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Syntax puts our meaning (“semantics”) into sentences, and phonology puts the sentences into the sounds that we hear and there must, surely, be a structure in the meaning that is expressed in the syntax and phonology. Some writers use the phrase “semantic structure”, but are referring to conceptual structure; since we can express our conceptual thought in many different linguistic ways, we cannot equate conceptual and semantic structures.The research reported in this book shows semantic structure to be in part hierarchic, fitting the syntax in which it is expressed, and partly a network, fitting the nature of the mind, from which it springs. It is complex enough to provide for the emotive and imaginative dimensions of language, and for shifts of standard meanings in context, and the “rules” that control them. Showing the full structure of English semantics requires attention to many currently topical issues, and since the underlying theory is fresh, there are fresh implications for them. The most important of those issues is information structure, which is given full treatment, showing its overall structure, and its relation to semantics and the whole grammar of English.
studies in functional and structural linguistics Semantic Structure in English Jim Feist John Benjamins Publishing Company 73 Semantic Structure in English Studies in Functional and Structural Linguistics (SFSL) issn 1385-7916 Taking the broadest and most general definitions of the terms functional and structural, this series aims to present linguistic and interdisciplinary research that relates language structure – at any level of analysis from phonology to discourse – to broader functional considerations, whether cognitive, communicative, pragmatic or sociocultural Preference will be given to studies that focus on data from actual discourse, whether speech, writing or other nonvocal medium The series was formerly known as Linguistic & Literary Studies in Eastern Europe (LLSEE) For an overview of all books published in this series, please see https://benjamins.com/catalog/sfsl Founding Editor Honorary Editors John Odmark Eva Hajičová Charles University Petr Sgall Charles University General Editors Yishai Tobin Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Bob de Jonge Groningen University Editorial Board Alexandra Y Aikhenvald James A Matisoff Joan L Bybee Jim Miller Ellen Contini-Morava Marianne Mithun Nicholas Evans Lawrence J Raphael Victor A Friedman Olga Mišeska Tomić Anatoly Liberman Olga T Yokoyama La Trobe University University of New Mexico University of Virginia University of Melbourne University of Chicago University of Minnesota Volume 73 Semantic Structure in English by Jim Feist University of California, Berkeley Emeritus, University of Edinburgh University of California, at Santa Barbara CUNY and Adelphi University Leiden University UCLA Semantic Structure in English Jim Feist John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdamâ•›/â•›Philadelphia TM The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the╯American National Standard for Information Sciences – Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ansi z39.48-1984 doi 10.1075/sfsl.73 Cataloging-in-Publication Data available from Library of Congress isbn 978 90 272 1583 (Hb) isbn 978 90 272 6652 (e-book) © 2016 – John Benjamins B.V No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher John Benjamins Publishing Company · https://benjamins.com Table of contents Chapter Introduction1 1.1 Goals of the book 1.2 Approach 1 1.3 Argument of the book 1.4 Plan of the book Chapter Semantic structures in the strata of English 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Semantic structure in lexis 2.2.1 Paradigmatic lexical relations 2.2.2 Syntagmatic lexical relations 2.2.3 Words without paradigmatic or syntagmatic relations 2.3 Semantic structure in morphology 2.3.1 Semantic classes 2.3.2 Grammatical meaning 10 2.3.3 Dependency and modification 10 2.4 Semantic structure in syntax 10 2.4.1 Semantic structure of clauses: The figure 10 2.4.2 Semantic structure in groups 13 2.5 Semantic structure in phonology 14 2.5.1 Introduction 14 2.5.2 Semantics of tonality 14 2.5.3 Semantics of tone 15 2.5.4 Semantics of tonicity 16 2.5.5 Semantics of rhythm 17 2.5.6 Semantic structure in phonetics 18 2.5.7 Discussion: Semantic structure in phonology 19 2.5.8 Conclusion: Semantics in the phonological stratum 21 2.6 Conclusion: Semantic structure in the strata of English 22 vi Semantic Structure in English Chapter Basis of semantic structure 3.1 Introduction 25 3.2 The intention to speak 25 3.2.1 Main intention 25 3.2.2 Subordinate intentions 26 3.2.3 Discussion 27 3.2.4 Conclusion 27 3.3 Functions, as the formulation of intention 28 3.3.1 Introduction 28 3.3.2 Expressive function 28 3.3.3 Interpersonal function 30 3.3.4 Ideational function 31 3.3.5 Conclusion 31 3.4 Constraints on meaning 32 3.4.1 Introduction 32 3.4.2 Linguistic constraints 32 3.4.3 Semiotic constraints 33 3.5 Conclusion: Basis of semantic structure 37 Chapter Elements of semantic structure 4.1 Introduction 39 4.2 Preliminaries 39 4.2.1 Areas of meaning: Cognitive and linguistic meaning 39 4.2.2 Aspects of meaning 42 4.3 Dimensions of linguistic meaning 43 4.3.1 Introduction 43 4.3.2 Quality dimension 43 4.3.3 Intensity dimension 43 4.3.4 Specificity dimension 44 4.3.5 Vagueness dimension 44 4.3.6 Basicness dimension 45 4.3.7 Viewpoint dimension 45 4.3.8 Boundedness dimension 45 4.3.9 Expectedness dimension 46 4.3.10 Salience dimension 47 4.4 Content meaning 47 4.4.1 Introduction 47 4.4.2 Descriptive meaning 49 4.4.3 Affective meaning 52 4.4.4 Attitudinal meaning 56 4.4.5 Social meaning 58 4.4.6 Conclusion: Types of content meaning 59 25 39 Table of contents vii 4.5 Grammatical meaning 61 4.5.1 Introduction 61 4.5.2 Types of grammatical meaning 64 4.5.3 Dimensions of grammatical meaning 65 4.5.4 Discussion 66 4.5.5 Conclusion: Grammatical meaning 67 4.6 Semantic classes 68 4.6.1 Introduction 68 4.6.2 Basic classes 69 4.6.3 Discussion: Semantic classes 71 4.6.4 Conclusion: Semantic classes 72 4.7 Uses of meaning 72 4.7.1 Introduction 72 4.7.2 Marked use 73 4.7.3 Defining and descriptive uses 73 4.7.4 Literal and figurative uses 76 4.8 Discussion: Elements of semantic structure 77 4.9 Conclusion: Elements of semantic structure 77 Chapter Network structure 5.1 Introduction 79 5.1.1 General introduction 79 5.1.2 Introduction to networks 80 5.2 Structure within a word’s meaning 80 5.2.1 Introduction 80 5.2.2 Word senses as a structure of meaning types 82 5.2.3 Structure within descriptive senses 87 5.2.4 Structure within non-descriptive senses 92 5.2.5 Discussion: Compositionality of sense structure 93 5.3 Structure among word senses 95 5.3.1 Introduction 95 5.3.2 Sense relations: Synonymy 96 5.3.3 Other sense relations 98 5.3.4 Variation in sense structure 99 5.3.5 Conclusion: Structure among word senses 107 5.4 Structure of sublexical meaning 108 5.4.1 Introduction 108 5.4.2 Dimensions 109 5.4.3 Elements and their sublexical relations 110 5.4.4 Elements’ external relations 112 5.4.5 Discussion: Structure of sublexical meanings 113 5.4.6 Conclusion: Structure of sublexical meaning 115 79 viii Semantic Structure in English 5.5 Networks in other strata 116 5.5.1 Networks in clause syntax 116 5.5.2 Networks in group syntax 118 5.5.3 Lexical network: Cohesion 119 5.6 Discussion: Network structures in English 120 5.6.1 Whole utterances as networks 120 5.6.2 Networks in imaginative English 121 5.6.3 Relations among one word’s various senses: Polysemy 121 5.7 Conclusion: Network structures in English 123 Chapter System structure 125 6.1 Introduction 125 6.1.1 General introduction 125 6.1.2 Introduction to system structure 126 6.2 System processes 127 6.2.1 Introduction: Grammatical meanings 127 6.2.2 Preliminary process: Obtaining content for the main procedure 128 6.2.3 Processes applying within words and groups 129 6.2.4 Processes applying within figures and figure complexes: Complementation 134 6.2.5 Processes applying to a whole figure 135 6.2.6 Discussion: System processes 137 6.2.7 Conclusion: Grammatical meaning 138 6.3 System procedures: Using the processes 138 6.3.1 Introduction 138 6.3.2 Constructing hierarchic structures 139 6.3.3 Constructing network structures in morphosyntax 140 6.4 Discussion: System structure 140 6.4.1 Details not yet explained 140 6.4.2 Signs used for grammatical meaning 141 6.4.3 Grammatical meanings in figurative and other uses 141 6.4.4 Grammatical meaning as backgrounded meaning 142 6.4.5 Other views of grammatical meaning 143 6.5 Conclusion: System structure 144 Chapter Hierarchic structure (1): Figures 7.1 Introduction 147 7.1.1 Introduction to hierarchies in semantics 147 7.1.2 Introduction to figures 148 147 Table of contents 7.2 Figure structures 149 7.2.1 Introduction: Processes 149 7.2.2 Material-Process structure 150 7.2.3 Mental-Process structures 151 7.2.4 Relational-Process structures 152 7.2.5 Discussion: Figure structures 153 7.2.6 Conclusion: Summary of figure structures 154 7.3 Processes 155 7.3.1 Introduction: Processes 155 7.3.2 Internal structure of Processes 155 7.3.3 Syntagmatic structure of Processes 156 7.3.4 Semantic class: Process 158 7.3.5 Conclusion: Summary of Processes 159 7.4 Participants 159 7.4.1 Introduction 159 7.4.2 Internal structure 160 7.4.3 Syntagmatic structure 160 7.4.4 Participant as semantic class 161 7.4.5 Discussion: Participant roles and “semantic roles” 161 7.4.6 Conclusion: Summary of Participants 162 7.5 Circumstances 162 7.5.1 Introduction 162 7.5.2 Internal structure of Circumstances 163 7.5.3 Syntagmatic structure of Circumstances 164 7.5.4 Semantic class of Circumstances 166 7.5.5 Discussion: Circumstances 166 7.5.6 Conclusion: Summary of Circumstances 168 7.6 Relations among Participant, Process and Circumstance 168 7.7 Structures larger than the figure 169 7.8 Discussion: Figures 170 7.8.1 Co-ordination and linearity 170 7.8.2 Constructions 171 7.8.3 Ergativity 172 7.8.4 Compositionality in figures 174 7.9 Conclusion: Figures 175 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233 aspectual structure 233 assertion 15, 136, 223 defined 136 vs suggestion 381 association operator 65, 187 attitudinal meaning 92 realisation 318 Attribute 152, 153 attribute-value 386 auxiliary 325 as Theme 271 syntagmatic structure 224 B basicness introduced 20 bond defined 69 in compositionality 386 in semantic classes 77 of Entity 211 of Events 70, 151 of modifiers 198 of Predicators 234 of Properties 70 boundedness 71, 209, 233 C Carrier 152 categoriality of concepts 397 of linguistic choices 395 of senses 394 of zones 192 category cognitive vs linguistic 374 covert 323 prototypical 393 vs class 69 central node 209, 213 change dimension 91 Circumstance introduced 11 realisation 140 class vs category 68 Classifier described 180 444 Semantic Structure in English Classifier construction 180 clause semantics of 148 semantic structure in 10 vs figure 11 closed class 67, 143 coding 309, 424 cognitive dominance 95 command 148 incongruent realisation 372 information structure in 259 realisation 267 Comment discussed 265 in figures 262 in paragraphs 263 common noun 34, 74, 209 communication 31, 148 Complement 10 as realisation of Participant 148 semantic constituency 69 complementation 376 defined 134 realisation 324 complexity as constraint on realisation 383 in compositionality 386 of dimensions 199 of Event groups 236 of information structure 383 of signs 141 compositional functions 386 compositionality 425 general discussion 385 in field structures 303 introduced 13 of Entity groups 216 of figures 174 of senses 93 compositional property of language 382 compound 134, 135, 188 compound tones 15 computational semantics 425 conceptual metaphor theory 337 constraints 333 linguistic 32 on realisation 383 semiotic 33 construal defined 373 described 373 of Events 237 of semantic class 217 varieties of 373 construction 37 defined 180 discussed 171 other views 144 Construction Grammar 144, 171 contextual variation 99, 103 conversation management 293 co-ordination as process 133 as structure 216 copula 149 as relation 11 count/mass distinction 71 covert sign 37 D declarative realisation 322 defining use 74, 142, 381 defined 73 definiteness 141, 370 deixis 66 as semiotic process 34 dependency 10, 254 defined 11 dependency grammar 144 dependent defined 11 describing (semiotic process) 34 descriptive meaning loss of 293 realisation 380 subclasses 68 descriptive use 73, 93, 142, 213 defined 73 Descriptor described 189 internal structure 189 determinateness defined 236 determiner 203 as function, not class 179 internal structure 204 semantics of 203 syntagmatic relations 203 zone 203 differentiation 26, 147, 149, 378 Index 445 dimensions in grammatical meaning 65 in synonyms 97 directive function 293 discourse grammatical meaning 289 discourse marker 268, 293, 297, 382 discourse Participant vs situation participant 274 discourse particle Discourse Representation Theory double articulation 37 doubly bounded Events 233 dummy Subjects 206, 210 duration 233 duration dimension 91 dynamic semantics E effort code 314, 323 emergent meaning 387 entertainment 335 entity defined 69 described 69 introduced 8 sublexical 71 Entity defined 209 described 208 in figure 235 subclasses 209 Entity group as unit 211 defined 179 discussed 215 head of 206 structure of 211, 218 vs noun/nominal phrase 178 zones 178 Entity-head construction 180 Epithet described 193 internal structure 193 semantic class 193 ergativity 172 evaluative grammatical meaning 288 event defined 70 described 69 introduced 8 sublexical 71 Event described 232, 235 in figure 235 subclasses 235 Event group 222 as unit 236 head of 232 structure 224 exclamation 148 information structure in 259 realisation 267, 322 exclusions from the book expectedness dimension in descriptive meaning 91 in synonymy 97 in use 100 Expressive function 32 defined 28 realisation 294, 312 Expressive senses 93 F field structure defined 20 discussed 301 in social meanings 321 within hierarchic structure 308 figurative use as reconstrual 141 forms 334 introduced 76 of grammatical meaning 142 figure defined 10 structure 10, 149 final bound 233 final-bounded Events 233 Finite defined 223 internal structure 223 syntagmatic structure 223 finiteness 223 semantics of 323 focus defined 272 introduced 16 realisation 326 semantics of 16 frame 97 free order 220 frequency code 314 446 Semantic Structure in English functional versus representational 387 Functional Discourse Grammar 143, 312, 333, 400, 425 functional meaning 143 functional node 209 G generative grammar 425 generative lexicon 181, 425 genitive as determiner 203, 204 as premodifier 189 gradience 327, 397 grammatical auxiliary 224 syntagmatic structure 224 grammaticalisation 142, 209 grammatical meaning as backgrounded 142 auxiliaries 224 dimensions 65 in different uses 141 in Entity groups 215 in field structures 304 in information structure 258 in morphology 10 introduced 8 levels 321 modal 219 of content words 218 other views 66, 143 realisation 321, 323, 324 scope 218 signs for 64, 141 types 64, 288 vs content meaning grammatical metaphor as incongruent realisation 372 defined 142 introduced 143 grammaticisation 25, 154, 266, 399 defined 256 graphology for information structure 263 in realisation 371 representing phonology 322 group vs phrase 178 group order semantics of 12 H happening 69 head internal structure 207, 232 of Entity group 206 of Event group 232 hearer meaning 382 hierarchic structure construction of 139 figures 147 groups 177 information structure 255 holophrase 308, 317, 336 adults’ 296 children’s 295 defined 9 longer expressions 298 realisation 379 humour realisation 335 hyponymy 99 I icon (type of sign) 335 discussed 35 in realisation 317, 375 ideational function 292 defined 31 realisation 372 identifying use 73, 74 ideophone 308, 335, 336 described 299 imaginative meaning realisation 333 imaginative use 31, 121, 299 realisation 333 imperative realisation 16, 37 incongruent realisation 372 incorporation for information structure 327 of adjective into verb 230 of adverbial 230 of adverb into verb 230 of noun 230 indefiniteness 203, 264 index defined 33 discussed 34 for Expression 312 for writer’s intention 261 introduced 21 Index 447 indirect speech acts 27 individuation and salience 274 degree of 209 in Event heads 234 reduction of 230 inference 1 information defined 256 information structure defined 255 other views 255 realisation 324 reality of 290 status 257 types 255, 256 information unit 257 marking 15 initial bound 233 intensity dimension in Epithets 194 in grammatical meaning 65 intention as basic to language 25 formulated as functions 28 interjection 19 as Expression 29 as indexical 35 as item without internal structure 291 internal structure explained 149 interpersonal action 30 interpersonal function defined 30 introduced 29 realisation 309 interpersonal Theme 267 interpretive grammatical meaning 288 interrogative realisation 35, 311 intersective modification 133 irrealis defined 330 realisation 330, 374 L language as action 12, 22, 293 as communication 293 as dots to be joined 372 as form for its own sake 334 as mechanism of control 308 as representation of concepts 387 as response 308 as situation expressed 26 as social communion 308 layout 371 lexical field 99 lexical relations 95 paradigmatic 7 syntagmatic 8 lexicon 391 discussed 399 lexis semantic structure in linearity as constraint 33 exploitation of 332 in realisation 311 vs co-ordination 216 linguistic dominance 95 link as bond 69 at group level 179 at sublexical level 69 for entity 69 for Entity 179, 209 for event 70 for property 70 multiple, in network 140 literal use 76 of grammatical meaning 142 loose structures 261 M mapping 309, 310 markedness discussed 339 marked order 220 marked pitch 16 marked use 73 marker defined 34 discussed 36 vs symbol 141 mass 209 mass noun 209 Meaning-Text Theory 425 meaning types 400 in grammatical meaning 64 medio-passive 172 meronymy 99 448 Semantic Structure in English metafunctions as formulation of intention 28 interaction 379 listed 28 metaphor as information 375 as reconstrual 141 discussed 337 middle (voice) 172 misrelation 263, 270 modal 219 deontic 332 epistemic 332 modal Adjunct 267, 303 modal auxiliary as representation of figure 142 for subordinate intention 27 vs grammatical auxiliary 224 modality as semantic category 331, 332 defined 142 other views 331 realisation 330, 374 modal modifier 141, 219, 333 mode of combination 386 modification introduced 10 (non)restrictive 73 structure of 13 morphology semantic structure in N names as common nouns 74 as proper nouns 73, 75 in referential strategy 381 naming 137 as semiotic process 34 negation as field 303 functions of 338 scope of 304 negational descriptors 219 negative polarity 303 negative polarity items 339 network among word senses 95 defined 8 introduced 5 node semantic classes as 71 nominal group vs Entity group 178 nominalisation 180, 208, 235 non-specified Events 233 noun use of term 388 noun incorporation see incorporation noun phrase vs Entity group 178 nuclear tones 15 O onomasiology 2 onomatopoeia 295, 299, 370 open class 67, 143 operator 68, 143, 224 order as sign 37 iconic 35, 375 marked 220 of groups 12 of postmodifiers 206 of premodifiers 179 of words in a zone 220 unmarked 220, 376 orientation structure 266 other views 270 realisation 325 outline 209 overt sign 37 P paradigms in grammatical meaning 262 in phonological systems 21 in social meaning 196 of lexical items 7, 95 of signs 36 of speech acts 136 paragraph as realisation 371 Topic structure in 263 paralinguistic features paratone as wave 305 information structure 260 introduced 15 realisation 329, 371 Topic structure in 263 Index 449 Participant introduced 11 realisation 370 relations 135 Participant-head construction 188 part of speech discussed 141, 388 percept 69 perceptual node 209 personal relationships (function) 30 phatic interjections 293 Phenomenon 151 phonaesthesia 19 phonemic use defined 295 phonic use 299, 314, 315, 335 defined 295 phonological paragraphs 15 phonology semantic structure in 14 phrase vs group 178 pitch 14 in phonic use 314 playfulness 31, 336 pointing (semiotic process) 34 polarity 338 polysemy discussed 121 in discourse markers 300 in ideophones 299 vs monosemy 76 postmodification vs premodification 218 postmodifier of Entity internal structure 205 syntagmatic structure 205 postmodifier of Event internal structure 231 syntagmatic structure 231 postposed particles 231 pragmatics 28, 298, 382 defined 1 predication 137, 149, 152, 236 modifiers as 289 nonfinite 331 predicative adjectives 373 Predicator and Event group 222 as realisation of Process 150 determinateness 236 introduced 10 non-eventive 11, 388 premodification vs postmodification 218, 290 zones of 178 premodifier in Entity group 180 subclass 192 vs determiner 178 preposition as Theme 271 function of 325 semantics of 65 prepositional phrase 11, 325 primary tense 224 privative adjectives 219 procedural meaning 66 other views 143 Process as category 153 defined 148 described 149 introduced 11 material type 151 mental type 151 realisation 150 reconstrual 153 relational type 152 types 150 vs verb 149 Process-head construction 187 production phase code 314 proper names 75 proper noun 34, 73, 209, 213 property defined 70 described 69 introduced 8 sublexical 71 prototypes discussed 393 punctuation as sign 37, 263 discussed 371 Q qualia explained 181 other views 181 qualia construction 180 quality 69 450 Semantic Structure in English question 148 information structure in 259 realisation 268 R realisation as meaning-form relation 310 as process 310 constraints on 383 defined 5 figurative 375 incongruent 372 into sound 369 into writing 371 of emotion and attitude 316 of Expressive function 312 of grammatical meaning 321 of imaginative meaning 333 of interpersonal functions 309 of personal relations 319 of social relations 319 realisational property of language 382 realisation strategies 381 reduction of form 230 of meaning 230 of syntactic status 230 reference (act of) 135 referential use 73, 96, 211, 381 Reinforcer described 200 relations vs semantic classes 71 relevance structure defined 256 discussed 258 in figures 262 in paragraphs/paratones 263 realisation 324 reporting structure 260 representation language as 137 restrictive use 73, 142, 217, 386 Rhematic structure introduced 16 realisation 289 semantics of 16 Rheme defined 272 discussed 272 introduced 12 rhythm as wave structure 19 basis of 17 defined 14 function of 18 semantics of 17, 305 rhythmisation 17 S salience defined 272 described 272 in information item 273 in sense variation 103 salience structure 272 defined 257 realisation 326 scenario 97 secondary tense 236 Seinsarten 209 semantic term defined term discussed semantic class as role 209 basic classes 69 basis 69 construal 217 defined 72 discussed 71 historically 141 incongruent realisation 372 introduced 8 linguistic status 71 outlined 68 psychological status 71 vs cognitive class vs word class 68, 388 semantic field 3, 99 semantic head 206, 209 semanticisation 375 semantic relations as result of grammatical meanings 145 vs syntactic relations 211 semantic role 11 semantics approach to other views semantic structure in lexis in morphology Index 451 in phonology 14 in syntax 11 introduced 1 other views outlined 4 semantics vs syntax discussed 417 introduced 4 semasiology 2 semiosis 21 in information structure 332 semiotic constraints 33 semiotic levels 34 semiotic processes 36 discussed 34 semiotic strategies 311 Senser 151 serial tense 224 sign covert 37 for grammatical meaning 141 forms in language 37 overt 37 types 33 types realised 311 signal 35 situation participant vs discourse Participant 274 social meaning 92 social relations 30 sociolinguistics 1 sound symbolism 294 speaker meaning 382 specificity dimension in synonymy 97 speech act 12, 30, 322 defined 288 term discussed 36, 137 speech participants 270 spelling 371 statement 148 information structure in 259 subclasses 136 stative verbs 373 stativity discussed 374 strata as levels of realisation 309 emotive meaning in 316 grammatical meaning in 323 identified 7 in realisation 338 in relation to signs used 37 layers in 401 sub-act in FDG 333 sub-dimensions 209, 233 Subject 10 as realisation of Participant 148 in relation to focus 261 in relation to Theme 267 in relation to Topic 258 semantic constituency 69 subordination realisation 324 subsective modification 133 subzones of Classifiers 182 superordination realisation 324 symbol (type of sign) defined 33 discussed 35 for grammatical meaning 139, 141 for information structure 263, 271 introduced 21 synonymy 7 defined 96 discussed 96 syntactic head 206, 214 syntactic status 33 syntagmatic structure explained 149 syntax semantic structure in 10 syntax vs semantics discussed 417 introduced 4 systematicity in information structure 289 in morpheme paradigms 141 in semantics 424 systematisation 401 Systemic Functional Grammar 2, 28, 207, 266, 290, 310, 425 system meaning 382 system operations 138 T tense in determinateness 236 in grammatical meaning 65 452 Semantic Structure in English realisation 224 vs time 66 Textual function 28, 267 textual Theme 267, 269 Theme above the figure 269 defined 266 in groups 270 interpersonal 267 introduced 12 other views 270 textual 267 topical 268 types 267 thing 69 realisation 10 time realisation 375 vs tense 66 tonality defined 14 semantics of 14 tone defined 14 semanics of 15 tone group 14 tones basic 15 compound 15, 16 significance of 15 tonicity defined 14 semantics of 16 Topic absence from figure 259 defined 258 discussed 258 in figures 262 marking 262 realisation 325 scope 260 Topical Theme 268 Topic-Comment structure 262 transitivity as bond in figure 71, 151 realisation 370 reconstrual of 151 vs ergativity 172 U unbounded Events 233 Undergoer 151 underspecification 134, 307, 372, 387 uniqueness 209 unmarked order variation in 376 unmarked use 73 uses of meaning 72 V vagueness as constraint on realisation 383 specification of 382 verb use of term 388 viewpoint dimension in deixis 66 W wave structure 304 defined 19 word class discussed 388 other views 391 word order semantics of free order 220 semantics of marked order 220 Z zones 178 as construction 218 categoriality 192 exceptions 219 free order within 220 relationships 222 subzones 182 [...]... modifies the ‘us’ in “our” 2.4.2.3 Compositionality Modification like that of fake and alleged, and like that of happy, in the examples above, poses considerable problems for explaining the compositionality of semantic structure, since they do not seem to follow the rules for composing meaning in nominal groups 13 14 Semantic Structure in English 2.5 2.5.1 Semantic structure in phonology Introduction Basically,... Nature of semantic structure 410 14.3.1 Introduction 410 14.3.2 Analytical view of semantic structure (1): Structures of units 410 14.3.3 Analytical view of semantic structure (2): Structures in a medium 412 14.3.4 Functional view of semantic structure 412 14.3.5 Conclusion: Nature of semantic structure 413 14.4 Stratification of the semantic structure 413 14.4.1 Introduction 413 14.4.2 Semantics ... That continues the hierarchic structure we noted in figures, and it continues in the morphological structure of words, discussed in the previous section We conclude that hierarchy is a major structure in English semantics, along with network (§2.2.1 above); analysing it will be a major task for the book 2.4.2.2 Modification structure Modifiers in nominal groups raise several issues for semantic structure. .. important – bringing out phenomena that need explanation through semantic structure Chapters 3 and 4 formalise the concepts introduced in Chapter 2, and add others, building the foundation for the remainder of the book Chapter 3 deals with the basis of semantic structure in the intentions from which meaning rises, and in the functions which it serves Chapter 4 outlines the elements from which semantic structure. .. Conclusion: Information structure 287 9.6.1 Summary 287 9.6.2 Conclusions drawn 288 Chapter 10 Other structures 10.1 Introduction 291 10.2 Semantic units with indeterminate structure 291 10.2.1 Introduction 291 10.2.2 Ideational function 292 10.2.3 Interpersonal function 292 10.2.4 Expressive function 294 291 xi xii Semantic Structure in English 10.3 Semantic units with multifunctional structure ... meaning is…) Initial capitals are used where 5 6 Semantic Structure in English needed to distinguish technical from general terms, as in “The Subject of the sentence…” and “….a subject for investigation” Quoted utterances are put on a new line as numbered examples when they are to be given some discussion, but are otherwise run into the text Chapter 2 Semantic structures in the strata of English 2.1 Introduction... because it follows the Topic (in default structure) , and (again by default) interpret the order of information in the Comment as representing increasing importance Order of content, as well as order of syntactic units, carries significance Chapter 2. Semantic structures in the strata of English Conclusion Order of words and of content generally is a necessity in speaking and writing, but we conclude that... Discussion: Hierarchic structure in groups and senses 250 8.6.1 Language constraints 250 8.6.2 Semantic change 251 8.7 Conclusion: Hierarchic structure in groups and senses 252 Table of contents Chapter 9 Hierarchic structure (3): Information structure 255 9.1 Introduction 255 9.1.1 General introduction 255 9.1.2 Introduction to information structure 255 9.2 Relevance structure 258 9.2.1 Introduction ... refers to both semantic structure and semantic structures” in constructions; but such structure is not distinguished from the syntactic structure which determines the construction; semantics is in effect simply conceptual for him, also In also these instances, semantic structure is conceptual relations, such as those between entities and properties predicated of them, or those of a semantic field”,... syntax, since the order of postmodifying groups and of Adjuncts helps in defining the importance of information Semantic structure has the strata of language sometimes working together, reinforcing each other, but sometimes working as alternatives 2.5.5 Semantics of rhythm Basis of rhythm Speech is naturally rhythmical to some extent, because of its basis in human physiology, but it gains semantic ... compositionality of semantic structure, since they not seem to follow the rules for composing meaning in nominal groups 13 14 Semantic Structure in English 2.5 2.5.1 Semantic structure in phonology Introduction... Conclusion: Semantic structure in the strata of English 22 vi Semantic Structure in English Chapter Basis of semantic structure 3.1 Introduction 25 3.2 The intention to speak 25 3.2.1 Main intention ... Constraints on meaning 32 3.4.1 Introduction 32 3.4.2 Linguistic constraints 32 3.4.3 Semiotic constraints 33 3.5 Conclusion: Basis of semantic structure 37 Chapter Elements of semantic structure