Minerals • A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, usually non-biologic, crystalline solid, which is physically and chemically distinctive • Form in the geosphere (most minerals), hydrosphere (e.g., halite, gypsum), biosphere (e.g., calcite, aragonite), and even the atmosphere (e.g., water ice, as snow) • Consistent and recognizable physical and chemical properties Atoms and Elements • An element is a substance that can not be broken down into others by ordinary chemical reactions • An atom is the smallest unit of a substance that retains the properties of that element – Composed of types of subatomic particles • Protons (positively charged) • Neutrons (zero net charge) • Electrons (negatively charged) • A molecule is the smallest unit of a compound that retains the properties of that substance: CaCO3 , FeS , CaSO4 , SiO2 , K(Mg, Fe) AlSi O10 (F, OH) Atomic Structure • Protons and neutrons form the nucleus of an atom – Represents tiny fraction of the volume at the center of an atom, but nearly all of the mass • Electrons orbit the nucleus in discrete shells or energy levels – Shells represent nearly all of the volume of an atom, but only a tiny fraction of the mass – Numbers of electrons and protons are equal in a neutral atom – Ordinary chemical reactions involve only outermost shell (valence) electrons Isotopes • Atoms of an element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes • Isotopes may be either stable or unstable – Stable isotopes retain all of their protons and neutrons through time, (e.g Carbon-12, Carbon-13) These can be used to track natural processes – Unstable or radioactive isotopes spontaneously lose subatomic particles from their nuclei over time, (e.g Carbon-14, U-238) These are sources of radiation and heat within the Earth, and can be used to date rocks and fossils Isotopes of Hydrogen 2.3 Stable isotopes of oxygen in water (ice) and shells can be used to track climate change over time Chemical Bonding • Chemical bonding is controlled by outermost shell (valence) electrons • Elements will typically be reactive unless their valence shell is full • Atoms or groups of atoms with unequal numbers of protons and electrons, thus having a non-zero charge, are called ions • Positive and negative ions are attracted to one another and may stick or chemically bond together Chemical Bonding • Ionic bonding – Involves transfer of valence electrons from one atom to another • Covalent bonding – Involves sharing of valence electrons among adjacent atoms • Metallic bonding – Electrons flow freely throughout metals; results in high electrical conductivity Ionic bonding of NaCl (sodium chloride) The CNO Cycle In the high temperature condition in the core of the high-mass stars, another fusion process (the CNO cy cle) can fuses hydrogen into helium at a much faster rate than the proton-proton cycle • The heavier elements (carbon, nitrogen, and oxy gen) act as catalysis to speed up the hydrogen fusion process • The net result is the same as the proton-proton chain – the creation of a helium atom and release of energy from fusion of four hydrogen nuclei (protons) • The numbers of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen remain the same before and after the reaction Fusion Reactions in Stars to Make Heavy Elements Fusion of carbon into heavier elements requires very high temperature, around 600 million degrees There are many fusion reactions happening in the core of the stars These reactions are responsible for producing the heavy elements The simplest form is helium capture by heavier elements Fusion between heavy elements are also possible • Helium Capture: capture of helium by heavier elements such as Carbon, Oxygen, Neon, etc… • Heavy element fusion… • And a whole lot more reactions… Hydrogen and Helium abundance reflect physics of Big Bang Preference for even numbers b/c of He fusion Elements heavier than Iron rare; formed in nova and supernova Relative abundance of Elements in the Universe The most common elements in Earth’s crust (by mass): 46.6% Oxygen (O) 27.7% Silica (Si) 8.1% Aluminum (Al) 5.0% Iron (Fe) 3.6% Calcium (Ca) 2.8% Sodium (Na) 2.6% Potassium (K) 2.1% Magnesium (Mg) Even though there are 92 elements that are naturally found, only eight of them are common in the rocks that make up the Earth’s outer layer, the crust Together, these elements make up about 98% of the crust Composition of Earth’s Crust • Common elements – Nearly 98% of the atoms in Earth’s crust are represented by the most common elements • O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg • Common mineral types – Most minerals are silicates (contain Si and O bonded together) • Minerals have crystalline structures – Regular 3-D arrangement of atoms Silicate Structures • The Silicon-Oxygen tetrahedron – Strongly bonded silicate ion – Basic structure for silicate minerals • Sharing of O atoms in tetrahedra – The more shared O atoms per tetrahedron, the more complex the silicate structure • Isolated tetrahedra (none shared) • Chain silicates (2 shared) • Double-chain silicates (alternating and shared) • Sheet silicates (3 shared) • Framework silicates (4 shared) Garnet Augite (inosilicate) Tremolite (amphibole) Biotite (mica) Quartz Feldsapr (albite) Non-silicate Minerals • Carbonates – Contain CO3 in their structures (e.g., calcite - CaCO 3) • Sulfates – Contain SO4 in their structures (e.g., gypsum - CaSO 2H2O) • Sulfides – Contain S (but no O) in their structures (e.g., pyrite - FeS 2) • Oxides – Contain O, but not bonded to Si, C or S (e.g., hematite - Fe 2O3) • Native elements – Composed entirely of one element (e.g., diamond - C; gold - Au) Minerals • A mineral must meet the following criteria: – Crystalline solid • Atoms are arranged in a consistent and orderly geometric pattern – Forms through natural geological processes – Has a specific chemical composition • May include some internal compositional variation, solution of Ca and Na in plagioclase) such as the solid • Rock-forming minerals – Although over 4000 minerals have been identified, only a few hundred are common enough to be generally important to geology (rock-forming minerals) – Over 90% of Earth’s crust is composed of minerals from only groups (feldspars, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, quartz) Minerals • Ore minerals – Minerals of commercial value – Most are non-silicates (primary source of metals) • Examples: magnetite and hematite (iron), chalcopyrite (copper), galena (lead), sphalerite (zinc) – Must be able to be extracted profitably to be considered current resources • Gemstones – Prized for their beauty and (often) hardness – May be commercially useful • Diamond, corundum, garnet, and quartz are used as abrasives Mineral Properties • Physical and chemical properties of minerals are closely linked to their atomic structures and compositions • Color – Visible hue of a mineral • Streak – Color left behind when mineral is scraped on unglazed porcelain • Luster – Manner in which light reflects off surface of a mineral • Hardness – Scratch-resistance • Crystal form – External geometric form Mineral Properties • Cleavage – Breakage along flat planes • Fracture – Irregular breakage • Specific gravity – Density relative to that of water • Magnetism – Attracted to magnet • Chemical reaction – Calcite fizzes in dilute HCl Crystal Habit appearance in hand specimens Massive, Granular, Compact find grained Lamellar, Micaceous, Bladed layered Fibrous, Acicular, Radiating needlelike Dendritic branching Banded, Concentric, Geodes bands Botryoidal, Globular, Stalactitic orbs etc Oölitic, Pisolitic pea like [...]... than Iron rare; formed in nova and supernova Relative abundance of Elements in the Universe The 8 most common elements in Earth’s crust (by mass): 46. 6% Oxygen (O) 27.7% Silica (Si) 8.1% Aluminum (Al) 5.0% Iron (Fe) 3 .6% Calcium (Ca) 2.8% Sodium (Na) 2 .6% Potassium (K) 2.1% Magnesium (Mg) Even though there are 92 elements that are naturally found, only eight of them are common in the rocks that make