any meeting or boardroom But it is true, based on my own observations and those of many colleagues in the knowledge movement, that lack of understanding of underlying beliefs of project participants is a major cause of project failures And these beliefs are a major part of any person’s cultural inheritance A second critical part of culture is trust There has been a bull market in trust lately, with economists and sociologists leading the charge in researching and attempting to measure trust in societies and organizations and in one’s personal life Some of these writings have been very helpful in bringing the concept to the meeting and even to the boardroom I would go so far as to state that like social network analysis, trust is one of those subjects that have made a successful migration from the academy directly into practice Yet trust, too, is a vital part of culture, as all good social theorists know well There are high-trust and low-trust societies and cultures, as well as organizations, and this variable alone has a terrific effect on the economics of an organization It is also vital to effective knowledge management How can one ever think of having a knowledge system or process in place when there is no trust Who would share anything of value with people one did not trust? Not only would that be irrational; it would also be self-destructive Most organizations that I have worked with made an assumption of general trust throughout the organization in terms of knowledge sharing This has proven to be false, and this failure has caused many executives to question the very value of any systematic way to work with knowledge Again, because trust (and lack of trust) is a substantial part of what we mean when we discuss culture, we had best understand it better if we ever want to improve knowledge flows and sharing in any setting The last aspect of culture and knowledge is in a sense the most abstract one It is the simple but complex fact that knowledge itself is never a stand-alone entity; it is entwined with culture, institutions, and the economic structures of any society This embeddedness is one of the most important things we have learned about knowledge since organizational knowledge research began in earnest about 15 years ago It makes knowledge a very different resource than land, labor, or capital, which can be moved around the world with greater and greater speed and efficiencies Knowledge is contextual, sticky, and local It requires greater understanding of its setting and environment for it to be effectively used In short, knowledge is so wrapped up with culture that it can almost be seen as being a part of culture, as some have claimed Afterword All of these reflections leave us with many puzzles Serious researchers will be looking at how these issues will, or will not, be addressed for many years to come The now small number of studies such as this one will be growing greatly in the near future as work becomes increasingly global and complex Again, the current authors are to be applauded for being pioneers in a new land with porous boundaries and unsettled landmarks Laurence Prusak, Distinguished Scholar in Residence, Babson College REFERENCE Williams, R 1975 Keywords: A vocabulary of culture and society London: Fontana 247 Index Absorptive capacity: knowledge transfer and, 72, 76, 231; management of, 72, 76 Academic settings, KM and, 111 Academy of Management Executive (AME), 67 Action Framework, mental models component of, 205–7 ADEX See Exporters Association of Peru Adler, N J., 7–9 Adler’s model, national culture and, 8–9 Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), 51 Akzo Nobel Car Refinishes (ANCR), 219; KM movement at, 232–38; R&D at, 232–33 AME See Academy of Management Executive ANCR See Akzo Nobel Car Refinishes ARPA See Advanced Research Projects Agency ARPANET, 51 Asian culture: concept of face in, 181; EuroAmerican management theories within, 175 Axelrod, Robert, 203–4 Axelrod Theory of Cooperation, 203–4, 207 Berman, Sanford, 85 Berners-Lee, Tim, 52 Boundary spanning model: for KM, 29–31; syntactic vs semantic levels of, 29–32 Burki, Shahid Javed, 199 Cadres, 139–43 CAF See Competitiveness Program of the Andean Development Council Canada, patenting in, 103–4, 106 Canadian Patent Act, 106 Cerf, Vincent, 51 Checa, Jose, 210 China: bribery and corruption in, 169–70; business, interpersonal relationships in, 163–65; central planning in, 169; culture of fear in, 168–69; group-based incentives, rewards in, 166; IJVs in, 161; knowledge sharing in, 158, 160–62, 164, 170–71; market economies in, 169; means vs ends in, 164; organizational structures in, 162, 171; property rights in, 103, 107; SOEs in, 164; trust, implicit communication in, 165–66 Cillóniz, Fernando, 212 Civilization, culture and, 36 Cognitive processes: Asian vs Western, 26–27; neurological basis for, 27, 32; SapirWhorf hypothesis and, 27 Communication: technology impact on, 53–54; twentieth century, 140 See also Implicit communication Competence, 69; knowledge transfer and, 230–31 Competition: mental models and, 206; at microeconomic level, 206; in socialist economies, 145 250 Index Competitive advantage: knowledge and, 176; knowledge sharing and, 157 Competitiveness Program of the Andean Development Council (CAF), 207 Confucian society: consensus, collectivism in, 129; hierarchy in, 112 Context: holistic understanding of, 85; Klemke typology of, 86; knowledge and, 72–73, 84–87 Contextual knowledge, 72–73 Contingency: knowledge and, 59; management of, 59; in portal societies, 46–48 Cooperation: foundation for, 204; human instincts and, 205; in low-trust environment, 201–7; in zero sum world, 204 See also Reciprocity and cooperation Corporación Latinobarómetro, 196 Country Competitiveness Practice, 205 Craft knowledge, patenting and, 97 Cross-cultural knowledge, management models, schemes and, 69–71 Cultural convergence: HKNET projects and, 125–27; normative need for, 127 Cultural learning, HKNET projects and, 123–25 Cultural stretch, 72, 77 Cultural Values and Human Rights Symposium, 197 Culture: Adler’s model of, 8–9; anthropologically derived concepts of, 5; civilization and, 36; conceptual approach to, 223–31; construction of, 4–5; content of, 4–5; defined, 4, 26, 197; incentives and, 168; Japanese, 7, 36; knowledge sharing across, 81; knowledge system of, 112; learning and, 26–29, 28; operationalization of, 224–25; practice, research and, 14–15; progress and, 197; progressive vs static, 197–98; romantic, 35–36; sharing and, 223; subculture and, 6; sustainability of, 4–5; transmission of, 5; values, attitudes, behaviors and, 7–8 See also National culture Cybernetics, 55 Data, information, knowledge and learning, 23–25 Dewey Decimal System (DDC), 84 Dresher, Melvin, 202 E-commerce: intellectual property and, 101; patent protection and, 101 Economic development, patenting and, 100–101 Europe, socialist economies in, 136 Exfrusur, 210 Expatriates: as knowledge mediators, 77; local business community and, 74; management and, 75 Exporters Association of Peru (ADEX), 210–11 Fairbanks, Michael, 205, 207 FDI See Foreign direct investment Flood, Cerril, 202 Foreign direct investment (FDI), 158 Foreign employees, as cultural resources, 74–75 Frió Aéreo, 211–16 Fundación Perú, 212 Game theory, 202 Globalization: cost-efficiency of, 221; ICT and, 3; MNCs and, 221; patents, patenting and, 107; Peru impact by, 208 Global knowledge economy, ICT and, Global outsourcing, Global patent system: KM and, 95 See also Patents, patenting Govindarajan, V., 70 Grondona, Mariano, 198 Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (Kant), 45 Group, communal ownership, 101–2; individual vs., 102 See also Ownership Group Support System technology, in HKNET projects, 129 Guanxi, 112 Guilds, 97, 102, 105 Gupta, A K., 70 Hermeneutic theory, 87–88 Hierarchy: in Confucian society, 112; employee attitudes toward, 187, 189; harmony within, 112; HKNET projects and, 121–23; knowledge transfer and, 229; modern bureaucratic, 50; network order vs., 50; normative, cultural need for, 113; order and, 48, 50; patron-client, 48 HKNET projects: characterization rankings and, 124; cultural convergence and, 125–27; cultural learning and, 123–25; evolution of, 115; expected, encountered problems and, 120–21; findings of, 119–27; Group Support System technology in, 129; hierarchy, leadership and, 121–23, 126; HKNET1, 115–16; HKNET2, 116; HKNET3, 116–17; HKNET4, 117; HKNET5, 117–18; HKNET6, OHKNET, Index 118; HKNET7, BOHKNET, 118; KM in VTs and, 112; Mainland Chinese and, 119; participation in, 113; research questions for, 114; synchronous vs asynchronous communication and, 112–13, 130–32; team activities in, 114; team composition in, 114; technology for, 114; technology providers and, 131 Hofstede, Geert, national cultural dimensions of, 180–81 Hong Kong, 41 ICT See Information and communication technologies IJV See International joint ventures Implicit communication, trust and, 165–66, 170–71 Incentives, cultural conventions and, 168 Individuality: in Latin America, 201; performance vs., 141 Information: design and, 59; knowledge vs., 222; uncertainty and, 44–46 Information and communication technologies (ICT): globalization and, 3; global knowledge economy and, 3; KM and, Information infrastructure, standardization vs flexibility in, 83 Information management, KM and, 11 Information retrieval (IR), in networked environment, 81 Information theory, hermeneutics for, 87–88 Innovation: economic, social force of, 36; ownership of, 103; patents and, 95; portal cities, regions and, 40 The Intellectual Foundation of Information Organization (Svenonius), 90 Intellectual property, 95; in China, 107; ecommerce and, 101; protection of, 108 Intelligence, pattern production and, 56 International Country Risk Guide, 199 International joint ventures (IJVs), 159; in China, 159 Internet: KO and, 82; semantic Web and, 83 Invention: act of, 99; defined, 107; patenting and, 99–100 IPEH See Peruvian Asparagus Institute IR See Information retrieval Japanese culture, 7, 36 Journal of Managerial Psychology (JMP), 68 Kahn, Robert, 51 Kant, Immanuel, 45 Klemke, R., 85–86 251 KM See Knowledge management KMS See Knowledge management systems Knowledge: aesthetic ordering and, 38; art of systems and, 36–39; causal ambiguity of, 230; cognitive-aesthetic, 60; commons roots of, 59; competitive advantage and, 176; conceptualization of, 23; context and, 72–73, 85–87; contingency and, 59; cross-contextual discovery of, 89–91; cross-cultural, 69–71; cultural dimension of, 21; data, information, learning and, 23; definitions of, 86; distribution of, 38; Eastern vs Western traditions of, 7; formative, 37; holistic vs analytical, 7; as ignorance, 37; individualism vs collectivism and, 230; information vs., 222; KM and, 175–76; learning and, 21; literature on, 137; management of, 57–60; national culture and, 7; recursive, circular, 22, 24–25, 52–57; as strategic asset, 21–22; symmetry and, 37; tacit vs explicit, 25–26, 67, 69, 73, 77, 136, 138, 151, 222, 231, 239; universal ordering of, 83; upstream, downstream sharing of, 12–13 See also Craft knowledge; Knowledge management; Knowledge organization; Knowledge transfer; Pattern knowledge Knowledge community, 82 Knowledge creation, 69–70; Nonaka and Takeuchi theory of, 69–70; socialization stage of, 70 Knowledge management (KM): academic settings and, 111; best practice vs contingent approach to, 190–91; boundary spanning model for, 29–31; cultural biases regarding, 14; generational development of, 176; goals for, 24; HKNET project and, 111–12; ICT-based strategies and, 3; information management and, 11; knowledge and, 175–76; learning organization and, 175–78; literature on, 4, 176; models of, 12; motivational foundations of, 150; in multicultural organizations, 29–31; national culture and, 11, 13, 128–32, 189–91; Nonaka SECI model of, 12; organization, culture and, 10–13; research on, 220; socialist economies and, 137–38; social process of, 11; strategies for, 190–91; in VTs, 111–12 See also Management Knowledge management systems (KMS): cultural, ethnic backgrounds and, 22; cultural gap in, 22; limitations of, 29 Knowledge organization (KO): bias and, 84; cross-contextual, 89–91; hermeneutics for, 252 Index 87–88; Internet and, 82; library concept of, 82–83; ontology and, 84–85; semantic tools for, 82–83; subject access in, 83–84; unified classification systems for, 84–85 Knowledge sharing: in China, 158, 160–62, 164, 170–71; competitive advantage of, 157; cross-cultural, 160; institutional, cultural influences on, 162–70; one-way knowledge transfer vs., 158; resistance to, 161; in Russia, 158, 160–62, 164, 170–71 Knowledge transfer: absorptive capacity and, 72, 76, 231; anticipation in, 68–69; atmosphere of, 71; competence and, 230–31; cultural stretch and, 72, 77; culture’s role in, 223–24, 227–31; explicit rules and, 228; Gupta/Govindarajan typology of, 70; linear, 71; literature review, 159; management failure and, 71; meaningless, 73; mechanisms for, 222; in MNCs, 220–22; model of, 226–27; modes of, 231; national culture impact on, 228; research, practice in, 159; status hierarchies and, 229; trust, credibility and, 229 KO See Knowledge organization Konosuke Matsushita, Kuhn, T S., 87 Labor: classes of, 141; international movement of, 157; political control of, 139; work vs., 140, 149 Language, contextual bias of, 81 Latin America: individualism in, 201; institutional development in, 199–200; social capital in, 196; Spanish conquest impact on, 201; trust levels in, 195–96, 199–200; values, culture, development in, 196–99 LCHS See Library of Congress Subject Headings Leadership, 9–10; HKNET projects and, 121– 23, 126; national culture and, 9–10; in organizations, 9–10; in Peruvian business, 208 Learning: coercive, 181; culture and, 26–29, 28; infant studies on, 28; knowledge and, 21; learning organization and, 177; organizational, 177 See also Team learning Learning and knowledge, individual, organizational, 23 Learning culture, creation of, 181–82 Learning organization: bureaucratic system and, 188; collective commitment, avoidance and, 182–85; as concept, 187–88; cultural gap and, 177–78; ethnographic fieldwork in, 179; experimentation constraints of, 184; KM and, 175–78; learning and, 177; management style and, 188; national culture impact on, 189–90; power relations and, 188; shared vision in, 182–84; Singaporean government as, 179; Singapore organizations and, 189; trusting relationships in, 186–87 Lenin, Vladimir, 139–43 Letts, José, 210 Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCHS), 84 Licklider, J.C.R., 51 Lindsay, Stace, 205, 207 Loyalty, performance and, 143–46, 150–51 Management: absorptive capacity of, 72, 76; of contingency, 59; cross-cultural issues in, 178; expatriates and, 75; as informants, 74; of knowledge, 57–60; knowledge transfer and, 71; political task of, 138 Matsushita, Meaning, construction of, 26 Mental models: competition and, 206; motivation and, 206; strategic decision-making and, 206 MNC See Multinational corporations Morgenstern, Oskar, 202 Motivation: KM and, 150; for patenting, 150; socialist economies and, 150 Multicultural organizations, KM in, 29–31 Multinational corporations (MNCs), 158; as distributed knowledge systems, 223; globalization and, 221; knowledge transfer in, 220–22; research and development activities of, 219–20 NAFTA See North American Free Trade Agreement Napier, Nancy, 75 National borders, subcultures within, National culture, 5–7; Adler’s model and, 8–9; Hofstede model of, 180–81; incentives and, 168; individualism vs collectivism and, 225; KM and, 11, 13, 189–91; knowledge and, 7; knowledge transfer impact by, 228; leadership and, 9–10; learning organization impact by, 189–90; legitimacy of, 5–6; long- vs short-term orientation and, 225; masculinity vs feminism and, 225; neutral vs affective, 226; organizational culture and, 8, 13; organizational literature on, 180; power distance and, 225; specific vs diffuse, 226; uncertainty avoidance and, 225; VTs and, 128–32; work-related attitudes and, Index Navigational order, 51 Network connections, relations, 49; in open society, 57 Network orders, hierarchies vs., 50 Networks: IR and, 81; large scale effectiveness of, 51; TCP for, 51 Network society, 50 Neumann, John von, 202 New generation KM (NGKM), 11 Nonaka, I., 70 Nonaka SECI model, of KM, 12 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 106 Open society, network connections, relations in, 57 Order: aesthetic, 38; contingency and, 44–48; hierarchy and, 48, 50; navigational, 51; planar, 49; in portal cities, regions, 40; selforganizing, 40; technology and, 49 Organizational culture: national culture and, 8, 13; in subsidiary operations, 163 Organizational learning See Learning organization Organizational psychology, cross-cultural issues in, 178 Organizational structures: Chinese, 162, 171; Russian, 162–63, 171; Western, 162 Organizations: as distributed knowledge systems, 223; global rights of, 95; leadership in, 9–10; structure, management practices within, 227 See also Multicultural organizations Outsourcing See Global outsourcing Ownership: individual vs group, 102; of innovation, 103; patenting and, 98 See also Group, communal ownership Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, 106 Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), 106 Patents, patenting: in Canada, 103–4; craft knowledge and, 97; cross-cultural perspective on, 95–96; cross-licensing agreements and, 105; cultural systems of, 108; e-commerce and, 101; economic development and, 100–101; enforcement of, 103–5; English vs American system, 103–4; first-to-file principle and, 104; firstto-invent principle and, 104–5; globalization and, 107; guilds and, 97; historical roots of, 96–99, 101–2, 105–6; individual vs corporate, 103; infringements of, 105; innovation and, 95; international, 106–7; 253 invention and, 99–100; inventor’s interests and, 100; of life forms, 98; management and, 96, 103, 107; monopolies and, 100; motivations for, 99–101; NAFTA and, 106; ownership and, 98; Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property and, 106; PCT and, 106; property rights and, 96; of software, 98–99, 101, 105; specification and, 104; trade secrets and, 99; TRIPS and, 106; WIPO and, 106; WTO and, 106 See also Global patent system Pattern knowledge, 37, 47, 56; contextualization and, 42 Pattern thinking: in aesthetic forms, 35; knowledge origin in, 35 PCT See Patent Cooperation Treaty Perception, culture and, 28 Performance: first-order, 144; individuality vs., 141; loyalty and, 143–46, 150–51; in socialist economies, 145–47 Perry, Guillermo, 199 Peru: agricultural industry revolution in, 207–8; asparagus exports of, 209–10; business leadership in, 208; economic stabilization program in, 207–8; export crops of, 208; Frió Aéreo in, 211–16; globalization impact on, 208; judicial independence variable of, 200; reciprocity in, 201–2; trade preferences for, 208; trust levels in, 195, 200 Peruvian Asparagus Institute (IPEH), 214 Pierer, Heinrich von, 67–68 Portal cities, regions, 35, 38, 43; arts and sciences in, 41; Chicago, 43; company headquarters in, 57; dominance of, 57; emergent forms of, 41–44; Hong Kong, 41; information dissemination and, 42; innovative capacity of, 40; intelligence concentration in, 43; as intermediary, 41–42; political economy of, 41; population growth and, 43; self-organizing order in, 40; uncertainty and, 45; unsuccessful, 39; Venice, 58 Portal societies, 39–41; contingent choices in, 47; historic cases of, 39 Prejudices and Antipathies (Berman), 85 Prisoner’s Dilemma, 201–3 Property rights, in China, 103, 107 RAND Corporation, 202 Reciprocity and cooperation, 203–5 Research and development (R&D): at ANCR, 232–33; distributed, 220–22; internationalized, 221; in MNCs, 219–20 Ridley, Matt, 205, 207 254 Index Rights, enforcement of, 103–5 Roberts, Larry, 51 Roots Peru, 210 Russia: bribery, corruption in, 169–70; business, interpersonal relationships in, 163–65; central planning in, 169; culture of fear in, 168–69; group-based incentives, rewards in, 166; knowledge sharing in, 158, 160–62, 164, 170–71; market economies in, 169; means vs ends in, 164; organizational structures in, 162–63, 171; SOEs in, 164; trust, implicit communication in, 165–66 Salas, Alvaro, 212 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, 27 Semantic Web, 83 Singapore: concept of face in, 182; culture, learning organization in, 179–81, 189 Social capital, in Latin America, 196 Social geometries, 48–52 Social Identity Theory, Socialism, economy, politics in, 143 Socialist economies: competition in, 145; cultural standards of, 135; in Europe, 136; KM and, 137–38; motivation and, 150; planning system of, 146; public vs private in, 148; subversive surviving and, 148–49; workgroup size in, 147; work initiatives in, 147; work/organization vs communication/organization in, 140; workplace performance in, 145–47 SOE See State-owned enterprises Software, patenting of, 98–99, 101, 105 State-owned enterprises (SOEs), in Russia and China, 164 Subculture, within national borders, Subsidiary operations, organizational culture in, 163 Svenonius, Elaine, 90 Symmetry, knowledge and, 37 Systems: art of, 36–39; contingency and order in, 44–48; information, uncertainty in, 44–46; self-organizing, 37; self-steering in, 55–56 Takeuchi, H., 70 Taoism, uncertainty and, 45 TCP See Transport Control Protocols Team learning, 185 Technology: communication impact by, 53–54; for HKNET projects, 114, 129, 131; order and, 49; synchronous vs asynchronous, 130–32 Tit-for-Tat, 203–5 Trade-Related Aspects Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), 106 Trade secrets: patenting and, 99; sharing of, 213 Transport Control Protocols (TCP), 51 TRIPS See Trade-Related Aspects Intellectual Property Rights Trotsky, Leon, 145 Trust: building, 215–16; in China, 165–66; cooperation and, 201–7, 216; creating atmosphere for, 75–76, 78; implicit communication and, 165–66, 170–71; knowledge transfer and, 229; in Latin America, 195–96, 199–200; in learning organization, 186–87; between management and employees, 186–87; in Peru, 195, 200; in Russia, 165–66 Uncertainty: information and, 44–46; procedural guarantees and, 45; Taoism and, 45; in traditional settings, 44 U.S Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), 98 USPTO See U.S Patent and Trademark Office Value differences, cultural dimensions of, 180 Venice, 102; as portal city, 58 Videoconferencing, HKNET projects use of, 114 Virtual teams (TM): HKNET projects and, 111–12; KM in, 111–12; national culture and, 128–3 Wiener, Norbert, 55 WIPO See World Intellectual Property Organization Work: labor vs., 140; subversive surviving by, 148–49 World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), 106 World Trade Organization (WTO), 106 WTO See World Trade Organization About the Editor and Contributors David J Pauleen is a senior lecturer of Information Management at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand He has done extensive research in the areas of virtual team leadership and collaboration, cross-cultural communication and management, and knowledge management He is currently involved in research on the relationship between information and communication technologies and emerging work behaviors His work has appeared in a number of journals including Sloan Management Review, the Journal of Management Information Systems, and the Journal of Global Information Management He is the editor of the book Virtual Teams: Projects, Protocols and Processes (2004) Jane E Bryson is a senior lecturer in the Victoria Management School at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand, and has taught in human resource management and industrial relations, organization development, and public management over a number of years She is an organizational psychologist who has extensive practical experience in the public and private sectors as a consultant and as a human resources manager Her recent research has included examining responses to ethical dilemmas of managers and professionals, investigating how human resource management contributes to organizational capability, and exploring influences on the development of human capability in the workplace Luis S Chang is an economist from the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru and holds a master’s of science degree in business studies from the London Business School He worked for 10 years at the Central Reserve Bank of his native Peru and was general manager of the National Society of Exporters and vice-chairperson of the Securities Commission As advisor to the minister and secretary-general of the Ministry for Industry, he coordinated the study “Building the Competitive Advantage of Peru.” He represented Peru at Asia Pacific APEC and PECC forums’ working groups He conducted the Competitiveness Program at the Andean Development Corporation (CAF), a multilateral financial organization in Latin America He has edited several books on competitiveness issues 256 About the Editor and Contributors Mike Chiasson is currently a senior lecturer at Lancaster University’s Management School, in the Department of Management Science, United Kingdom His research examines how social context affects information science development and implementation, using a range of social theories (actor network theory, structuration theory, critical social theory, ethnomethodology, communicative action, power-knowledge, deconstruction, and institutional theory) In studying these questions, he has examined various development and implementation issues (privacy, user involvement, diffusion, outsourcing, cyber-crime, knowledge management, and system development conflict) within medical, legal, engineering, entrepreneurial, and governmental settings Most of his work has been qualitative in nature, with a strong emphasis on participant observation Sally Dexter is currently completing her doctoral thesis exploring knowledge sharing within collaborative projects in the public sector Her research interests include public and private sector knowledge management, cross-culture knowledge management, social network analysis, and gender issues in information systems Caroline Essers is a lecturer and doctoral candidate at the Department of International Management at the Nijmegen School of Management, Radboud University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands She holds a master’s degree in Human Geography Her research focuses on the identity constructions of female entrepreneurs of Moroccan and Turkish descent in the Netherlands She previously worked for the Department of the Middle East, Radboud University of Nijmegen Gerhard Fink is Jean Monnet Professor of applied microeconomics in European integration and director of the doctoral program at Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien, Austria He was chair of the business faculty at Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien during 2001–2002 and director of the Institute for European Affairs (Jean Monnet Centre of Excellence) during 1997–2003 He has also taught at the Johns Hopkins University Bologna Center and at universities in Munich, Trieste, Linz, Vienna, and Krems During 1973–1990 he was affiliated with the Vienna Institute for Comparative Studies (WIIW), of which he was director from 1984 to 1990 He is certified as a business consultant by the Austrian Chamber of Commerce Professor Fink has published 180 articles in academic journals and authored, edited, or coedited about 15 books He is coeditor of a Special Issue of the Academy of Management Executive on the global transfer of management knowledge (2005) He speaks German and English, and has a working knowledge of Russian, Italian, and French Michiel van Genuchten is general manager of Philips HDSoftware, a unit of Philips electronics He is also a professor at Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands, for one day a week He holds a master’s degree (1987) and a doctorate (1991) from the Eindhoven University of Technology He has worked in industry since 1987, among others at Philips Electronics and GroupSupport, a software company he founded His main interests are software as a technology, software as a business, and information technology support for virtual teams Results of his research work have been published in journals such as IEEE Software, Journal of MIS, IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, and IEEE Transactions on Professional Communications About the Editor and Contributors Paul H J Hendriks (PhD, Social Sciences, 1986, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands) is Professor of Organization Studies, particularly knowledge, structures, and networks at the Nijmegen School of Management of Radboud University in Nijmegen, the Netherlands His work has been published in a broad range of academic journals, including Organizational Research Methods; Organization, Information & Management; Journal of Information Technology; International Journal of Geographical Information Science; Knowledge and Process Management; Decision Support Systems; KnowledgeBased Systems; Expert Systems with Applications; and International Journal of Information Technology and Management His research interests include motivation aspects of knowledge work, knowledge-friendly organization structures, knowledge exchange in regional innovation systems, and knowledge management He teaches master courses on organizations and knowledge; master courses on technology, innovation, and organizations; and various courses on social capital, knowledge-friendly organization structures, and knowledge management at undergraduate and graduate levels at the Nijmegen School of Management and elsewhere Nigel Holden has been Professor of Comparative and International Management at Nottingham Business School, United Kingdom, since July 2004 He previously held professorial appointments in Germany and Denmark His book Cross-Cultural Management: A Knowledge Management Perspective (2002) was published in a Russian-language version in 2005 and will appear in Chinese translation in 2006 He is coeditor of a Special Issue of the Academy of Management Executive on the global transfer of management knowledge, which appeared in 2005 A widely traveled management educator and researcher, he has given keynote addresses to professional audiences throughout Europe as well as in Taiwan, the United States, and Russia He speaks English, German, and Russian Kate Hutchings (PhD, University of Queensland) is an Associate Professor in the Department of Management, Monash University, Australia She was previously employed at the Queensland University of Technology and prior to that at the University of Queensland She has taught in China and Malaysia as well as having held visiting positions in the United States, Denmark, and France She has coauthored and coedited three books, and her research has appeared in Asia Pacific Journal of Management, Human Resource Management Journal, International Journal of Human Resource Management, Journal of Management Studies, and Thunderbird International Business Review, among others A specialist in international management, her current research interests include human resources management in China, intercultural networking, and intercultural knowledge management Maren Lehmann (Dphil) trained in print and studied design, pedagogy, and sociology at the University of Art and Design Burg Giebichenstein, Halle, Germany; at Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany; and at Bielefeld University, Germany She has a diploma in pedagogy and a doctorate in sociology (thesis topic: inclusion and exclusion in religious observations) Dr Lehmann was a research assistant at the Department of Sociology and Business Administration at Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, and guest lecturer at universities in Halle, Leipzig, Weimar, and Vienna She is working on her post-doctoral dissertation (on careers as organizational 257 258 About the Editor and Contributors calculations with individuals) in cooperation with the Department of Fundamental Studies at University Witten/Herdecke She speaks German and English and has a working knowledge of Russian Chern Li Liew is a senior lecturer at Victoria University of Wellington School of Information Management, New Zealand Chern Li’s main research interest is in understanding and enhancing user-information interaction in a digital environment She is also interested in social informatics theory and applications, particularly in the area of cross-domain and cross-cultural knowledge discovery She has published in Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, Journal of Documentation, The Journal of Information Science, and Online Information Review She also serves on the editorial advisory boards of Library and Information Science Research and Online Information Review Robert Mason joined the faculty of the Information School at the University of Washington, United States, in 2005 His current research interests focus on the philosophy and ethics of technology management and the cultural aspects of knowledge management He recently completed a research project that examined how knowledge was created and shared during implementation of enterprise systems in a consortium of state universities He was previously on the faculties of the College of Business at Florida State University and the Weatherhead School of Management at Case Western Reserve University Prior to working full time in academia, he operated two consulting companies and worked in industry He is a former president of the International Association for the Management of Technology (IAMOT) and serves on the senior editorial board of Technovation He has bachelor’s and master’s degrees of science in electrical engineering from Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a doctorate in industrial and systems engineering from Georgia Institute of Technology Snejina Michailova is Professor of International Business at the University of Auckland Business School, New Zealand (PhD, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark) Her research interests are in international management (especially cross-cultural management), knowledge management (particularly knowledge sharing), and emerging economies (Russia and China) Much of her research has bridged these three areas in different constellations Her work has appeared in, among others, The Academy of Management Executive, California Management Review, Journal of Management Studies, Management Learning, Journal of World Business, Organizational Dynamics, and International Management Dr Michailova is Europe Editor of the Journal of World Business Peter Murphy is Associate Professor of Communications at Monash University, Australia His most recent books include Civic Justice (2001), Dialectic of Romanticism (2004), and Australian Perspectives on Southeast Asia, Australia and the World (2005) He is currently working on a study of creativity and intellectual capital Kala S Retna is a lecturer at the University Teaching Development Centre at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand She provides professional staff development workshops for tutors and also teaches courses in Victoria Management School, specifically an organizational behavior module for undergraduates She has worked as a trainer and management educator for many years in a large organization in Singapore and retains an ongoing research interest on management issues in Singapore Her main About the Editor and Contributors areas of research, training, and consultancy at Victoria University are learning and teaching in higher education, learning organizations, and cross-cultural management Anne-Francoise Rutkowski is assistant professor of Information Systems at the Tilburg University, The Netherlands She received her doctorate in cognitive and social psychology Since 1994, she has been involved in education and research activities in fundamental psychology (i.e., cognitive dissonance, causal attribution processes, post-modernist theories, and methods of research in human sciences) Since 1999, her research interests and publications have been oriented toward group support systems and bridge information science and human sciences in addressing topics such as group decision making, problem solving, virtual teams, and e-learning Chad Saunders is a doctoral candidate in Management Information Systems at the Haskayne School of Business, University of Calgary, Canada He has worked in various capacities within academia as an instructor and lecturer and in industry as a consultant to rapid-growth technology-based firms His research interests focus on the knowledge management practices of professional groups with a particular interest in how technology enhances and hinders the practices of professionals such as lawyers, physicians, and software developers Mr Saunders has published articles in IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, Journal of Business Venturing, and Entrepreneurship Theory & Practice Marjolyn S W Thiessen holds a master’s of science in business administration (specializing in international management) from the Nijmegen School of Management, Radboud University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands Her research has focused on the impact of national culture on the transfer of knowledge among business units of a multinational enterprise that are positioned at considerable geographical and cultural distance Doug Vogel is professor (chair) of Information Systems at the City University of Hong Kong and an AIS Fellow He received his master’s of science in Computer Science from University of California, Los Angeles, in 1972 and his doctorate in business from the University of Minnesota in 1986 Professor Vogel has published widely and directed extensive research on group support systems, knowledge management, and technology support for education His research interests bridge the business and academic communities in addressing questions of the impact of information systems on aspects of interpersonal communication, group problem solving, cooperative learning, and multicultural team productivity and knowledge sharing Dr Vogel is especially active in introducing technology into enterprises and educational systems and researching mobile e-learning applications Additional detail can be found at http://www.is.cityu.edu.hk/staff/isdoug/cv/ Ling-Ling Wu received her doctorate in psychology from the University of Chicago, United States, in 1995 She is currently an Assistant Professor in the Department of Information Management, National Taiwan University Her research interests include crosscultural knowledge management and cognitive science approaches to decision making, learning, negotiation, and problem solving in the interactive information technology environment She is on the editorial board of Research in Applied Psychology Her work has been published in Memory and Cognition, Psychology & Marketing, Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, Sun Yat-Sen Management Review, Research in Applied Psychology, and Taiwan Academy of Management Review 259 .. .CROSS- CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES ON KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT Cross- Cultural Perspectives on Knowledge Management Edited by David J Pauleen Libraries Unlimited Knowledge Management Series... Indeed, McCrone Cross- Cultural Perspectives on Knowledge Management (1998) asserts that the quest for regional identities and decentralization reflects the need for the idea of national cultural. .. CULTURE ON KEY ASPECTS OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT Cultural Stretch: Knowledge Transfer and Disconcerting Resistance to Absorption and Application Gerhard Fink and Nigel Holden 65 67 vi Contents From Concept