Chapter The Self Self-Concept, continued • The nature of the self-concept – – Self-concept – “an organized collection of beliefs about the self” These beliefs are also called self-schemas and include personality traits, abilities, physical features, values, goals, & social roles (see Figure 6.1) – Possible selves – refer to “one’s conceptions about the kind of person one might become in the future” Figure 6.1 The self-concept and self-schemas The self-concept is composed of various selfschemas, or beliefs about the self Jason and Chris have different self-concepts, in part, because they have different self-schemas Self-Discrepancies • Individuals have the following self-perceptions: – – – An actual self (qualities people think they actually possess) An ideal self (qualities people would like to have) An ought self (qualities people think they should possess) Self-Discrepancies, continued • Self-discrepancies –mismatches between the actual, ideal, and/or ought selves • These can cause various effects: Figure 6.2 – When the “actual self” falls short of the “ideal self”, we feel dejected and sad – When the “actual self” falls short of the “ought self”, we feel irritable and guilty Figure 6.2 Types of self-discrepancies, their effects on emotional states, and possible consequences According to E Tory Higgins (1989), discrepancies between actual and ideal selves produce disappointment and sadness, whereas discrepancies between actual and ought selves result in irritability and guilt Such self-discrepancies can make individuals vulnerable to more serious psychological problems, such as depression and anxiety-related disorders Self-Discrepancies, continued • People cope with self-discrepancies by – – Changing their behavior to bring it more in line with the ideal, or ought, self Blunting self-awareness by • • Avoiding situations that increase self-awareness, or By using alcohol (see Figure 6.3) Figure 6.3 Self-awareness and alcohol consumption Individuals who were high in self-awareness drank significantly more wine in a 15-minute period if they believed that they had performed poorly on an IQ test than did any other group This finding shows how people sometimes try to blunt self-awareness to cope with self-discrepancies From Hull, J.G., & Young, R.D (1983) Self-Consciousness, self-esteem, and success-failure as determinants of alcohol consumption in male social drinkers Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 1097-1109 Copyright © 1983 American Psychological Association Reprinted by permission of the author Factors Shaping the Self-Concept • Festinger’s (1954) social comparison theory states that we compare ourselves with others in order to assess and/or improve our abilities • A reference group is “a set of people who are used as a gauge in making social comparisons” – If we want to improve, we choose reference groups of superior quality, but – If we want to bolster self-esteem, we choose inferior groups Factors Shaping the Self-Concept, continued • • Generally, our self-perceptions are distorted in a positive direction Feedback from others is important in balancing our own observations – – – Early in life, parents and family members are the primary influences As children age, peers become progressively more important Later in life, close friends and marriage partners play dominant roles Basic Principles of Self-Perception, continued Methods of self-enhancement, continued Basking in reflected glory – “tendency to enhance one’s image by publicly announcing one’s association with those who are successful” Self-handicapping – “tendency to sabotage one’s performance to provide an excuse for possible failure” Self-Regulation, continued • • Self-regulation is “the process of directing and controlling one’s behavior” According to the ego depletion model, people have a limited amount of selfcontrol – For example, if you successfully resist temptation to indulge yourself with sweets today, it is more difficult to so tomorrow Self-Regulation, continued • Self-efficacy – “one’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes” is very important to healthy adjustment – – Fortunately, self-efficacy can be learned and changed This is important to adjustment because increasing self-efficacy is beneficial to one’s physical and mental health Self-Regulation, continued Self-efficacy, continued • Self-efficacy can be developed and usually comes from four sources Mastery experiences – – Learning new skills increases self-efficacy It is especially important to persist in the face of mistakes or failure Self-Regulation, continued Sources of self-efficacy, continued Vicarious experiences – watching others to learn a new skill Persuasion and encouragement Interpretation of emotional arousal – – When we try new things, we may become nervous It is important to attribute this to normal arousal needed to well, rather than fear Self-Regulation, continued • Self-defeating behaviors, “seemingly intentional actions that thwart a person’s self-interest”, come in three categories: Deliberate self-destruction Trade-offs – engaging in short-term, potentially harmful behaviors, in order to pursue healthy long-term goals Counterproductive strategies – persisting in ineffective strategies to achieve a goal Self-Presentation, continued • • A public self is “an image presented to others in social interactions” Public selves can vary according to the situation, or role, that people are in Thus, we have multiple public selves • However, adjustment is best when there is considerable overlap, or integration, in the various public selves (see Figure 6.17) Figure 6.17 Public selves and adjustment Person has very divergent public selves with relatively little overlap among them Person 2, whose public selves are more congruent with each other, is likely to be better adjusted than Person Self-Presentation, continued • • Impression management refers to “usually conscious efforts by people to influence how others think of them” Impression management strategies include Ingratiation – “behaving in ways to make oneself likable to others” Self-promotion – accenting your strong points in order to earn respect Exemplification – “demonstrating exemplary behavior in order to boost your integrity or character” Self-Presentation, continued Impression management strategies, continued Negative acknowledgment – admitting your flaws Intimidation – using physical or emotional threats to get what you want from others Supplication – “acting weak or dependent in order to get favors from others” Self-Presentation, continued • Perspectives on Impression Management – Research on impression management has identified the following patterns of behavior: • People try to make positive impressions when interacting with strangers • Shift toward modesty with those who know them well Self-Presentation, continued • Self-monitoring – “the degree to which people attend to and control the impressions they make on others” – High self-monitors are more concerned about making favorable impressions and are good at interpreting what others see – Low self-monitors are more likely to express their true feelings or attitudes Application: Building Self-Esteem, continued • Building self-esteem is important because individuals with low self-esteem are – – – More prone to depression More demoralized by failure More anxious in relationships Application: Building Self-Esteem, continued • Seven guidelines for building self-esteem: Recognize that you control your self-image – You can change your self-image to a more positive one Learn more about yourself – People with low self-esteem don’t know as much about themselves as those with high self-esteem Application: Building Self-Esteem, continued Seven guidelines, continued Don’t let others set your goals Recognize unrealistic goals Modify negative self-talk – Remember to use an optimistic explanatory style when confronting successes and failures Emphasize your strengths Approach others with a positive outlook [...]... “putting group goals ahead of personal goals” – identity is defined more in terms of the groups one belongs to Factors Shaping the Self-Concept, continued Individualism vs collectivism, continued – People raised in individualistic cultures • • – Have an independent view of the self View themselves as unique, self-contained, and distinct from others People raised in collectivist cultures • • Have an interdependent... interdependent view of the self View themselves as more connected to others (see Figure 6. 5) Figure 6. 5 Independent and interdependent views of the self (a) Individuals in cultures that support an independent view perceive the self as clearly separated from significant others (b) Individuals in cultures that support an interdependent view perceive the self as inextricably connected to others Adapted from... factors that fit into each of the four cells in Weiner’s model are shown in the diagram From Weiner, B., Frieze, I., Kukla, A., Reed, L & Rosenbaum, R.M (1972) Perceiving the causes of success and failure In E.E Jones, D.E Kanuouse, H.H Kelly, R.E Nisbett, S Valins, & B Weiner (Eds.), Perceiving causes of behavior Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press Reprinted by permission of the author Basic Principles... Self-Perception, continued • • Cognitive processes affect the ability to maintain a view of the self Two different types of processes are at work: 1 Automatic processing – default mode in which we handle information without much deliberate decision-making (e.g., going through our morning routine) 2 Controlled processing – active thinking required for important decision-making and analysis Basic Principles of... evaluations as threatening and, therefore, behave much less aggressively toward evaluators (Adapted from Bushman & Baumeister, 1998) The Development of Self-Esteem • • • • Parents play an important role in shaping self-esteem early in life Two dimensions of parenting are important 1 Parental acceptance 2 Parental control Together, these dimensions yield four parenting styles (see Figure 6. 11) The authoritative...Factors Shaping the Self-Concept, continued • Social context also affect our self-concept – We may view ourselves more, or less, critically, depending on the situation Factors Shaping the Self-Concept, continued • Cultural values and self-concept – In cultures that value individualism – “putting personal goals ahead of group goals” – identity is defined more in terms of personal attributes – In cultures... view of themselves (ego) is threatened (see Figure 6. 9) Figure 6. 9 The path from narcissism to aggression Individuals who score high on narcissism perceive negative evaluations by others to be extremely threatening This experience of ego threat triggers strong hostile feelings and aggressive behavior toward the evaluator in retaliation for the perceived criticism Low scorers are less likely to perceive... Self-Perception, continued Dimensions of attributions, continued 3 Whether they are controllable or uncontrollable – This dimension simply considers whether or not the individual has any control over the behavior Basic Principles of Self-Perception, continued • Explanatory style – refers to the “tendency to use similar causal attributions for a wide variety of events in one’s life – People who use... People who use an optimistic explanatory style attribute setbacks to external, unstable, and specific factors – People who use a pessimistic explanatory style attribute setbacks to internal, stable, and global factors (see Figure 6. 13) Figure 6. 13 The effects of attributional style on expectations, emotions, and behavior The pessimistic explanatory style is seen in the top row of boxes This attributional... looking to successful others in order to improve ourselves 4 Self-enhancement – desire to maintain positive feelings about oneself Basic Principles of Self-Perception, continued • Methods of self-enhancement 1 Downward social comparison – a “defensive tendency to compare oneself with someone whose troubles are more serious than one’s own” 2 Self-serving bias – “tendency to attribute one’s successes to ... goals” – identity is defined more in terms of the groups one belongs to Factors Shaping the Self-Concept, continued Individualism vs collectivism, continued – People raised in individualistic cultures... continued • People cope with self-discrepancies by – – Changing their behavior to bring it more in line with the ideal, or ought, self Blunting self-awareness by • • Avoiding situations that increase... as more connected to others (see Figure 6. 5) Figure 6. 5 Independent and interdependent views of the self (a) Individuals in cultures that support an independent view perceive the self as clearly